1.

Extension Education
 Meaning of Extension Education
 Why extension
 Why study extension
 Definition
 Scope of Extension Education
 Scope/importance of agricultural
extension
2. Objective of Extension
Education
 Objective
 General and major objective of
Extension Education
 Principle of Extension Education
3. Leading National
Horticulture Institutes
 Central institute of medicinal and
aromatic plants
 CPCRI
 IIHR
 IISR
 IIVR
4. National Horticulture
Institutes
  NHB
 NHM
 NHRDF
5. Rural development
 Meaning of rural development
 Definition of rural development
 Objective of rural development
 Genesis of rural development
6. Rural development program
during post independence
period
 Rural development programme
during post-independence period
 Integrated Rural Development
Programme concept (IRDP)Page
 National Rural Employment
Programmes (NREP)Page
 Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) 1979
7. Training of rural youth for
self employment (TRYSEM)
 Training of Rural Youth for Self
Employment (TRYSEM)
 Development of Women and
Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)
  Intensive Agricultural Development
Programme (IADP)
 Intensive Agriculture Area
Programme (IAAP)
 Community Development
Programme
8. Community development
program
 Community development
programme
 Post Independence era: Firka
Development Project
 High yielding variety programme
(HYVP)Page
9. Transfer of technology
programmes of ICAR
 Lab to land Programme (LLP)
 Broad objectives of the programme
 Criteria for selection of participating
farm family
Organization
Krishi Vigyan Kendra(KVK)
10. National Demonstration
 National Demonstration (ND)
  Front Line Demonstration(FLD)
 Technology assessment and
refinement programme (TARP)
11. Communication
 Meaning of Communication
 Definition of Communication
 Elements of Communication
 Message
 Channel
 Treatment of Message
 Audience
 Audience Responses
 Model of Communication
12. Audio visual aids
 Meaning of Audio-Visual aids
 Importance of Audio-Visual AIDs
 Classification of Audio visual Aids
 Selection of Audio visual aids
13. Programme planning
 Meaning
 Programme Planning Defination
14. Evaluation
 Scope and objectives of programme
planning
 Principles of Programme Planning
  Steps in programme planning
 Definition
 Purpose of Evaluation
 Evaluate Programme Management
 Evaluate Programme Results
 Contribution to Evaluation
 Evaluation Principles
 Importance of Extension Evaluation
 Characteristics of Evaluation
15. Participatory rural appraisal
(PRA)
 Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
 Sources of PRA
 Definition of PRA
 Scope of PRA
PRA methods
 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and
Ecological Methods For Community
Based Agro Forest (AF) Research
16. Management and
Administration
 Management definitions
 Principles of management
 Functions of Management
 Meaning of administration
  Basic principles of administration
 Functions of administration
17. Human resource
management
 Human Resource
Development(HRD)
 Leadership
 Roles of leadership
 Qualities or traits of leader

Extension in Education
Meaning of Extension Education

 The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin

roots, ‘tensio’ meaning stretching and 'ex' meaning out.

Extension education means that type of education which is

stretched out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of

the schools and colleges to which the formal type of

education is normally confined.

 That the word extension came to be used in this sense

originally in USA is evident from the meaning given to it in

“Webster’s Dictionary” as a “branch of a University for

students who cannot attend the University proper.

 In other words, the word ‘Extension’ used in this context

signifies an out –of – school system of education. And the

word extension is commonly to understand and “to extend”

the new ideas, practices.

 Why Extension

 You cannot apply yesterday’s methods today and be in

business tomorrow. The need to obvious especially for the

agriculture predominant in rural economy with its major

component of agriculture, to keep the with the brisk changes

characteristic of modern times. In other words, the rural

people should know and adopt useful research finding from

time to time, and also transmit their problem to the research

workers for solution.

 The researchers neither have the time nor are they equipped

for the job of persuading the villagers to adopt scientific

methods and to ascertain from them the rural problems. On

the other hand it is impracticable for the millions of farmers

to visit the research stations and learn things by themselves.

Thus an agency is required to bridge the gulf between the

research workers and the people at large, to play the dual

role of interpreting the results of research to the farmers (in

such a way that they accept and adopt the

recommendations)as well as of conveying the farmers

problems to the research stations for solutions. This agency is

termed ‘Extension’, and the personnel managing this agency/

organization are called Extension workers.

 To equip the prospective extension workers for their job, it is

necessary for them to be trained adequately in the formal

“teaching institutions”. Thus we find that three kinds of inter

related services are essential in the process of rural

development.
 Why study Extension

 To be successful, an extension worker should know not

merely ‘what’ to teach but ‘how’ to teach people. In other

words, it is not enough if he is equipped with the technical

knowledge in subject matter field, he should have the ability

to successfully communicate his ideas to the people, taking

the personnel, social and situational factors into

consideration.

The following quotation aptly illustrates the need to study the

subject extension.

 The captain of a ship has to know not only his ship and the

destination he wants to reach. He must also understand

ocean currents and tides and the mind systems of the world.

All of these are powerful forces which can help him. The

extension worker needs to understand not only his own

programmes and objectives but also the currents of thoughts

in the minds of the people with whom he lives and works. He

needs to understand the motives of men; why certain people

take to new ideas more rapidly than others, why certain

people seek to take the lead and why certain others hesitate.

Light is thrown on many such questions by the knowledge

accumulated by the social sciences.

 Knowing that much has been discovered about, currents and

winds, no captain will venture out neither without providing

himself with that knowledge nor without continuously

studying. Similarly, the extension worker, aware of how much

is and how very much more is yet to be known about the

 behavior of people will see that this kind of knowledge is

essential to him. He will know that there are dependable

currents in village life which can carry people ahead rapidly

and he can look for them, confident that they can be found.

He will recognise that some of his obstacles are like hidden

rocks which he had better to avoid rather than try to drive

the ship of his programme straight across them

 This kind of knowledge is the field of study of psychology,

anthropology and based on them of educational theory,

unfortunately, our scientific knowledge of people in India is

negligible compared with our scientific knowledge of plants,

animals and soils. But what is important to extension is

should study it constantly and we should urge social

scientists to work much faster in order to meet the needs of

this country in their field of study.

 Various scientists have defined the term “Extension”

according to their interest, experience and training. The term

was first used in a customary in USA. Afterwards it was used

by many countries. Extension education is used in various

fields, such as Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Dairy,

Veterinary, Health, Home Science, Industry, Cooperative and

Forestry. Therefore, it is necessary to understand basic

concept of Extension Education for those who are associated

with it in some way or the other. To fully understand the

nature of extension education, it is important to study

various definitions given by different scholars.

Definitions
 Extension education is an applied science consisting of

content derived from research, accumulated field

experiences and relevant principles drawn from the

behavioural science synthesised with useful technology into a

body of philosophy, principles, content and methods focussed

on the problems of out of school education for adults and

youths (J.P. Leagans (1961)).

 Extension work is an out of school system of education in

which adult and young people learn by doing. It is

partnership between the government and the people, which

provides service and education designed to meet the people.

Its fundamental objective is the development of the people

(Kelsey and Harne (1963)).

 Extension is a programme and a process of helping village

people to help themselves, increase their production and to

raise their general standard of living (D. Ensminger (1961))

 We can define extension as the increased dissemination of

useful knowledge for improving rural life (H.W. Butt (1961)).

 Extension is a two – way channel; it brings scientific

information to the village people and also takes the problems

of the village people to the scientific institutions for solution,

it is a continuous educational process, in which both learner

and teacher contribute and receive (B. Rambhai (1958)).

 Extension education is defined as an educational process to

provide knowledge to the rural people about the improved

practices in a convincing manner and help them to take

decision within their specific local conditions (O.P. Dahama

(1973)).
 Agricultural extension is a professional methods of non –

formal education aimed at inducing behavioural changes in

the farmers for increasing their income through increased

production and productivity by establishing firm linkages

with research for solving farmer’s problems ensuring

adequate and timely supply of inputs and usage proven

methods of communication for speeding of the process of

diffusion and adoption of innovations (V.C. Sanoria (1986)) .

Scope of ExtensionEducation

 Extension education is a science which deals with the

creation, transmission and application of knowledge designed

to bring about planned changes in the behavior complex of

people, with a view to help them live better by learning the

ways of improving their vocations, enterprises and

institutions.

 There is some logic in each of the above concept which may

be defined as follows;

The different concepts may be defined as:

Extension service: An organization and or a programme

for agricultural development and rural welfare which

employs the extension process as a means of programme

implementation.

Extension process: The extension process is that of

working with rural people through out of school education,

along those lines of their current interests and needs which

are closely related to gaining a livelihood, improving the

 physical level of living of rural families, and fostering rural

community welfare.

Extension Job: The job of extension in agriculture and

home economics is to assist people engaged in farming and

home making to utilise more fully their own resources and

those available to them, in solving current problems and in

meeting changing economic and social conditions.

 In other words, through the educational and services

approach rural people are stimulated to make changes that

result in more efficient production and marketing of farm

products, conservation of natural resources, more

comfortable homes, improved health, and more satisfying

family and community life.

