HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Early Development: The oldest mode of travel obviously was on the foot-paths. Animals
were also used to transport men and materials. Later simple animal drawn vehicles were
developed and this become a common and popular mode of transportation for a very long
period after the invention of wheel. This brought up the necessity of providing a hard surface
for these wheeled vehicles to move on. Such a hard surface for movement of animal vehicles
was first of all seen in Mesopotamia about 3500 B.C. The first road that have a record is
Assyrian Empire constructed by about 1900 B.C.
Roman Roads:
Roads were constructed in large scale & the techniques used in these constructions were
of Romans.
Romans are considered to be pioneer in road construction.
They generally constructed roads for the military operation.
Appian way were built in 312 B.C extended over 580 Km.
Features of roman roads:
They were built straight regardless of the gradient.
The soft soil was excavated &removed till hard stratum was reached.
The total thickness of the construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 m.

Total height= 0.75m to 1.2m

A= large foundation stone in lime mortar 10 to 20cm.
B= broken stone in lime mortar 25 to 40cm.
C= lime concrete 25 to 40cm thick.
D= large stone slabs in lime mortar 10 to 15cm thick.
Tresaguet construction:
After the fall of roman empire, their technique of road construction did not gain popularity
in other countries.
Pirre Tresaguet in France developed a new method for road construction by the year 1764
A.D. He was the Inspector General of Roads from 1775 to 1785 in France.
The main feature of his proposal is that the thickness of the road construction should be
only in order of 30cm. Further consideration was given by him to sub-grade moisture
condition & drainage of surface water.

Total height=30cm
A= large foundation stone 17cm thick.
B= broken stone 8cm thick.
C= sloping wearing surface (1 in 45) 5cm thick.

Telford construction:
Thomas Telford began his work in early 19th century. He was the founder of the Institution
of Civil Engineers in London. He also believed in using heavy foundation stones above the soil
sub-grade in order to keep the road foundation firm. He insisted on providing a definite cross
slope for the top surface of the pavement by varying the thickness of foundation stones.
A= foundation stone of varying size 17 to 22cm.
B= angular broken stone 5 to 10cm thick.
C= sloping wearing surface (1 in 45) 4cm thick.

Macadam Construction:
John Macadam put forward an entirely new method of road construction as compared to
all the previous method'
In 1815, he made the 1st attempt to improve the road condition.
He was the Surveyor General of Roads in England. He was the first to say that there is no
need of heavy foundation stone at the bottom.
Macadam realised that the soil sub-grade being the lowest portion of the pavement should
be prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the load transmitted through the
pavement. Therefore the sub-grade was compacted & was prepared with cross slope 1 in 36.

A= compacted sub-grade with cross slope 1 in 36.

B= broken stone passing 5cm Sieve, 10cm thick.
C= broken stone passing 37.5cm Sieve, 10cm thick.
D= surface coarse with stone passing 1.9cm Sieve, 5cm thick.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
(A) Based on Materials
o Earthen roads
o Gravel roads
 o Murrum roads
o WBM roads
o WMM roads
o Bituminous roads
o Concrete roads
Earthen Roads: Soil is used to lay earthen roads. They are less expensive than
all other types of roads. This type of road is designed for low-traffic areas or rural
areas. A good drainage system that provides excellent performance over a longer
period of time should be provided.
Gravel Roads: Even though gravel roads are of poor quality, they are preferable
to earthen roads. This pavement material is a compact blend of gravel and earth.
Murrum Roads: Murrums are materials formed by the disintegration
of igneous rocks by different weathering processes.
WBM Roads: WBM stands for Water Bound Macadam. Crushed stone
aggregate is used in the base course of WBM roads. After sprinkling water on the
surface, the aggregates are spread and rolled. WBM roads outperform earthen,
gravel and kankar roads in terms of performance.
WMM roads: WMM is the acronym for Wet Mix Macadam. In this construction
technique, on a prepared GSB layer or an existing pavement, depending on the
needs of the project, clean, crushed, graded aggregate and granular material are
laid and compacted to form a dense mass.
Bituminous Roads: Bituminous roads are common all over the world. They are
the world's busiest roads. These road types are low-cost and appropriate for
driving conditions. The subgrade soil conditions determine the thickness of
bituminous roads.
Concrete Roads: Pavement construction on concrete roads is done with
cement concrete. These are the most common and expensive types of roads.
Because they are not flexible, they require less upkeep. Concrete roads are
appropriate for high-traffic areas. They are laid with joints, and the construction
time is longer.
(B) Based on Traffic Volume
There are which are divided on basis of traffic volume. Below, we will explain it in
detail:
o Light Roads: The roads which are carrying less than 70 vehicles per day on
average are called light traffic roads.
o Medium Roads: If a road is carrying 70 to 250 vehicles per day, then it is said
to be a medium-traffic road.
o Heavy Roads: If a road is carrying 251-600 vehicles per day, then it is
considered a high/heavy traffic road.
o Very heavy roads: If the traffic volume is more than 600 vehicles per day, then
the roads are called very heavy traffic roads.
o Based on Rigidity:
(1) Flexible Pavement : Flexible roads consist of a bituminous layer and
subsequent base and sub-base course. The load is transmitted into the soil strata
by grain to grain transfer phenomenon.
(2) Rigid pavement: Rigid pavements are constructed using concrete mostly, and
the load transfer in this class of road is through the slab action or bending action
of the pavement slab.
(C) Based on Location And Function
The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India based on location and function
into five following categories:
o National highways
o State highways
o Major district roads
o Other district roads
o Village roads
(1) National Highways: are the main highways running through the lengths and
breadth of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large
states and large industrial and tourist centers including roads required for
strategic movements for the defence of India. All the NH are assigned the
respective numbers. The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is denoted
as NH-1, whereas a bifurcation of this highway beyond Jalandhar to Srinagar and
Uri is denoted by NH-1A. the highway connecting Maduri and Rameswaram is NH-
49 and Bombay-Agra is NH-3.
(2) State Highways: are arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent state, district head quarters and important cities within the
state and serving as the main arteries for traffic to and from district roads. In
some places they may even carry heavier traffic than some of the NH but this will
not alter their designation or function. The NH and SH have the same design
speed and geometric design specifications.
(3) Major District Roads: are important roads within district serving areas of
production and markets and connecting those with each other or with the main
highway of a district. The MDR has lower speed and geometric specification than
NH/SH.
(4) Other District Roads: are the roads serving areas of production and providing
them with outlet to make centers, taluk head quarters, block development head
quarters or other main roads. These are of lower design specification than MDR.
(5) Village Roads: are the roads connecting villages or group of villages with each
other to the nearest road of higher category.

Twenty years road plan

In 1927, the Government of India appointed a road development committee
headed by Mr M.R Jayakar. He suggested a 20-year plan for the betterment of
road networks in our country.
(A) Nagpur Road Plan (1943-1963)
o The first 20-year Road Development Plan is also popularly known as the
Nagpur Road plan. A conference of all chief engineers took place in 1943 for
the purpose of the development and construction of roads.
o Nagpur road plan is the first step taken for road development.
 o The Central Government of India took responsibility for the construction
and development of roads.
o The road density as per Nagpur Plan was 16 km per 100 square km of the
area of the country. Though the time period of the plan was from 1943-63,
the plan was concluded in 1961.When this target is reached, the total length
of the road is 5,32,700 km.
o The roads were constructed as per the Star and Grid pattern.
o The first category roads are meant to provide main grids bringing the
farthest points in developed and agricultural area within 8km of metalled
road.
o The second category roads are meant to provide internal road system
linking small villages with first category roads. The road length of second
category is worked out on the basis of villages of different population ranges
of population less than 5000.
(B) Bombay Road Plan (1961-1981)
o The Nagpur road plan was intended for the period of 1943-1963, but the
target road length was nearly completed earlier in 1961, mainly because of
the phased development that took place in the country. Hence the next long
term plan for the twenty year period commencing from 1961-1981 by the
IRC called the Bombay Road Plan.
o The Bombay plan was initiated in 1959 by Indian Road Congress (IRC)
o Being one of the most metropolitan and second most populated cities in the
world, it was essential that a proper road development plan should be
planned and implemented in Bombay.
o Every town with population above 2000 in plains and above 1000 in semi-
hilly areas and above 500 in hilly areas should be connected by a metalled
road.
o Expressways have also been considered in this plan and 1600km of length
has been included in the proposed target of NH
o The development allowance for the Bombay road plan is 5%.
 o The road density for this plan was set to be twice that of the Nagpur Plan. It
was 32 km per 100 square km of the area of the country.
o The target road length in the Bombay road plan is 10,57,330 km.
o The construction of the expressway of about 1600 km is also included in the
Bombay road plan.
(C) Lucknow Road Plan (1981-2001)
o The Third Twenty Year Road Plan 1981-2001 also known as Lucknow Road
Plan was finalized and the plan document was published by the year 1984.
o The targeted road density of the Lucknow road plan is 82 km per 100 square
km. The road density for this plan was more than both Nagpur and Bombay
road plans.
o Special attention towards energy conservation, environmental quality and
safety measures was given in this plan.
o The roads were being constructed as per the Square and Block pattern.
o The NH network should be expanded to form square grids of 100Km sides
so that no part of the country is more than 50Km away from NH.
o Expressways should be constructed along major traffic corridors to provide
fast travel.
o Roads should also be built in less industrialized areas to attract the growth
of industries.
o Long term master plans for road development should be prepared at
various levels, i.e., taluk, district, state and national levels. The road network
should be scientifically decided to provided maximum utility.