 The modern concept of Extension education is the means for

achieving community development, includes several facets

and subject- matter fields, of which agriculture is more

important than the others. Hence “Agricultural extension”

may be defined as special branch of Extension Education

which deals with the economic and social aspects of people

engaged in or associated with agriculture.

Scope/Importance of Agricultural Extension

 The following nine areas indicate the scope of agricultural

Extension work

1. Increasing the efficiency in agricultural production

2. Increasing the efficiency in marketing, distribution and

utilization of agricultural inputs and outputs.

 3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.

4. Proper management on the farm and at home.

5. Better family living.

6. Youth development

7. Leadership development

8. Community development.

9. Improving Public affairs for all round development.

 The following statements will further amplify the scope of

Extension

1. Extension is fundamentally a system of out of school

education for adults and youths alike.

2. It is a system where people are motivated through a

proper approach to help themselves by applying science in

their daily lives, in farming, home making and community

living.

3. Extension is education for all village people.

4. Extension is bringing about desirable changes in the

knowledge, attitudes and skills of people.

5. Extension is helping people to help themselves.

6. Extension is working with men and women, boys and

girls, to answer their felt needs and wants.

7. Extension is teaching people what to want, (i.e.,

converting unfelt needs into felt needs) as well as how to

work out ways of satisfying these wants and inspiring them

to achieve their desires.

8. Extension is teaching through ‘learning by doing’ and

‘seeing is believing’.

9. Extension is working in harmony with the culture of the

people.

10. Extension is a two – way channel; it brings scientific

information to village people and it also takes the problems

of the village people to the scientific institution for solution.

11. Extension is working together (in groups) to expand the

welfare and happiness of the people with their own

families, their own villages, their own country and the

world.

12. Extension is a living relationship between the village

workers and the village people. Respect and trust for each

other, sharing of joys and sorrows, results in friendship

through which village extension work continues.

13. Extension is development of individual in their day to

day living, development of their leaders, their society and

their world as a whole.

14. Extension is a continuous educational process in which

both learner and teacher contribute and receive.

Objective of Extension
Education
Objective of Extension Education

 The basic objectives of extension education is to raise the

standard of the people living of the rural area by helping

them in using their natural resources (Like land; water,

livestock) in the right way.

 Rural people are helped in planning and implementation of

their family and village plans for increasing agricultural

production, improving existing village craft and industries.

 It should also help in providing minimum health, recreational,

educational and housing facilities for improving family living

condition in village.

 The fundamental objective of extension education is to

develop the rural people economically, socially and culturally

by means of education

 The specific objective is the development of the people.

Objectives

1. To provide the farmers the knowledge and help that will

enable him to farm more efficiently and to increase his

income.

2. To help in planning and implementing the family and

village plans for increasing production in various

occupations.

3. To provide facilities for better family living.

4. To encourage the farmer to grow his own food. Eat well

and living well.

 5. To promote better social, natural, recreational, intellectual

and spiritual life among the people.

6. To open up new opportunities for rural people so that they

may develop all their talent and leadership.

7. To help the member of the farm family to a larger

appreciation of the opportunities the beauty and the privilege

of the rural life and to know more about the world in which

they live.

8. To build rural citizens who are proud of their occupation,

independent in their thinking, constructive in their outlook,

capable efficient and self reliant in character and have a love

of home and country in their heart.

9. To develop feeling of patriotism and love for society by

developing civil civic sense among rural people.

10. To train rural people youth for development works.

The general and Major objectives of
extension education

The general objectives of extension education would be

 To assist the people to discover and analyse their problems,

and identify their felt and un felt needs

 To develop leadership among the people and help them tin

organising groups to solve their problems

 To disseminate information based on research and/practical

experience, in such a manner that the people would be able

to understand and accept and put it in to actual situation.

 To keep the research workers informed of the people

problems from time to time so that they may offer solutions

based on necessary research.

 To assist the people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources

which they have and which they need from outside.

 To collect and transmit feedback information for solving

management problems.

The major objectives of Extension may also be categorised as

follows

 Material-Increase in production and income

 Educational-Change the outlook of people or develop the

individual

 Social and cultural- development of the community.

Principles of Extension Education

 Principle of Interest and need.

 Principle of grass root organisation

 Principle cultural change

 Principle of cultural difference

 Principle of Cooperation and participation

 Principle of applied science and democratic

approach

 Principle of learning by doing

 Principle of trained specialists

  Principle of adoptability of extension teaching

methods

 Principle of whole family approach

 Principle of satisfaction

Leading National Horticulture

Institutes
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants (CIMAP)

 Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, popularly

known as CIMAP, is a frontier plant research laboratory of

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).

Established originally as Central Indian Medicinal

Plants Organization (CIMPO) in 1959, CIMAP is steering

multidisciplinary high quality research in biological and

chemical sciences and extending technologies and services to

the farmers and entrepreneurs of medicinal and aromatic

plants (MAPs) with its research headquarter at Lucknow and

Research Canters at Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pantnagar and

Purara.

 CIMAP Research Centres are aptly situated in different agro-

climatic zones of the country to facilitate multi-location field

trials and research. A little more than 50 years since its

inception, today, CIMAP has extended its wings overseas with

scientific collaboration agreements with Malaysia. CSIR-

CIMAP has signed two agreements to promote bilateral

cooperation between India and Malaysia in research,

 development and commercialization of MAP related

technologies.

 CIMAP’s contribution to the Indian economy through its

MAPs research is well known. Mint varieties released and

agro-packages developed and popularised by CIMAP has

made India the global leader in mints and related industrial

products. CIMAP has released several varieties of the MAPs,

their complete agro-technology and post harvest packages

which have revolutionised MAPs cultivation and business

scenario of the country.

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute
(CPCRI)

 The Coconut Research Station was established in 1916 at

Kasargod, Kerala by the Government of Madras and

subsequently it was taken over by the Indian Central Coconut

Committee in 1948 and continued till 1970. Central

Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) was established

in 1970 as one of the agricultural research institutes under

the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), by

merging Central Coconut Research Station, Kasargod,

Central Coconut Research.

 The Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) is a

renowned research institute under Indian Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India. The CPCRI plays a pioneering role in

development of technologies for the mandate crops in

agriculture in India through its research. It is also engaged in

cutting edge areas of science and technology development

and its scientists are internationally acknowledged in their

fields.

Mandate:

1. To develop appropriate production, protection and

processing technologies for coconut, arecanut and cocoa

through basic and applied research.

2. To act as a national repository for the genetic resources of

these crops.

3. To produce parental lines and breeders' stock.

4. To develop improved palm based cropping/farming systems

through more effective use of natural resources to increase

productivity and income from unit area.

5. To collect, collate and disseminate information on the

mandate crops to all concerned.

6. To co-ordinate research on the mandate crops within the

country and execute the research programmes under the All

India Coordinated Research Project on Palms.

7. To transfer technologies developed at CPCRI to the

farmers through the co-operation of developmental

departments.

Top

Transfer of technology

CPCRI organises various technology transfer programmes for

disseminating the research results to farmers and extension

personnel.
 Institutional training programmes on different aspects of

production technology of palms and cocoa for the benefit of

extension personnel are regularly organized at CPCRI. One

day training's along with field visits are arranged to farmers

so as to educate them on scientific management of coconut,

arecanut and cocoa and to convince them about the

technology recommendations. Need based training

programmes relating to production, protection and

processing technologies are also being organized for the

benefit of farmers.

 Front line demonstrations are arranged in farmers field on

different recommended cultivation technologies to convince

the farmers about the technical feasibility and economic

viability of the technologies.

 Effective utilization of mass media like Radio, TV,

Newspapers and Farm Magazines is made to create

awareness among coconut cultivators about various

production technologies. Further, extension pamphlets, CD

ROMs, Video Cassettes etc. are also prepared for effective

dissemination and popularization of the cultivation

technologies in palms and cocoa among the farmers and

extension personnel.

 Cyber Extension: CPCRI has been implementing various

cyber extension activities as part of strengthening the

technology transfer programmes of the Institute in mandate

crops viz., coconut, arecanut and cocoa. As part of the cyber

extension activities, a group video conferencing system

through ISDN was installed at the ATIC, CPCRI, Kasargod to

 facilitate interaction between various stakeholders for

enhancing technology utilization in coconut, arecanut and

cocoa. The video conferencing facility is effectively utilized

for scheduling and implementing interface programmes at

regular intervals involving various stake holders including

researchers, extension personnel, farmers and

entrepreneurs.

 CPCRI web site (www.cpcri.gov.in) and other services

provided by CPCRI for the benefit of farmers also form a part

of the cyber extension activities of the Institute.

Arrangements have been made for answering queries from

farmers, extension personnel and entrepreneurs on different

aspects of production, protection and processing of palms

and cocoa through e-mail.

 CD ROMs as interactive software packages on different

technologies of production, protection and processing of

palms and cocoa are also being produced and distributed as

part of the cyber extension project. Besides the above, an IT

enabled kiosk has also been installed at CPCRI Kasaragod

under the cyber extension project of the Institute to provide

information in English, Hindi and regional languages about

various technologies evolved at the Institute in mandate

crops and also various services offered to farmers and

entrepreneurs.

 Exhibitions, Seminars, Kisan Melas and Group

Meetings are also regularly organised as part of the

technology transfer activities of the institute.

 Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) is

established at CPCRI, Kasaragod to provide the required

technology information, diagnostic and advisory services and

supply of quality planting material to farmers through a

single window delivery system. Farmers can write to CPCRI

in advance for seedlings and can procure the same in person

on intimation.

 Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s functioning under CPCRI at

Kasaragod and Kayangulam cater to the training needs of

farmers of Kasaragod and Alappuzha Districts respectively.

Farmers are immensely benefited through the vocational

training programmes, front line demonstrations and on farm

testing in the farmers’ fields and other technology transfer

activities organised by the KVKs

Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research(IIHR)

 The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research is a premier

Institute conducting basic, strategic, anticipatory and applied

research on various aspects of fruits, vegetable, ornamental,

medicinal and aromatic plants and mushrooms. Popularly

known as IIHR, Bangalore, the institute was the first

horticultural Research Institute in the country established by

the Indian Council of Agriculture Research on 5th September,

1967 at the Head quarters of New Delhi.

 Subsequently the institute was shifted to Bangalore in

Karnataka at Hessaraghatta located 25 Kms away from

Bangalore city by taking over the erstwhile existing National

 Horatorium of Govt. of Karnataka on 1st February 1968 with

Dr. G.S. Randhawa as its founder Director

Established - 5th September, 1967

Institute carved out of IIHR - CISH, Lucknow;NRC for

Citrus, Nagpur; CIAH, Bikaner; HRC, Ranchi

Number of Division and Sections - 15

Divisions: 11

Sections : 04

Central Horticultural Experiment Stations (CHES) -

CHES, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa

CHES, Chettalli, Karnataka

CHES Hirehalli, Karnataka

Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)

KVK, Gonikoppa, Karnataka

KVK, Hirehalli, Karnataka

 The Institute has also got an Agriculture Technology

Information Centre (ATIC), which is a single window agency

for dissemination of information and technologies developed

by the Institute. All the technological products and popular

publications developed by the Institute are sold to the

farmers and interested public through the agricultural

technology information centre. In the beginning years of the

institute the main research agenda of the institute was to

increase the yields of horticultural crop varieties by

developing high yielding varieties in fruits, vegetables,

ornamentals and medicinal and aromatic plants and also

 develop advanced production technologies to increase the

productivity of horticultural crops.

 With changing times and emergence of new challenges in the

fields of productivities, crop production, crop protection and

crop utilization, emphasis was laid on breeding varieties for

biotic and a biotic stresses breeding F1 hybrids, developing

integrated pest and disease management technologies,

developing integrated water and nutrient management

protocols towards optimum utilization of resources

developing Post Harvest Management practices to reduce the

post harvest losses and further value additions and frontier

research areas like hi-tech horticulture, precision farming,

information technology, biotechnological interventions to

increase yields, protect crops from insect- pests, disease and

viruses, and extension of shelf life of crop produces.

 Encompassing various goals and objectives of achieving

sustainable development of horticulture, providing livelihood

security, economic growth and nutritional security which

have been challenged time and again by various obvious

factors, the IIHR, Bangalore has been carrying out research

in fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic

plants and mushrooms with the following mandate:

Mandate

• To undertake research studies on adoption, impact &

spread of IIHR technologies in farmers field.

• To undertake demonstrations and carry out refinements of

IIHR technologies to suit farmer specific conditions.

 • To provide training to resource persons and key extension

functionaries in public and private sector.

• To act as single window for publicity, advisory services,

distribution and sale of IIHR products through ATIC

Services Offered

• Trainings

• Sales of IIHR products

• Advisory services

• Participation in exhibition, demonstrations, trainings, radio

talks, TV shows etc.,

Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR)

 The Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut a

constituent body of Indian Council of Agricultural Research

(ICAR) is a major Institute devoted to research on spices. The

Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut a

constituent body of Indian Council of Agricultural Research

(ICAR) is a major Institute devoted to research on spices. In

1976, it started as a Regional Station of the Central

Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod

engaged in research on spices.

 A National Research Centre for Spices was established in

1986 with its headquarters at Calicut, Kerala by merging the

erstwhile Regional Station of CPCRI at Calicut and

Cardamom Research Centre at Appangala, Karnataka.

Realising the importance of Spices Research in India this

Research Centre was upgraded to Indian Institute of Spices

Research on 1st July, 1995

Mandate

• The Indian Institute of Spices Research will serve as an

Institute of excellence for conducting and coordinating

research on all aspects of spices improvement, production,

protection and post harvest technology.

• To extend services and technologies to conserve spices

genetic resources as well as soil, water and air of spices agro-

ecosystems.

• To develop high yielding and high quality spices varieties

and sustainable production and protection systems using

traditional and nontraditional techniques and novel

biotechnology approaches.

• To develop post harvest technologies of spices with

emphasis on product development and product diversification

for domestic and export purposes.

• To act as a centre for training in research methodology and

technology upgradation of spices and to coordinate national

research projects.

• To monitor the adoption of new and existing technologies to

make sure that research is targeted to the needs of farming

community.
 • To serve as a national centre for storage, retrieval and

dissemination of technological information on spices

Technical Programme

1. Preparation of training schedule

2. Organising training programme.

3. Conduction on demand training programme.

4. Other technology dissemination function.

5. Preparing video film.

6. Agro-clinics

7. Technical bulletin

Indian Institute of Vegetable

Research(IIVR)

 Vegetable research was given impetus through establishment

of AICRP on vegetable crops during 1971 at IARI,

 New Delhi with the responsibilities of coordinating and

monitoring of vegetable research programmes of the country.

 To give a fillip to the research and to meet the challenges of

nutritional security, the status of AICRP on vegetable

 Crops was elevated to the level of Project Directorate of

Vegetable Research (PDVR) during 1986 with its headquarter

 At IARI, New Delhi. During 1992, the head quarter was

shifted at Varanasi from IARI New Delhi.

 Considering the vital role of vegetables in nutritional

security, emerging trends of national/international demand

 And higher economic return, PDVR was further upgraded to

the level of national institute under ICAR system during •

 1999 and named “Indian Institute of Vegetable Research”.

Mandate

• To undertake innovative, basic, strategic, anticipatory and

applied research for developing technologies to enhance

productivity of vegetable crops, their nutrient quality and

post-harvest management.

• To provide scientific leadership in coordinated network

research for solving location-specific problems of production

and to monitor breeder seed production of released/ notified

varieties and parental lines.

• To act as a national repository of scientific information

relevant to vegetable crops and as a centre for training for

up-gradation of scientific manpower working on vegetable

crops.

• To develop high yielding, good quality, disease and insect

pest resistant varieties/ hybrids of selected vegetable crops.

• To develop advanced production and protection

technologies for selected vegetable varieties/ hybrids. • To

undertake germplasm collection, maintenance and

documentation in vegetable crops.

National Horticulture
Institutes
National Horticulture Board (NHB)

Objectives

• To encourage, promote and develop the Horticulture

Industry.

• To stimulate and support the growth of the diverse

activities of the Horticulture Industry.

• To advance the economic and social-well being of the

farmers of growers in need of such advancement.

• To assist the establishment and maintenance of growers

and farmers' societies and other similar institutions as part of

the development of Horticulture Industry.

• To coordinate the activities of different departments, and

organisations at the Central and the State level engaged in

activities pertaining to Horticulture Industry.

• To assist in the establishment and growth of infrastructure

for the development of postharvest technology and

development of market intelligence and information system.

• To institute and implement the Horticulture Development

Programme or Project in the interests of the development and

progress of the Horticulture Industry.

• To encourage the participation of small and marginal

farmers and growers in Horticulture

• Development Programmes so that they become

beneficiaries of the growth of the Horticulture Industry.

• To provide technological, financial and other assistance in

organisations of consultancy services, preparation,

monitoring and evaluation of Projects, relating to the

Horticulture Industry, including but not limited to, transfer of

improved technology for production, processing, quality

control and marketing and matters allied or incidental

thereto.

• To promote integrated development of the Horticulture

Industry with particular reference to potato, onion, tomato,

cauliflower, cabbage, ginger, turmeric, apple, pineapple,

mango, grape and citrus fruits and other Horticultural crops

on priority basis.

• To take appropriate measures for assisting farmers and

growers to get incentive prices but having due regard to the

interest of consumers.

• To organise Udyan Pandit competitions, fruit shows award

prizes and incentives to fruit and vegetable growers, farmers

and manufactures of horticultural and other allied products.

• To assist, encourage, promote, coordinate and finance

horticultural, technological, industrial or economic research

on horticulture and its products and setting up the required

ancillary facilities.

• To organize programmes for training of personnel engaged

in Horticulture Development including training of Extension

Staff.

• To co-operate with Food and Agricultural Organization and

other international agencies and organizations for the

purpose of exchange of technical knowhow and financial

assistance.