Indian Roads Congress

o The Indian Road Congress (IRC) is the apex body of Highway Engineers in
India. It was set up in Dec. 1934, on the recommendations of Indian Road
development Committee known as Jayakar Committee set up by the Govt.
of India with the objective of promoting and encouraging the science for
building and maintenance of roads.
 o The inaugural meeting of IRC was held at the Town Hall, New Delhi on 10th
Dec. 1934 under the chairmanship of Mr. D.G Mitchell, Secretary of the
Govt. of India in the department of Industries and Labour, Public Work
Branch. This meeting was attended by 73 Engineers from all part of the
India.
o Its objective to focus on effective transport system aiming of zero road crash
fatalities and contribute to the economic growth and quality of life.
o Its mission is to promote the use of standard specifications for construction
and maintenance of roads and to create mass awareness to follow traffic
rules and regulations.
o It also provides a national seminar(conference) for shearing of knowledge
and pooling of experience on the entire range of subjects dealing with the
construction and maintenance of roads and bridges.
o IRC has now 13500 members comprising of engineers of all ranks from
Central and State Governments, Engineering Services of Army, BRO etc.

Motor Vehicle Act

The Motor Vehicles Act of 1988 is a comprehensive legislation enacted by the
Government of India to regulate all aspects of road transport vehicles in the
country. The Act covers the registration of vehicles, licensing of drivers, traffic
regulations, insurance, penalties for violations, and the roles and responsibilities
of various authorities. The Act came into effect on 1st July 1989. The Act was
passed after consultation with the state transport ministers of all the Indian
States.
The main objectives of the Motor Vehicles Act are:
 To ensure road safety.
 To regulate the operation of motor vehicles.
 To control and manage traffic laws.
 To define the responsibilities of drivers, vehicle owners, and manufacturers.
 To protect the rights of accident victims and ensure compensation.
The following are the important sections of the Motor Vehicles Act:
 Section 3- A license issued by the authorities is compulsory to be able to
drive vehicle on Indian roads.
 Section 4- A permanent license can be issued only to those having age above
18. Those below are not allowed to drive any type of vehicle unless they
hold a learner’s permit, which is issued at the age of 16.
 Section 39- Registration Certificate (RC) is mandatory and issued by the
Regional Transport Office (RTO) and Vehicles must display registration
number plates.
 Section 112- You need to adhere to the speed limits laid down by the Road
Transport Ministry. The speed limits vary from state to state. Exceeding
these limits could get you fined.
 Section 140- The driver of the vehicle has to compensate the third party if
the damage is caused to the other’s vehicle or property

National Highway Act

The National Highways Act, 1956 is a key legislation enacted by the Government
of India to provide for the declaration, development, and maintenance of
national highways. These highways are the arterial roads that facilitate inter-
state and long-distance traffic across India and are managed mainly by the
Central Government.
The main objective of this Act is to:
 Declare certain roads as National Highways (NHs).
 Define the powers and responsibilities of the Central Government
regarding these highways.
 Ensure efficient development, maintenance, and management of national
highways for better connectivity and infrastructure growth.

Key Provisions of the Act:

1. Declaration of National Highways (Section 2)
 The Central Government may declare any road to be a National Highway
via a notification in the Official Gazette.
 It may also specify the starting and ending points, and the route the
highway will follow.
 Once declared, the road is under the jurisdiction of the Central
Government, although day-to-day maintenance may be delegated.

2. Development and Maintenance of Highways (Section 3)

 The Central Government is responsible for the development, construction,
and maintenance of national highways.
 These duties may be carried out by:
o National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).
o State Public Works Departments (PWDs).
o Any other authorized agencies.

Highway Alignment
The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under
vertical alignment of roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would
result in one or more of the following disadvantages:
(a) increase in construction cost
(b) increase in maintenance cost
(c) increase in vehicle operaton cost
(d) increase in accident rate.
 Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the
alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the road side. Hence the importance of careful considerations while
finalizing the alignment of a new road need not be over emphasized.
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are:
(a) short
(b) easy
(c) safe
(d) economical
(a) Short: it is desirable to have short/shortest alignment between two terminal
stations. A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several
practical considerations which would cause deviations from the shortest path.
(b) Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy o construct and maintain
the road with minimum problems. Also the alignment should be easy for the
operation of vehicles with easy gradients and curves.
(c) Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance
from the view point of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes
and foundation of embankments. Also it should be safe for the traffic operation
with safe geometric features.
(d) Economical: The road alignment could be considered economical only if the
total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is
lowest. All these factors should be given due consideration before working out
the economics of each alignment.
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed
as.
(a) Obligatory points
(b) Traffic
(c) Geometric design
(d) Economics
(a) Obligatory Points: There are control points governing the alignment of the
highways. These control points may be divided broadly into two categories:
(i) Points through which the alignment is to pass.
(ii) Points through which the alignment should not pass.
(b) Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements. Origin and Destination
study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the
trend of traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
(c) Geometric Design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve
and sight distance also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If
straight alignment is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep
gradients. As far as possible while aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat
and less than the ruling or design gradient. Thus it may be necessary to change
the alignment in view of the design speed, maximum allowable superelevation
and coefficient of lateral friction. It may be necessary to make adjustment in the
horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the minimum radius of curve and
the transition curves.
(d) Economy: The alignment finalized based on the above factors should also be
economical. In working out the economics, the initial cost the cost, of
maintenance and vehicle operation should be taken into account. The initial cost
of construction can be decreased if high embankments and deep cuttings are
avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to balance the cutting and
filling.

Route Survey/Engineering Survey for Highway Location

In highway engineering, a route survey is a crucial preliminary step in the
planning and design of a new highway. It involves gathering detailed data about
the terrain, geography, land use, and other factors to identify the most feasible
and economical alignment for the road.
Objectives of Route Survey
 To determine the most suitable alignment for the road.
 To minimize construction and maintenance costs.
  To ensure safety, convenience, and minimal environmental impact.
 To provide data for geometric design, earthwork calculation, and
construction planning.
These engineering surveys may be completed in the following four stages:
a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance Survey
c) Preliminary Surveys
d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys
1. Map Study: It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the
topographic map of the area is available. In India, topographic maps are available
from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30-metre contour intervals. The main
features like rivers, hills, valleys, etc., are also shown on these maps.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details
available on the map.
o Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, or lakes
o When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of
crossing through a mountain pass.
o Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bends of
the river, if any.
o When a road is to be connected between two stations, one at the top and
the other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested
keeping in view the design or ruling gradient and the maximum permissible
gradient.
o Thus, from the map study, alternate routes can be suggested.
2. Reconnaissance Survey: The second stage of engineering surveys for highway
alignment is the reconnaissance survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer
visits the site and examines the general characteristics of the area before deciding
the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party may inspect a
fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the map in
the field. The reconnaissance party uses very simple survey instruments to collect
additional details rapidly but not accurately. All relevant details which are not
available on the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be
collected during reconnaissance are given below
1. Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures, and
other obstructions along the route which are not available on the map.
2. Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients, and radius of curves of
alternate alignments.
3. Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level, and
natural groundwater level along the probable routes.
4. Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of
geological features.
3. Preliminary Survey:
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
o To survey the various alternate alignment proposed after the
reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and
details of topography, drainage, etc.
o To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good
alignment.
o To estimate the quantity of earthwork materials and other construction
aspects and to work out the cost of alternate proposals.
The preliminary survey may be carried out by of following methods
1. Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using
the required field equipment, taking measurements, collecting
topographical and other data, and carrying out a soil survey
2. Rapid approach, by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs and
by photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for
obtaining the necessary topographic and other maps, including details of
soil and geology.
3. Modern techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS)
4. Final Location Survey (Detailed Survey): The alignment finalised at the design
office after the preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by establishing
the centre line. Next detailed survey should be carried out to collect the
information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for
the highway project.
Location
o The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be transferred to
the ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite
and by staking off the center line.
o The location of the center line should follow, as closely as practicable, the
alignment finalized after the preliminary surveys.
o Major and minor control points are established on the ground, and center
pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements.
o However, modifications in the final location may be made in the field if
found essential.
Detailed Survey
o Temporary benchmarks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all
drainage and underpass structures. Levels along the final centre line should
be taken at all staked points.
o Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthwork
calculations, and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
o The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width at intervals of 50
to 100 m in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas,
and 20 m in hilly terrain.
o The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and
where there is an abrupt change in cross slopes.
o All river crossings, valleys, etc., should be surveyed in detail up to
considerable distances on either side.
o All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using
conventional signs.
Elements of the Geometric Design of Highway
Geometric design of highways includes different elements which affect the design
features, economy, and other parameters. The elements of the geometric design
of highways are described below:
1. Cross-section elements
2. Sight distance elements
3. Horizontal alignment
4. Vertical alignment

(1) Cross-Section Elements

The various cross-sectional elements in the design of highway are:

(a) Friction: between the pavement surface and wheel of the vehicle is a crucial
factor in the geometric design of highways. Lack of friction can cause the skidding
or slipping of the wheel on the pavement surface. Skidding occurs when the
distance travelled by the wheel is greater than the circumferential movement of
the wheel, while slipping is the phenomenon in which the actual movement of
the wheel is less than the circumferential movement of the wheel. IRC provides
the values of friction as 0.35-0.40 in the longitudinal direction and 0.15 in the
lateral direction.

(b) Width of carriageway/pavement: It is the total width of road on which vehicle

are allowed to move. The width of pavement depends on width of traffic lane and
number of lanes. Further, the width of the traffic lanes depends on the width of
the vehicle and the adequacy of clearance.

S.No. Type of lanes Carriageway width

1. Single lane 3.75 m
2. Two lanes, no kerb 7.0 m
3. Two lanes, raised kerbs 7.5 m
4. Intermediate lane 5.5 m
5. Multi-lane 3.5 m per lane

(c) Cross slope or Camber: is the slope provided to the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Camber is
provided on the straight roads by raising the center of carriage way w.r.t the
edges forming a crown. And at horizontal curves, camber is provided by raising
the outer edge of carriage way. Camber is usually expressed as the %age of rise
given to the crown of the carriageway above its edges.