• To prepare feasibility studies on marketing, processing

plants, cold storage, transportation system for raw and

processed perishable horticultural products and other related

fields and undertake designing, planning and setting up on

project on these basis.

• To undertake publicity and dissemination of improved

methods of horticultural technology.

• To assist and advise in the matters of transportation of

perishable horticultural products to consumers.

• To establish and maintain liaison with the Railways,

Ministry of Shipping and Transport and other concerned

departments and organizations, as considered appropriate.

• To import equipments and expertise as and when required

for the development of Horticulture Industry.

• To acquire and accept, grant, gifts, donations, subscriptions

and contributions from any source whatever, including but

not limited to, the Central Government for the furtherance of

the objects of the Society.

• To create, establish, maintain and operate funds with the

money and securities received from the Central Government,

any State Government, banking and financial institutions,

voluntary and international organizations and agencies by

way of grant, donation, in addition to other money, income

and securities earned and acquired by the Society in any

other manner for promotion of the objects of the Society.

• To utilize a part or whole of such funds towards the capital

and recurring expenditure of the Society.

• To make investments or deal with the funds in any other

way the Society may find it necessary for the purpose of its

objects.

• To acquire by way of purchase or gift or to take on lease or

hire or otherwise any movable or immovable property.

• To sell, assign, mortgage, lease, exchange, transfer, or

otherwise deal with all or any property, movable or

immovable, of the Society as it may consider necessary.

• To own, develop renovate, expand or alter any building

movable or immovable property in the possession of the

Society in the way as necessary and take action for proper

maintenance of any such property.

 • To borrow or raise funds from any source with securities or

without securities or otherwise, however in such manner as

the Society shall deem fit.

• To draw, accept make, endorse, discount, execute, sign,

issue or otherwise deal with cheques, hundies, drafts,

certificates, receipts, Government

National Horticulture Mission (NHM)

 National Horticulture Mission is a centrally sponsored

scheme in which Government of India provide 100%

assistance to the state mission during the year 2005-06

(Tenth Plan) During XI plan, the assistance from Government

of India will be 85% with 15% contribution by the State

Government.

Objectives

To develop horticulture to the maximum potential available in

the State and to augment production of all horticultural

products (Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers, Plantation crops,

Spices, Medicinal Aromatic plants) in the state.

• To provide holistic growth of the horticulture sector

through an area based regionally differentiated strategies

• To enhance horticulture production, improve nutritional

security and income support to farm households;

• To establish convergence and synergy among multiple on-

going and planned programmes for horticulture development;

 • To promote, develop and disseminate technologies, through

a seamless blend of traditional wisdom and modern scientific

knowledge;

• To create opportunities for employment generation for

skilled and unskilled persons, especially unemployed youth;

National Horticultural Research and

Development Foundation (NHRDF)

 The National Horticultural Research and Development

Foundation (NHRDF) was established by National

Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India Ltd.

(NAFED) and its Associate Shippers of onion on 3 November,

1977 under Societies Registration Act, 1860 at New Delhi.

During 1989, the Head Office of NHRDF was shifted to Nasik

but the Registered Office is at New Delhi .

 The aim of establishment of NHRDF was to guide the

farmers, exporters and others concerned for improving the

productivity and quality of horticultural crops in order to

make available sufficient quantity for domestic requirement

and also to boost up export of onion and other such export

oriented horticultural crops in the country. Onion was the

first crop on which the NHRDF has started its Research and

Development programmes to meet the above mentioned aim

and subsequently garlic, okra, chilli, French bean crops etc.

have been added.

 The NHRDF initially started as a small center at New Delhi in

1978 and now it has 5 Regional Research Stations,

Laboratories on different aspects and 20 Extension Centers

 spread all over the major onion and garlic growing pockets of

the country. It has also established one Krishi Vigyan Kendra

at Ujwa in New Delhi to cater the needs of farmers of Delhi

State.

 The Head Quarter of NHRDF is located 20 km away from

Nasik towards North-East on the Nasik-Aurangabad Road at

20 º North Latitude and 73 º 57’ East Longitude at 492 m

above mean sea-level at Chitegaon Phata in Niphad Taluka of

Nasik district.

MISSION

 The mission of NHRDF is to provide technological

empowerment to farmers through well- trained manpower

and well-organized R&D activities, and efficient extension

networking for enhancing the production and productivity,

and minimizing post-harvest losses through scientifically

developed technologies. The NHRDF would make the

programmes to meet 25% of demand of onion and garlic by

tapping the potential of unused land and 75% by

technological development.

VISION

 The vision of NHRDF is to develop equitable, sustainable,

economically-viable, environment-friendly, area-specific

varieties and technologies with the commitment of enhancing

the production and productivity, and minimizing post-harvest

losses of onion, garlic and other export-oriented horticultural

crops. The NHRDF targets to meet its demand in situation

when land is shrinking and water is dwindling through the

empowered hands of committed, competent, capable and

well-exposed technical manpower of the organization, and

also by outsourcing the services of highly skilled and well-

exposed scientific fraternity. To

THE MANDATE

The mandate of the NHRDF is to:

• Undertake / conduct research or facilities in research and

scientific investigations for the growth and development of

varieties of various export-oriented horticultural crops.

• Establish institutes, laboratories, research centres, model

farms, and study teams for promoting better quality and

higher yield of horticultural produce, better packaging,

suitable transportation and shipping to improve the shelf-life

of the produce, and conduct experiments and provide funds

for such research work and to educate farmers and

disseminate technical know-how and results derived by

conducting training programmes, seminars get-togethers,

farmers' meets etc.

• Investigate and conduct research experiments for assessing

demands of the horticultural produce of the Indian origin in

foreign countries by conducting extensive survey and

undertake research and development of horticultural produce

with export potential, and to motivate farmers to grow such

varieties of horticultural produce with the object of further

developing horticultural exports from India.

• Prepare, edit, print, publish and circulate books, research

papers and periodicals bearing upon the growth and

development of horticultural produce or other scientific and

research activities connected therewith, and to establish and

maintain collections, libraries, statistics, scientific data and

other information relating thereto.

• Conduct all aspects of scientific research and

developmental activities in the field of horticulture or

otherwise conducive to the objectives of the NHRDF

provided, however, that none of the activities of NHRDF will

be undertaken for profit nor shall it involve any profit motive.

Provided, however, that the NHRDF may receive nominal

 service charges, wherever found necessary in the interest of

maintaining financial stability of the

NHRDF

 The NHRDF shall provide extended services to the farmers in

the form of research and developmental activities, namely

seed development, vermicompost, biopesticide production

and distribution, and other laboratory services for which

NHRDF may collect revenue from the farmers so as to

establish a revolving fund or credit to corpus fund for further

expansion of research and developmental activities.

 The research and developmental programmes were initially

started on onion and later on garlic was included in the

mandate crops. In view of vast export potential, the NHRDF

has also extended its R & D programmes on some other

export-oriented horticultural crops like okra, French bean,

chilli, capsicum and bitter gourd.

Rural Development
Meaning of Rural Development

 The term rural development connotes overall development of

rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life of rural

people. In this sense, it is a comprehensive and

multidimensional concept and encompasses the development

of agriculture and allied activities village and cottage

industries and crafts, socio-economic infrastructure,

 community services and facilities, and above all, the human

resources in rural areas.

 As a phenomenon, rural development is the end result of

interactions between various physical, technological,

economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors.

 As a strategy, it is designed to improve the economic and

social well being of a specific group of people – the rural

poor.

 As a discipline, it is multidisciplinary in nature representing

an intersection of agricultural, social, behavioral, engineering

and management sciences.

--- In the words of Robert Chambers ---

 Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of

people, poor rural –women and men, to gain for themselves

and their children more of what they want and need. It

involves helping the poorest among those who seek a

livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of

the benefits of rural development. The group includes small

scale farmers, tenants and the landless.

 Rural development is necessary not only because an

overwhelming majority of population lives in villages, but

because the development of rural activities is essential to

accelerate the pace of overall economic development of the

country.
 Definition of Rural Development
1. Rural development is a process of transformation from

traditionally oriented rural culture towards an acceptance

and reliance on science and technology (Ensminger).

2. Rural development improving the living standard of

masses of low income population residing in rural areas and

making the process of rural development self sustaining”

(Lele).

3. To improve the economic and social life of specific group

of people, the rural poor” (Agarwala).

4. Defines rural development as the process of change among

hundreds of thousands of rural people. These people are

found in families living in small isolated villages or moving

about in small nomadic kinship clusters (Axinn (1977)).

5. Rural development is a process through which rural

poverty is alleviated by sustained increases in productivity

and income of low income rural workers and households

(world bank).

6. rural development is a planned process using any form of

action or communication designed to charge the

environment, techniques, institutions and attitudes of the

rural people in such a way that to eliminate their poverty and

improve their way of life (Aziz (1964)).

7. Rural development has been defined as a process which

leads to a continuous rise in the capacity of the rural people

to control their environment, accompanied by a wider

distribution of benefits resulting from such a control.