(d) Median/Traffic separator: is provided between two sets of traffic lanes

intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. The main function of
the median is to prevent head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite
directions on adjacent lanes. The traffic separators used may be in form of
pavement markings, physical dividers or area separators.

(2) Sight Distance Elements

(a) Stopping Sight Distance: It is the minimum distance available on a highway at

any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle travelling
at design speed, safely without collision with any obstruction. The stopping sight
distance is the sum of the lag distance and braking distance.

Lag distance is the distance the vehicle travels during the reaction time of the
driver, and Braking distance is the distance covered in the actual operation of
brakes. IRC recommends 2.5 seconds as the reaction time of a driver.

Mathematically, the stopping sight distance is given by:

SSD = Lag Distance + Braking Distance

SSD= Vt+V2/2gf V-m/s

Or SSD=0.278Vt+V2/254f V-kmph

Its value is double (2*SSD) for two-way traffic

Where, V= Speed of vehicle

t= reaction time of the driver

f= coefficient of friction

SSD= It is m.
(b) Overtaking Sight Distance: The minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against
traffic of opposite direction is known as minimum overtaking sight distance.

Mathematically,

OSD= d1 + d2 + d3 ; For Two-way traffic

OSD = d1 + d2 ; For One-way traffic

Where, d1= VB t

d2= 2S + VBT

d3= VT

So, OSD= = (VB t) + (2S + VBT) + (VT)

.
V= Design speed of overtaking vehicle in m/s : T= Overtaking time=√ =√

VB= Speed of overtaken vehicle in m/s a= m/s2 A= kmph/s

S= Spacing of vehicles = 0.7 VB + 6

t= Reaction time of driver = 2sec.

Minimum Length of Overtaking zone = 3*OSD

Desirable Length of Overtaking zone = 5*OSD

(c) Intermediate Sight Distance: Intermediate sight distance is defined as the

twice of the stopping sight distance.
ISD = 2 x SSD
(d) Headlight Sight Distance: Headlight sight distance is the distance visible to a
driver during night driving under the illumination of headlights. It is
recommended to have a headlight sight distance such that the vehicle can stop
while travelling at the design speed. The headlight sight distance depends upon
the beam angle of the headlight, which is generally taken as 1 degree.
(3) Horizontal Alignments
(a) Super Elevation: is the transverse slope provided at a horizontal curve to
counteract the centrifugal force by raising the outer edge of the pavement with
respect to the inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
Superelevation is denoted as “e”. The super elevation is expressed as the ratio of
the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.
The general eqn for the design of super elevation is given by,
e + f = V2/gR