8. Rural development is defined as a process and suggestions

are made on how it might be furthered.

9. Rural development in general is used to denote the actions

and initiatives taken to improve the standard of living in non

– urban neighbourhoods, countryside and remote villages.

Objectives of Rural Development

The objectives of rural development is multi-dimensional and

multi directional

• Aims of increased employment or removal of unemployment

or reduction of under employment

• Aims of higher perfecting

• Aims of higher income

• Aims of minimum acceptable level of food, clothing, shelter,

education and health.

• Aims of building up of sound value system.

• Increase the availability and to improve the distribution of

self sustaining needs.

• To increase the percapita purchasing power and to improve

the distribution through education, employment and

productivity.
 • To raise the standard of living.

The genesis of rural development

 In a predominantly agriculture based economy like India

where nearly 75 percent of the population lives in rural areas

and rarely 31percent of national income is generated in the

agricultural sector, rural development ought to get top

priority. A vast majority of population works in villages under

the grim shadow of poverty, unemployment, under –

employment inequality of wealth and income as well as

pitiable economic conditions. Mahatma Gandhi had,

therefore, written long back in 1936 in ‘Harijan’ that “ I have

believed and repeated times without member that India is to

be found not in its few cities but in its 7,00,000 villages. I

would say that if the village perishes, India will perish too.

 In India, 272.7 million persons (37%) of the population are

still living below the poverty line of which slightly more than

80 percent are estimated to be living in rural areas. The turn

evils of mass poverty and increasing magnitude of

unemployment can be mitigated by adoption of

unemployment long range perspective plan with more

emphasis on rural development. A bias towards rural

development in our feature economic plans is a dire

necessity.

Rural development programme before independence

Shantiniketan attempts

Started: Rabindranath Tagore in collaboration with Leonard.

K in 1921 at sriniketan in Bengal

Objectives: Studying and analysing rural problems, using

them in action and helping villages to develop their

resources.

Activities: Popularising health co-operatives, better seed and

manures, cottage industries and organizing village meals.

Gurgaon Attempts

Started: F.L. Brayne in Gurgaon district of Punjab state in

1920.

Objectives:* Increasing farm yields, stopping overspending in

social functions.

* Improving health standards and home

improvement and women welfare.

Activities: Irrigation, a forestation, composting, cattle

improvement, women’s education and discouragement of

heavy spending on social function etc., Short comings: Use of

authority, untrained field workers discontinuity of work and

limited planning.

Marthandam Projects

Started: Spencer hatch in then Travancore state in 1921.

Objectives: Rural reconstruction to bring about complete

upward development towards more abundant life for rural

people spiritually mentally, physically, socially and

economically through self-help and expert counsel.

Methods: Counselling farmers on economy and self-help,

demonstrations, working through trained leaders, developing

village organizations and rural surveys.

Activities: Agriculture, cottage industries, Community

programmes, Bee-Keeping, poultry farming etc.,

Good points: Training of staff, comprehensive planning,

starting with existing conditions and low financial load.

Weak points: Lack of government backing and lack of

continuity of contacts with villages, religious standing of the

institution.

Sevagram Project

Started: it was started by Gandhiji in 1933.

Objectives: Upliftment of under privileged people and village

regeneration.

Activities: Organizing training centre for cottage industries,

communal harmony, prohibition/removal of untouchability.

Limitations: High personal and moral standards which were

difficult to achieve by common people.

Etawah Project

Started: Albert Mayor in 1948 in Etawah District of Uttar

Pradesh.

Objectives: ? To improve farm production and social

development
? To see how quickly the results can be achieved in an

average situation.

? To see how these results could be helpful in the areas

Activities: Included were increasing farm yields, soil

conservation animal husbandry, village sanitation. The village

level workers were trained and appointed.

Short comings of the past attempts: Each of the past attempts

had some good points and some limitations. However the

cumulative experience of these attempts have been very

helpful in designing community development programme in

India.

Some of the important short-comings of the past attempts

may be summarised as follows:

• The attempts were mostly initiated by individuals inspired

by humanitation considerations.

• The attempts were mostly isolated, uneven and

discontinuous.

• Government backing and financial support were not forth

coming in sufficient measure.

• Staff employed was inadequate, inexperienced and

untrained.

• The objectives were not very clear and the programmes

suffered in implementation.
 • Proper planning, programming and implementation were

lacking and sometimes unbalanced.

• Parallel programs of supplies, services, guidance and super

vision were not developed.

• Evaluation and research were lacking, proper methods and

skills were neither employed nor recognised the lead of them.

• Involvement of local people in thinking, planning and

executing village development was wanting.

• Co-ordination of other development departments was very

limited.

Nilokheri Project

Started: It was started by S. K. Dey at Punjab in 1947-48.

Objectives: To develop a new township to rehabilitate

displaced persons from west Pakistan. The new township was

built in a barren land by refugees self help and government’s

assistance under the leadership of S. K. Dey. The township

had school, farm, training centre, dairy poultry, piggery,

press, garment factory, soap factory etc.

Rural development program

during post independence
Integrated Rural Development
Programme concept (IRDP)
 IRDP is a very major programme of poverty alleviation and

rural development. The meaning of the term integrated,

basically implies the provision of a package of interlinked

programmes mutually supporting and reinforcing so that a

one-dimensional approach to development is avoided so, the

integration is horizontal, vertical, spatial and temporal.

Integration covers four principal dimensions:

i. Integration of sectoral programmes.

ii. Spatial integration.

iii. Integration of social and economic processes.

iv. The policies with a view to achieving a better fit between

growth, removal of poverty and employment generation.

Specifically, it involves a sharp focus on target groups,

comprising small and marginal farmers, agricultural laborers

and rural artisans, and an extremely location specific

planning in rural areas.

 IRDP was envisaged to help small and marginal farmers,

agricultural laborers and rural artisans.

 The approaches followed for SFDA, MFAL, DPAP and CAD

programmes were proposed to be utilized according to their

relevance’s in particular areas to generate employment

opportunities and increase production.

Objectives
 The main objectives are creating assets, employment,

increased income removal of poverty and minimizing in

equality

IRD Programmes were

• Programmes of Agriculture Development including efficient

utilization of land and water resources with scientific

technology.

• Programmes of animal husbandry as a subsidiary

occupation dirked mainly to small farmers and Agricultural

Labour households.

• Programmes of marine fishery including harvesting of

natural resources through trawlers, mechanised country

boats.

• Programmes of social forestry and farm forestry.

• Programmes of village and cottage industries including

handlooms, sericulture and beekeeping as important

occupations for the artisan classes of the rural population.

• Programme of service sector of the rural economy as self-

employment for poorer families.

• Programmes for skill formation and mobility of labour to

meet the needs of organized labour for development works.

The IRDP concept was launched in 1978-79 in 2300 blocks in

the country and it was extended to all blocks in the country

 with effect from 2to Oct. 1980. Simultaneously SFDA's were

merged with IRDP.

Target Beneficiaries of IRDP

 IRDP focuses mainly on providing assistance (subsidiary and

institutional credit) to selected families for income generating

assets in order to range their incomes through self

employment so that they can move above the poverty line.

 IRDP follows the principle of the "poorest of the poor first”.

Hence, although the poverty line (PL) has been defined as Rs

6,400 as annual family income, only those families with an

annual income of less than Rs 4,800 are eligible for

assistance under this programme.

The target group includes:

• Small farmers, marginal farmers, agricultural laborers rural

artisans and other families which are below the poverty line.

• At least 30 per cent of the families are to be drawn from

SC's/STS.

• At least 30 per cent of the beneficiaries are to be women.

Implementation and funding of IRDP

 The district rural development agency (DRDA) was created to

function at the district level as a single agency for the

 implementation of IRDP, DPAP, DPP etc., to implement

integrated rural development.

 Funds for the programme are released to DRDA’s on the

stipulation that expenditure should be equally shared by the

centre and the state.

Short comings/drawbacks of IRDP

• The resources provided were inadequate.

• There was large number of over dues.

• Poor quality of assets provided to the beneficiaries.

• The follow up of the beneficiaries was inadequate.

• Lack of training facilities to s-mall and marginal farmers.

National Rural Employment Programmes

(NREP)

 The NREP was launched in 1980 with a view to significantly

increase employment opportunities in rural areas. This was

viewed as a major step towards poverty alleviation. The

NREP replaced the food for work (FFW) programme.

Objectives

• Generation of Additional gainful employment for

unemployed and under employed persons (Both men and

women) in rural areas.

• Creation of productive community assets for direct and

continuing benefits to the poor.

• Improvement in the overall quality of life in the rural areas.

Two main functions of NREP

• Creation of a large quantum of man days of work per year

for the unemployed and under employed in rural areas, and

• Creation of durable community assets to strengthen

infrastructural facilities in rural areas.

Features of NREP

• In all works under NREP, preference was given to landless

labour.

• Among landless labour, preference was given to SC's/ST's

for employment.

• Main provisions relating to works under NREP was that it

was not permitted to engage contractors.

• Wages were paid partly in cash and partly in food grain 1-2

kg/day/head

• DRDA were responsible for the entire works relating to

planning, implementation, coordination and monitoring of

NREP.

• NREP was a centrally sponsored programme with equal

sharing of the expenditure by the centre and the status.

• NREP provide training to the personnel in the

implementation of the programme.

 Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) 1979

 The finance minister announced a new scheme which aimed

at providing employment in backward districts with chronic

poverty and unemployment. This new scheme was named as

Jawaharlal Nehru Rozgar Yojana. It was also stated that

NREP and RLEGP would be merged into one programme and

implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme with a 80:20

sharing funds between the centre and the states. Later it was

called as JRY.

Objectives

• To generate additional gainful employment for the

unemployed rural youth.

• To create productive community assets which would benefit

the poor sections thus, strengthening the rural infrastructure.

• To improve the overall quality of life in areas.

Main features of JRY

• The target group comprises persons living below poverty

line.

• Preference is given to SC's and ST's among the poor.

• At least 30 per cent of the beneficiaries are women.

 • All works which lead to creation of durable community

assets can be taken up.

• Higher priority is to be given to works which are required

as infrastructure under poverty alleviation programmes.

• For social forestry works the participation of non-

governmental organizations (NGOS) is ought.

• Wages under JRY could be paid partly in cash and partly in

food grain (1.5 kg/ Man/day).

• DRDA's/ Zilla Parishads are responsible for implementation

of JRY at district level and village panchayats at the Gram

Panchayats Level.

Training of Rural Youth for Self

Employment (TRYSEM)

 Trysem was launched in 1979 as a separate national scheme

for training rural youth for self employment. The compelling

reasons for launching the programme being the huge backlog

of unemployment and under employment among the rural

youth. Forty youth, both men and women were to be selected

in each block and trained in both skill development and

entrepreneurship to enable them to become self-employed.

 It was generating activities in the rural areas, the influx of

rural youth to urban areas could curbed. Moreover, local

needs could also met with local resources, thereby giving a

fillip to rural development.

Objectives of TRYSEM

• To provide rural youth (18-35 years) from families below

the poverty line with training and technical skills to enable

them to take up self-employment in agriculture, industry,

services and business activities.

• Training is perceived not only in terms of provision of

physical skills. But also change in attitude, enhancement of

motivation and skills in human relations etc., are also ought

to be imparted.

• Self-employment is defined as gainful employment on a full

time basis which results in income which is sufficient for the

family of the youth cross the poverty line. Situation of

employment in which the means of production are owned,

hired or taken on lease are taken to be self-employment

situations.

Features of TRYSEM

• TRYSEM became the “self employment for youth”

component of IRDP and was introduced in all the 5000 blocks

in the country.

• An identified youth will be put through a period of training

either in a training institution or under a master crafts men.

• Duration of training is flexible depending upon types of

courses.

• Trainers are given stipend and a tool kit.

• Successful trainee is eligible to receive a

subsidiary/credit/income generating asset under IRDP.

• At least 50 percent of the youth to be trained for self-

employment either for secondary or tertiary sector activity.

• Wage employment training was to be in the secondary and

tertiary sectors.

• BDO selects the eligible youth belonging to the target

group with the help of VLW’s.

• The identification of locations is done by the DRDA in

consultation with district level officers of different

departments.

• DRDA prepares a resource inventory for training facilities

like ITI’s polytechniques, KVI’s, KVK’s, NYK’s etc.,

• DRDA is responsible for the implementation of TRYSEM.

Beneficiaries of TRYSEM

• Members of the poorest family first

• Priority should be given to members of SC's and ST’s.

• At least 1/ 3 of candidates should be women.

• Preference should be given to persons who have completed

the 12 month course under the national Adult Education

programme.

Short coming of TRYSEM

 • Implementation is generally uneven.

• Training lacked appropriate technology in the package

provided.

• In the selection of trade, self-employment opportunities and

financial viability were not adequately assessed.

• Assistance in the provision of raw materials and marketing

has been lacking.

• Every district did not have training centers of TRYSEM.

• In a large number of cases, the assistance provided to

TRYSEM trainees from IRDP projects had no link to the

training they had received.

Development of Women and Children in

Rural Areas (DWCRA)

 Our planners realized that women did not reap as much

benefit out of IRDP as they were expected to. Hence, it was

felt necessary to devise a special programme for women and

children in rural areas. The rationale was that if people have

a minimum basic nutrition only if they have a minimum

income. Initially, income can be generated by giving access to

rural assets. Moreover better skill endowment and training

for women will enable them to derive better results from

their work efforts.

Objectives of DWCRA
 The basic objective of DWCRA is to provide rural women with

productive income generating assets and credit, and enhance

their skills.

 It also seeks to provide an effective organizational support

structure so that the women can receive assistance in the

production of goods and services more effectively.

Features of DWCRA

1. The target group of DWCRA is those, families which have

an annual income of less than Rs. 4,800.

2. Under DWCRA, it is not individual families which receive

assistance but the group.

3. It encourages the formation of groups each consisting of

15 to 20 women.

4. The financial assistance which is available for a group is as

follows

i. Rs. 15,000 in the form as a onetime grant

contributed in equal measure by the Government

of India, State Government and UNICEF which

may be used as.

• Working capital to process raw

materials and for marketing purposes.

 • Infrastructural support for income

generating activities.

• Child care facilities.

ii. Travelling allowance at the rate of Rs. 2,000

per year for one year for the group organizers.

5. It was launched in 1982-83 as a pilot project in 50 districts

chosen on the criteria of high infant mortality rate and low

female literacy.

6. Although DWCRA is basically a programme to generate

productive seats, it is not confined to providing economic

benefits.

7. It includes supportive services like mother and child care,

adult education, immunization etc.,

8. The task of planning, implementing and monitoring of

DWCRA has been entrusted to DRDA, as DWCRA is part of

IRDP.

9. One woman BDO, two woman VLW’s and one Grama

sevaka are responsible to implement the programme at the

block level.

10. Project officer of DRDA remains the coordinating officer

at district level; and the BDO at the block level.

11. The main financial assistance is provided by the central

government’

12. The groups utilize grants for various purposes such as to

build up infrastructural support and marketing facilities,

 purchase of raw materials, purchase of training kits,

equipment for child care facilities.

13. DWCRA is to improve the socio economic conditions of

women and children in rural areas, it is important to train

women in viable activities such as tailoring, Knitting, bamboo

making, fishing, soap making, candle making and pottery etc.

Intensive Agricultural
Development Programme (IADP)

 Popularly known as "PACKAGE PROGRAMME" was launched

in the country from Kharif 1960. The central idea behind the

IADP was that increased agricultural productivity shall lead

to economic growth, which shall bring welfare to the society.

The method adopted in IADP was to demonstrate in feasibility

of increased agricultural production rapidly by concentrating

on all factors of production at the same time in an integrated

action programme in selected areas fulfilling optimum

conditions.

 The programme was popularly known as "PACKAGE

PROGRAMME" because of the collective and simultaneous

application of all improved practices : namely improved

seeds. irrigation, fertilizer. plant protection, implements,

storage facilities, marketing facilities and credit etc,

 Initially 7 districts were covered under this programme

namely (I) Thanjavur (TN). (2) West Godavari (AP). (3)

Sahabad (Bihar), (4) Raipur (MP), (5) Aligarh (UP), (6)

Ludhiana (Punjab). (7) Pali (Rajasthan). During Kharif of19W,

additional 9 districts covered were (I) Alleppy (Kerala), (2)

Palghat (Kerala), (3) Mandya (Karnataka), (4) Surat (Gujarat),

 (5) Sambalpur (Orissa), (6) Burdavan (W.B.), (7) Cachar

(Assam), (8) Bhandara (Maharashtra), (9) Six blocks in (J &

K).

 The central idea of IADP was that increased agricultural

productivity shall lead to economic growth which shall bring

welfare to the society.

Achievements

1. The cultivators were provided simultaneously with all

supplies and services at right time and in adequate quantities

through co¬operatives.

2. Marketing and storage facilities were developed within

bullock cart distance.

3. Covered all the important cash crop grown in the district,

although emphasis was laid in the increase of food grains

crops.

4. Rapid increases in agricultural production were achieved

in all the IADP districts.

5. Involvement of small farmers and package approach was

achieved.

6. 45% of the village and 30% of the total cultivated area in

the selected district was covered by this programme.

7. Intensive efforts were made to use improved seeds and

fertilizers over the entire area and encourage the adoption of

improved farm practices.

 The short coming of the IADP were

• Educational approach to reach the cultivators was lacking.

• Training programme of staff was not clear, the VLW's were

not able (6- impress the farmers.

• Staff was not clear about the methods to reach the

cultivators. The staffs were target oriented even in filling up

agricultural production plans.

• Posting of staff were not adequate and timely.

• Workshop seed testing and soil testing laboratories were

not functioning to the required level.

• There was problem of communication

• Co-operative were not functioning well

• Transport and land development programmes were not

progressing satisfactorily.