where, e = tanƟ = rate of superelevation

f = coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15
V = Speed of vehicle in m/s
R = Radius of the horizontal curve in m
g = acc due to gravity in m/s2
(b) Transition Curve: The transition curve is a curve with an infinite radius at its
straight end and a gradually decreasing radius at its point of tangency. The Indian
Roads Congress advises using a spiral as a transition curve in the horizontal
alignment of roadways due to the following factors:
o The spiral curve meets the criteria for a perfect transition.
o The geometry of a spiral makes it simple to calculate and lay out the curve
in the field.
The formula for calculating the length of the transition curve is given by:
LT=v3/C.R
Where, C=80/(75+V)
v = velocity of vehicle in m/s
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration in m/s3
R = radius of curvature
V = Velocity of vehicle in kmph.
Shift of transition curve, S = LT2/24R.
(c) Horizontal Curve: is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the
central line of a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal
force acts horizontally outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
The centrifugal force is given by,
P = W.V2/gR or P/W = V2/gR
Where, P= centrifugal force in kg. ; P/W= Centrifugal ratio or impact factor.
W= weight of the vehicle in kg. ; R= radius of the circular curve in m.
V= speed of the vehicle in m/s. ; g= acc due to gravity.
(d) Extra Widening: It refers to the additional width of carriageway that is
required on a curved section of a road over and above that required on a straight
alignment. This widening is done due to two reasons: the first one is the
additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve. This is called
mechanical widening, as it is due to the rigidity of the wheelbase, and the second
is due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the edge of the carriageway
as they drive on a curve. This is called psychological widening.
(4) Vertical Alignment
(a) Valley Curve: Valley curves or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity
downwards. They are formed when two gradients meet in any of the following
conditions:
o When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
o When a descending gradient meets a flat gradient
o When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient
 o When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient.
(b) Summit Curve: Summit curves are vertical curves with convexity upwards.
They are formed when two gradients meet in any of the following conditions:
o When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
o When a positive gradient meets a flat gradient
o When an ascent gradient meets a descending gradient
o When a descent gradient meets another descending gradient.
Properties of Aggregates
Aggregate characteristics refer to the physical and chemical properties of
granular materials like sand, gravel, and crushed rock used in construction,
particularly in concrete and asphalt. These properties significantly impact the
overall performance, strength, and durability of the resulting materials
The various properties of aggregates are:
(a) Soundness: The resistance of the aggregate to disintegration due to
weathering, freezing, and thawing. Sound aggregates are crucial for long-lasting
structures.
(b) Strength: The aggregates to be used in road construction should be
sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The
aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the pavements, particularly in
the wearing course have to be capable of withstanding high stresses in addition
to wear and tear, hence they should possess sufficient strength
resistance to crushing.
(c) Hardness: The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant
rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. They should be hard enough to resist
the wear due to abrasive action of traffic. Abrasive action may be increased due
to the presence of abrasive material like sand between the tyres of moving
vehicles and the aggregates exposed at the top surface. This action may be severe
in the case of steel tyred vehicles. Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformations
on some types of pavement resulting in relative movement of aggregates and
rubbing of aggregates with each other within the pavement layer. The mutual
rubbing of stones is called attrition, which also may cause a little wear in the
aggregates, however attrition will be negligible or absent in most of the
pavement layers.
(d) Durability: The ability of the aggregate to withstand various stresses and
environmental conditions, including abrasion, impact, and chemical attack. The
stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to
withstand the adverse action of weather may be called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and ground
water, the impurities there-in and that of atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that
the road stones used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand
the weathering action.
(e) Toughness: Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to
moving wheel loads. Sever impact like hammering is quite common when heavily
loaded steel tyred vehicles move on water bound macadam roads where stones
protrude out especially after the monsoons. Jumping of the steel tyred wheels
from one stone to another at different levels causes severe impact on the stones.
The magnitude of impact would increase with the roughness of the load surface,
the speed of the vehicle and other vehicular characteristics. The resistance to
impact or toughness is hence another desirable property of aggregates.
(f) Specific Gravity: The ratio of the mass of the aggregate to the mass of an equal
volume of water. It's crucial for calculating the weight of concrete ingredients and
ensuring proper mixing ratios.
(g) Bulk Density: The mass of the aggregate per unit volume, including voids. It's
important for determining the weight of a given volume of material and
influencing the strength and durability of concrete.
(h) Size and Shape:
(i) Particle Size: The size of the aggregate particles directly affects the grading of
the mix, which influences its workability, strength, and permeability.
(ii) Shape: The shape of the particles, whether rounded, angular, or elongated,
impacts the void content, cement requirement, and bond strength in concrete.
(iii) Surface Texture: A rough surface texture can improve the bond between the
aggregate and the cement paste, leading to a stronger and more durable
concrete.

Various Tests On Aggregates

(1) Aggregate crushing Test: The aggregate crushing value provides a relative
measure of resistance to crush.
The strength of aggregate is defined as the resistance of the aggregate against
gradual loading. The strength of aggregate is determined by the crushing value
test on aggregate.
 In this test the aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and
retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter
and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard
tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three
layers each layer being tamped again. The specimen is subjected to gradual
loading of 40 tonnes. The crushed aggregates are then passed through 2.36 mm
sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the total
weight of the sample (W1) is referred to as aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate crushing value, ACV= (W2/W1) *100