• There was lack of action research.

• Very little participation by women in the programme.

Intensive Agriculture Area Programme

(IAAP)

 Even with the short coming of IADP, the spectacular results

in improved crop yield obtained in IADP, prompted the

Government to think of extending the benefits of improved

technology in agriculture in large areas over the country at

 less cost and with reduced staff strength. This resulted in

launching of the INTENSIVE AGRICULTURAL AREA

PROGRAMMES (IAAP) in 1964. This was similar to but a less

intensive extension programme in comparison to that of the

IADP. 114 districts were selected in the year 1964 and later

extended to 150 districts.

Achievements

• Achieved increased production by exploiting the land

resources.

• Package approach were covered in 1410 communities

blocks spread over 114 districts in India. In Karnataka 57

C.D. Blocks spread over 14 districts were covered.

• Increased production by 20-25 per cent of the cultivated

area was achieved.

• Effective coordination between officials and nonofficial was

achieved.

• Multiplication of improved seeds and its distribution to all

cultivated areas was possible.

Difference between IAAP and IADP

IADP IAAP

ctive of the IADP was to implement the improved farm practices The objective of the IAAP was to extend the concept o
potential areas to increase the production other potential areas to cover at least 20-25% of the cul
the country.

me was recommended by a team of Food Ford foundation experts This programme was recommended by the third Five Y
 term appraisal committee.

ria for selection of the districts was based on areas having assured The main criteria for selection of districts was based on
ities minimum natural hazards and well developed cooperatives predominant crops and well developed infrastructure fa

districts including Mandya and Raichur were covered under this One hundred and fifty districts including fourteen distr
Karnataka were covered under these programmes.
umber of personnel working in each community block were  Number of personnel working in each com
LW's -10 block were
EO - 1  VLW's -10
M's - 2  AEO - 1
sponsible for the whole district)  SM's - 2
(similar to IADP)

ommunity Development Programme

DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY

A community consists of persons in social interaction within a

geographical area and having one or more additional

communities.

Definition of Community Development: Here are few of

the many definitions of the term.

 Community development is a movement designed to promote

better living for the whole community with the active

participation and on the initiative of the community.

 Community Development is a balance programme for

stimulating the local potential for growth in every direction.

Its promise of reciprocal advance in both wealth and welfare,

not on the basis of outside charity but by building on the

latent vitality of the beneficiaries themselves with the

minimum of outside aid.

 Community Development is technically-aided and locally

organized self-help.

 The term "Community Development" has come into

international usage to denote the process by which th be

efforts of the people themselves are united with those of

governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and

cultural condition of the communities to integrate these

communities in the life of the nation and to enable them to

contribute fully to national progress.

 Community development is the term used to describe the

technique many governments has adopted to reach their

village people and to make more effective of local initiative

and energy community organize themselves for planning;

make group and individual plants to meet their needs and

solve their problems; execute these plants with a maximum

of reliance upon community resources; and supplement these

resources when necessary, with services & materials from

governmental & non-governmental agencies outside the

community.

 Both the method & process: community development is

considered to be method as well as process. It is the method

of helping local communities to become more aware of there

needs to assess their resources more realistically, to organize

themselves & resources in such a way as to satisfy some of

their needs through occasional projects so that villagers are

unable to their own efforts to move steadily towards the goal

of self-improvement.

MEANING
 The CDP was launched in India on 2"d October, 1952 with 55

community development project (CDPS). Each project had on

operational area to 500 square miles, comprising 300 villages

and a population of about 2lakhs. The project area was

divided into 3 development blocks, each consisting of about

100 villages and a population of 60-70 thousand. The project

was headed by a Project Officer, and a number of subject

maser Extension Officers in the disciplines of agriculture,

animal husbandry, cooperation, industries, rural engineering,

social education etc.

 Each project had about 60 multi-purpose village level

workers (VLWs), one for each group of 5 to 10 villages. They

were government appointed extension functionary at the

lowest level, who were nearest to the departments engaged

in rural development work. The people in all the project area

responded enthusiastically and the need for a rapid

expansion of the programme to other parts of the country

was urgently felt. Limited resources, however, did not permit

a rapid expansion of the CD projects.

 A year later, in 1953 the national extension service (NES)

programme was launched with the idea of having wider

coverage at less cost and more people's participation. Each

NES block was headed by a block development officer (BDO)

and had a number of extensions of officers (Eos). For the NES

block funds were drastically reduced and the number of

multipurpose VLWs was brought to 10.

 It was a major development in the share in rural

reconstruction in India. Since the basic idea underlying both

 CD and NES programs was the same, the two were

integrated under one agency at the centre as well as in the

state. Both the programmes were complementary and

interwoven and concurrently. NES was viewed as the

permanent setup for extension in the content & it was

intended to cover the entire country with an organization for

agriculture & rural development within a period of about 10

years.

 The momentum gained by the NES programme was

intensified by converting some selected NES block to CDP.

The programme was initiated in 1954. The NES blocks which

produced good results and where peoples participation had

been in abundance, were selected for the purpose.

Community development programme

PHILOSOPHY

 Communities of people can develop capacity to deal-with

their own problems

 People want change can change.

 People should participate in making, adjusting or controlling

the major changes taking place in their communities.

 Changes in community living that are self— imposed or self—

developed have a meaning and permanence that imposed

changes do not have

 A ‘holistic approach' can deal successfully with problems,

with which a fragmented approach' cannot cope.

 Democracy requires the people's co- operative participation

action in the affairs of the community; the people must learn

the skill- which makes this possible.

 Frequently communities of people need help in organizing to

deal-with their needs, just as many individuals require help in

coping with their individual problems.

PRINCIPLE

 The 'United Nations economy & social- council- as been

trying to define such principles concepts of community

development as will be acceptable to all its members — states

& which they should agree to implement as far as possible.

 The objective is that plans for international- aid to

programmes of community development should be

formulated in terms of these principles & concepts. In one of

the councils reports the basic elements of guiding principles

of community policies & programmes were summarized as

follows:

1. Activities under taken must correspond to the

basic needs of the community; the first project

should be initiated in response to the expressed

needs of the people.

2. Local improvements may be achieved through

unrelated efforts in each substantive; field

however, full and balanced community

development require concerted action the

establishment of multipurpose programmes.

3. Changed attitudes in people are as important

as the material achievement of community project

during the initial- stages of development.

4. Community development aims at increased &

better participation of the people in community

affairs, revitalization of existing forms of focal

govt. transition towards effective focal-

administration where it is not yet functioning.

5. The identification, encouragement training of

focal-leadership should be a basic objective in any

programme.

6. Greater reliance on the participation of women

e youth in community project invigorates

 development programmes, establishes them on a

wide basis & secure long range expansion.

7. To be fully effective, self-help projects for

communities require both intensive and extensive

assistance by the government.

8. Implementation of community development

programme on a national- scale requires adoption

of consistent policies, specific administrative

arrangement Recruitment and training of

personnel, mobilization of focal and national

resources and organization of research,

experimentation and evaluation.

9. 'The resources of voluntary non-governmental

organizations should be fully utilized in

community development programmes at the

focal; national and international level Economic

and social progress at the focal &vet necessitates

parallel development on a wider national scale.

OBJECTIVES
 The fundamental or basic objective of community

development in India is the development of people of

“Destination Man”

Its broad objectives are:

I. Economic development.

II. Social-justice and

III. Democratic growth.

 The attempt is to secure as good a balance as

possible among these three objectives and to

inter-relate them in a manner that they support

one another.

More specifically, objectives of the community

development programmes are:

 To assist each village in having effective panchayats,

cooperatives & schools;

 Through these village institutions, Plan and carry out

integrated multi-phased family, village, block and district

plans for.

A) increasing agricultural-production.

B) improving existing village crafts & industries

& organizing new ones.

 C) providing minimum essential- hearth services

& improving health practices.

D) providing required educational facilities for

children and an adult education programme

E) providing recreational facilities &

programmes.

F) improving housing and family living conditions,

and

G) providing programmes for village women &

youth.

Post Independence era: Firka Development

Project

 Gandhian ideals of simplicity, non-violence and sanctity of

labour did not only evoked response in the Northern parts of

the country, but also in the south, where in a Govt. sponsored

scheme it aimed at the attainment of the Gandhian ideal of

Gram Swaraj by bringing about not only educational,

economic, sanitary and other improvements in villages, but

also by making the people self-confident. The scheme was

launched in the last quarter of 1946 in 34 Firkas throughout

the State and on April 1, 1950, it was extended to another 50

additional Firkas, at the rate of two Firkas for each distinct.

 The section of the Firkas was based on considerations of the

general backwardness of the area and the possibilities for

initiating the production of handloom cloth and other cottage

industries to give a Philip to Rural Reconstruction.

 Like any other Gandhian scheme of Rural Reconstruction this

scheme too aimed at attacking the rural problems as a whole,

as well as in parts, consisted of short term plans for the

development of rural communications, water supply,

formation of Panchayats, organization of cooperatives and

programmes for sanitation, as also long-term plans to make

The area self-sufficient through agricultural, irrigational and

livestock improvements, and the development of Khadi (hand-

made cloth) and other Cottage Industries to make the rural

life sufficient.