A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35
would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
(2) Aggregate Impact Test: Aggregate impact value is the relative measure of the
resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact on it. It is used to determine
the toughness of the aggregate.
In this test the aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on
10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth
5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is
filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows. The sample
is the subjected to 15 no of blows with the help of metallic hammer of weight
13.5 to 14kg, free-falling from a height of 38cm. The crushed aggregate is then
passed through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed
as percentage of the total weight of the sample (W1) is referred to as aggregate
impact value.
Aggregate impact value, AIV= (W2/W1) *100
Lesser the AIV, more will be the toughness.
For surface wearing course, it shouldn't exceed 30%
For surface other than wearing course, it shouldn't exceed 45%
(3) Aggregate Abrasion Test: Aggregate abrasion value is the measure of
aggregate to withstand wear and tear. It is used to determine the hardness of the
aggregate.
 In this test the aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieve and
retained on 10 mm sieve is taken. This sample is placed in a cylinder having steel
balls in it. The sample is subjected to abrasion by rotating the cylinder 500 times
at the speed of 30to 33 rpm. The crushed aggregate is then passed through
1.7mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of
the total weight of the sample (W1) is referred to as aggregate abrasion value.
Aggregate Abrasion value, AAV= (W2/W1) *100
For surface wearing course, it shouldn't exceed 30%
For surface other than wearing course, it shouldn't exceed 45%
(4) Soundness Test: it is defined as the resistance of aggregate against weathering
action.
In this test, the aggregate of particular sizes are wetted in saturated
solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16-18 hrs and then dried
to constant weight in an oven at 1050C to 1100C. This cycle is repeated 5 times
and the weight loss of aggregates is determined by removing all the undersized
particles.
Loss in aggregate should not exceed 12% with sodium sulphate and 18% with
magnesium sulphate.
(5) Absorption Test: The absorption test on aggregate is used to determine the
water absorption capacity of coarse or fine aggregates. This helps to assess the
porosity of the aggregate, which can affect the strength and durability of concrete
mix. Lower absorption value means high strength and durability.
In this test, the sample of aggregate is taken and placed in an oven at 105
to 1100C for 24 hours. The sample is then removed and weighed (W1). This is the
dry weight of the sample. The dry sample is then soaked in water for 24 hours.
After that, the sample is removed and wiped with a cloth until its surface become
dry. The wet weight of the sample is taken (W2).
Water Absorption = (W2-W1)/W2 * 100
If < 2%, Less porous (Good quality)
If > 3%, High porous (Poor quality)
Bitumen and Its Types
Bitumen is hydrocarbon material of either natural or pyrogenous origin, found in
gaseous, liquid, semisolid or solid form and is completely soluble in Carbon
disulphide and in carbon tetra chloride. Bitumen is a complex organic material
and occurs either naturally or may be obtained artificially during the distillation
of petroleum Bituminous materials are very commonly used in highway
construction because of their binding and their water proofing properties.
When the bitumen contains some inert material or minerals, it is some
times called asphalt. Asphalt is found as deposits in the form of natural asphalt
or rock asphalt.
The grades of bitumen used for pavement construction work of roads and
airfields called paving grades and those used for water proofing of structures and
industrial floors etc. are called industrial grades
Different types of bituminous materials are used in the construction industry
based on the selection of suitable binders or modifiers. Modifiers or binders are
substances that tend to lessen the temperature susceptibility of Bitumen at
varied temperatures. Based on the type of binder or modifier used, the different
types of Bituminous Materials are

(1) Asphalt
(2) Cutback Bitumen
(3) Bitumenous Emulsion
(4) Tar
(1) Asphalt: is a mixture of fine and coarse aggregates (like sand and filler) and a
bituminous binder. It usually has between 4% and 7% bitumen in it. Asphalt is
mostly used to build roads, and its properties depend on the type, size, and
amount of aggregate used in the mixture. All of these things can be changed to
give the asphalt the right properties for the job.
(2) Cutback: bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been
reduced by a volatile diluent. For use in surface dressings, some type of bitumen
macadam and soil bitumen stabilization, it is necessary to have a fluid binder
which can be mixed relatively at low temperatures. Hence to increase fluidity of
the bituminous binder at low temperatures the binder is blended with a volatile
solvent. After the cutback mix is used in construction work, the volatile gets
evaporated and the cutback develops the binding properties. The viscosity of the
cutback and rate of which it hardens on the road depend on the characteristics
and quantity of both bitumen and volatile oil used as the diluent. Cutback
bitumens are available in three types, namely,
(i) Rapid Curing cutback (RC)
(ii) Medium Curing cutback (MC)
(iii) Slow Curing cutback (SC)
(i) Rapid Curing Cutbacks: are bitumens, fluxed or cutback with a petroleum
distillate such as nephta or gasoline which will rapidly evaporate after using in
construction, leaving the bitumen binder. The grade of the R.C. cutback is
governed by the proportion of the solvent used. The penetration value of residue
from distillation up to 360°C of RC cutback bitumen is 80 to 120.

(ii) Medium curing cutbacks: are bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending
with a intermediate-boiling-point solvent like kerosene or light diesel
oil. MC cutback evaporate relatively at slow rate because the kerosene-range
solvents will not evaporate rapidly as the gasoline-range solvents used in the
manufacture of RC cutbacks. Hence the designation 'medium curing is given to
this cutback type. MC products have good watting properties and so satisfactory
coating of fine grain aggregate and sandy soils is possible

(iii) Slow curing cutbacks: are obtained either by blending bitumen with high-
boiling-point gas oil or by controlling the rate of flow and temperature of the
crude during the first cycle of refining. SC cutbacks or wood soils harden or set
way slowly as it is a semi volatile material.
(3) Bituminous Emulsion: consists of a two-phased system in which the bitumen
globules acting as emulsions are suspended in water with the aid of certain
emulsifiers. The emulsifying agents aim at stabilizing the bituminous emulsion.
These emulsifiers charge the emulsion after breaking into ions. The charging of
the bituminous emulsion due to these ions results in the particle repelling each
other. The suspension thus formed remains stable during the time the emulsifier
stays intact and does not break. Bituminous emulsions are further categorized
into:
(a) Cationic Emulsions (e.g., Ammonium salt)
(b) Anionic Emulsions (e.g., Sodium Stearate).
Cationic Emulsions make bitumen positively charged, while Anionic Emulsions
make bitumen negatively charged.
(4) Tar: It is a dark-colored flammable material in a liquid form obtained from the
destructive distillation of petroleum. It typically consists of a mixture of
hydrocarbons, resins, including other compounds.
Tar has a high viscosity and finds applications in making pavements.
Pertinently, Tar is more ductile than bitumen and has more temperature
susceptibility. Unlike Bitumen, Tar is soluble in Toluene. It is classified into 5
grades RT1, RT2, RT3, RT4, and RT5.
Grade of Tar Application

RT 1 Used for surface painting in cold weather and on hilly roads.

RT 2 For standard surface coating in Indian climate.

RT 3 Used for renewal coats, premix top coats, and surface painting.

RT 4 Used for premixing Tar macadam in Base course.

RT 5 It is used in grouting operations and has the highest viscosity.

Various Tests Of Bitumen
(1) Penetration Test: It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle
will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS had standardized the equipment and
test procedure.
The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of
100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position. There is a graduated
dial to read the penetration values to 1/10 of a mm.
In this test, the bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred
thoroughly and poured into a container to a depth of at least 15mm in excess of
the expected penetration. The sample are then placed in a temperature
controlled water bath at a temperature of 25°C for 1hr. The sample with
container is taken out and the needle is arranged to make contact with the
surface of the sample. The dial is set to zero or initial reading is taken and the
needle is released for 5sec. The final reading is taken on dial gauge. At least 3
penetration test are made on this sample at a distance of 10mm apart. After each
test the needle is disengaged and the depth of penetration is reported in one-
tenth of mm. The mean value of three measurements is reported as a penetration
value.
It may be noted that the penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy
as regards pouring temperature, size of needle, weight placed on needle and the
test temperature. The bitumen grade is specified in terms of penetration value.
80/100 grade bitumen means that the penetration value of the bitumen is in the
range of 80-100 at standard test condition
(2) Ductility Test: Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo
great deformation or elongation. The ductility of bitumen is expressed as the
distance in centimeters to which a standard briquette of bitumen can be
stretched before the thread breaks. The test is conducted at 27°C and at a rate of
pull of 50 mm per minute. The cross section at the minimum width of the
specimen is 10 mm x 10 mm. The ductility machine functions as a constant
temperature water bath with a pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. Two clips
are thus pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50 mm per minute.
 In this test, the bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould
assembly placed on a plate. The samples along with the moulds are cooled in air
and then in water bath maintained at 27°C. The excess bitumen material is cut
and the surface is leveled using a hot knife. The mould assembly containing
sample is replaced in water bath of the ductility testing machine for 85 to 95
minutes. The sides of the mould are removed, the clips hooked on the machine
and the pointer is adjusted to zero. The distance upto the point of breaking of
thread is reported in centimeters as ductility value. The ductility value gets
seriously affected by factors such as pouring temperature, dimensions of
briquette, level of briquette in the water bath, presence of air pockets in the
modulus briquettes, test temperature and rate of pulling.
The ductility values of bitumen vary from 5 to over 100 for different bitumen
grades. A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the ISI for
bitumen of grades 45 and above.
(3) Viscosity Test: Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and
it is a measure of resistance to flow.
The degree of fluidity of the binder at the application temperature greatly
influences the strength characteristics of the resulting paving mixes. High or low
viscosity during mixing or compaction has been observed to result in lower
stability values. There is an optimum value of viscosity for each aggregate
gradation of the mix and bitumen grade.
The orifice type viscometer may be used to indirectly find the viscosity of
liquid binders like cutback bitumen, emulsion and liquid tar. In this method,
viscosity is measured by determining the time taken by 50 ml of the material to
flow from a cup through a specified orifice under standard test conditions and
specified temperature.
Higher the viscosity of the binder, higher will be the time required.
(4) Specific Gravity Test: The specific gravity of bitumen is also useful in
bituminous mix design. The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by its
chemical composition. Increased amounts of aromatic type compounds or
mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of mass of a given volume
of bitumen of known content to the mass of equal volume of water at 27°C. The
specific gravity can be measured using either a pycnometer or by preparing a
cube shaped specimen of bitumen in a semi solid or solid state and weighing in
air and water.
Generally, the specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of 0.97 to 1.02. The
specific gravity of Cutback Bitumen may be lower depending on the type and
proportion of diluent used.
(5) Float Test: There is a range consistency of the bituminous materials for which
neither an orifice viscometer test nor a penetration test could be used to define
the consistency of the material. The consistency of materials of this group is
measured by float test
The apparatus consists of a float made of aluminum and a brass collar
filled with the specimen materials to be tested, which is screwed to the float. The
test specimen is filled in the collar (mould), cooled to a temperature of 5°C and
screwed into the float. The float assembly is floated in a water bath at 50°C and
the time required in seconds for water to force its way through the bitumen plug
noted as the float test value. The higher the float test value, the stiffer
is the material.
(6) Softening Point Test: Softening point denotes the temperature at which the
bitumen attains a particular degree of softening under the specified condition of
test.
The test is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass ring
containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at
a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen sample and the
liquid medium is heated at a rate of 50C per minute. Temperature is noted when
the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance
below.
Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility
and is preferred in hot climates.