 The Collector, who was primarily responsible to see the

successful working of the scheme, is the district. He was

assisted by a rural welfare officer of the rank of Naib

Tehsildar, who was put incharge of 2-3 selected Firkas. Each

Firka was divided into 5 to 10 groups of villages which were

put in the charge of Gram Sevak who were of the rank of

Revenue Inspectors. Each Firka or group of Firkas was

provided with special staff like agricultural field man,

administrative officers, Ministers, P.W.D. Supervisors and

minor irrigation overseers. To associate the people with the

implementation of the programme, Development committees,

consisting of officials, were constituted in each Firka. At the

State level, there was a State Rural Welfare Board

 comprising the heads of the Departments and influential and

constructive social workers.

High yielding variety programme (HYVP)

 HIGH YIELDING VARIETY PROGRAMME (HYVP) was

launched in 1966, which helped the country in attaining self-

sufficiency in food. The technological development did not

remain confined to the introduction of high yielding crop

varieties alone. These were combined with the application of

high analysis and balanced fertilizer, irrigation, plant

protection, improved implements etc. which made a 'Green

Revolution' possible in the country.

 Agricultural scientists found successful in evolving new high

yielding varieties in some cereals particularly in wheat, rice

& maize, Punjab, Haryana & Western parts of UP were

initially selected for this programme.

 The pervasive influence of high yielding technology spread to

other area as of farm production such as animal production,

fishery, sericulture, social forestry etc. The high yielding

technologies in these production enterprises also have some

common characteristics such as shorter gestation period,

good response with better management; higher return fan

terms of yield and income, and higher investment in

comparison to traditional technologies.

 High yielding technologies by themselves tend to be scale

neutral i.e. farmers irrespective of the size of their holding

can derive economic benefit from them provided they have

access to the needed inputs. However, high yielding

 technologies are not resource neutral. In other words more

inputs are required for higher output.

Objectives

i) To assess the spread of the various high yielding varieties

in different parts of the country and also determine the extent

of such spread;

ii) To ascertain the reactions, attitudes of

cultivators/participating cultivators; and

iii) To study the problems of implementation of the

programme at different level of administration such as

States, district, block and village.

iv) Besides above, the study also covered certain other

important and relevant aspects such as research efforts in

evolving of new varieties.

Lab to land Programme (LLP)

 Launched in 1979 as a part of golden jubilee celebrations of

ICAR. The programme intended to improve the economic

condition of small, marginal farmers and landless agricultural

labourers fast…. SC’s and ST’s by transfer of improved

technology developed by agricultural universities and

research institutions.
  Broad objectives of the programme

The specific objectives of the Lab to Land Project are as

follows:

1. To study and understand the background and resources of

the selected farmers and landless agricultural labourers. To

introduce low cost relevant agricultural and allied

technologies on their farms/houses for increasing their

employment production and income.

2. To assist the farmers to develop feasible farm plants

keeping in view the availability of technologies, needs and

resources of the farmers, and the resources which could be

made available from external sources/agencies.

3. To guide and help the farmers in adopting improved

technologies as per their farm plans and demonstrate to them

the economic viability of those technologies as well as

methods of cultivation and farm management.

4. To organize training programmes and other extension

activities in relation to their adopted practices, and prepare

them for active participation in agricultural development

programmes of the state departments of agriculture.

5. To make the farmers aware of the various opportunities

and agencies which they could utilize to their economic

advantage.
 6. To develop functional relations and linkages with the

scientists/Institutions for future guidance, advisory services

and help.

7. To utilize this project as a feedback mechanism for the

agricultural scientists and extension functionaries.

Criteria for selection of participating farm

family

1. Blocks/villages/farm families should preferably be selected

from IAD blocks.

2. Villages having larger proportion of families belonging to

categories of SF, MF, LL, SC and ST to be selected.

3. Selected villages should be on a cluster village basis and

proximity to the implementing agency to be kept in mind for

effective implementation of the programme.

4. While selecting villages, existence of schools, co-operative

society, effective village panchayats should be kept in mind.

Small farmers: Cultivators with land holding 2.5 to 5 acres of

dry land (1.25 to 2.5 acres of irrigated land).

Marginal farmers: Cultivators with land holding up to 2.5

acres of dry land (1.25 acres of irrigated land).

Agricultural Labourer: Without any land holdings but

having a homestead and drawing more then 50% of their

income as agricultural wages.

Organization

 For effective implementation and monitoring of the

programme, whole country is divided into 8 zones based on

 agro climatic conditions, population and administrative

infrastructure. Each zone is headed by a zonal co-ordinator,

who is assisted by two programme officers. The labs to land

canters are the grassroot level units for implementation of

the programme.

 A programme coordinator for each lab to land centres will

head the team of specialists drawn from various disciplines

viz., agriculture, veterinary science, fisheries, home science

etc., which is constituted by the implementing agency.

 A zonal advisory committee consisting of the representatives

of the participating agencies, state departments like

agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery and rural development

meets 2 to 3 times a year for guiding and making appraisal of

the programme at the zonal level. Four types of implementing

agencies are involved in the programme.

1. Agricultural university

2. ICAR Institutes

3. State department of agriculture

4. Voluntary organization

Krishi Vigyan Kendra(KVK)

 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is an innovative science based

institution which undertakes vocational training of farmers,

farm women and rural youths; conducts on farm research for

technology refinement and front line demonstrations to

promptly demonstrate the latest agricultural technologies to

the farmers as well as the extension workers. The KVK

 functions on the principles of collaborative participation of

scientists, subject matter experts, extension workers and

farmers.

 Imparting learning through “work experience” to those who

are engaged in farming is the main purpose of KVKs. The

syllabus and programme of each KVK is tailored to the felt

needs of the farmers, resources and potential for agricultural

growth in a particular area. “Teaching by doing” and

“learning by doing” are the main methods of imparting skill

training. The first KVK was established in 1974 in

Pondicherry under Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

(TNAU).

 Recently there has been a shift in the approach and

objectives of the KVK. While initially the emphasis was mainly

on ‘human resource development through training the

farmers and extension workers, now the KVKs also

participate in the process of agri-technology development and

refinement. Emphasis is also on employment generation to

bring about equality of opportunities for socio-economically

deprived class of farmers and traditionally back-ward areas in

the country including dry land areas.

 In the present context of agricultural development where

participation of farmers and extension agencies has become

imperative in the technology generation process, the

mandate of the KVKs has been widened to encompass on

farm research and frontline demonstrations. The detailed

mandates are as follows.

 1. Collaborate with the subject matter specialists

of the state Agricultural universities/Scientists of

the regional research station, NAEP and the state

extension personnel in “on farm testing”, refining

and documenting technologies for developing

region-specific sustainable land use systems.

2. Organize training to update the extension

personnel within the area of operation with

emerging advances in agricultural research on

regular basis.

3. Organize long term vocational training courses

in agriculture and allied vocations for the rural

youths with emphasis on “learning by doing” for

generating self employment through institutional

financing.

4. Organize front-line demonstration in various

crops to generate production data and feedback

information.

 The KVK is a fully fledged institution consisting of its own

buildings – demonstration farm and units, equipments,

vehicles etc. The building facilities include main KVK

building, farmers hostel, staff quarters and demonstration

 units. The demonstration farm is normally laid down on the

20 hectares farm land.

 Based on the mandates, the following activities are

performed.

1. On-farm research

2. In service training

3. Vocational training of farmers, farm women, rural youths

etc.

4. Front line demonstration and other extension activities.

(1) On-Farm Research (OFR)

 On farm research is an adaptive research which is conducted

on farmers fields by the farmers with the support from

scientists/subject-matter specialists. It is conducted with a

farming systems perspective.

 The main objective of OFR is to identify existing inputs of

practices that might help solve major problems of many

farmers in a defined study area. Farming system perspective

implies “ seeing things from the farmers viewpoints”.

(2) In service training

 The KVKs has been given the responsibility of conducting in

service training of grass route level extension workers like

VEWs and others working in Government and non

Government development organizations.

 This training programmes are normally arranged in

collaboration with the state department of agriculture and

state agricultural university. The importance of such training

 programmes has increased since the introduction of a

Panchayat Raj System in the country.

(3) Vocational training of farmers

 This had been the major mandate of the KVKs in the past and

will continue to be so in future as well. The objective is to

organize long term vocation based and skill oriented training

for farmers, farm women, rural youths and school drop-outs

so that they could adopt new methods of farming and

increase farm income thus, the emphasis is not on crops but

on vocations.

 The potential trainees are selected by the KVK staff in

consultation with the district development departments.

(4) Front line demonstrations (FLD) and other extensional

activities

 The KVKs organize front line demonstrations which aim at

demonstrating the production the potentialities of newly

released and pre-released production technologies of cereals,

pulses and oil seeds and farmers fields.

 These are called frontline demonstrations because the

technologies are demonstrated for the first time before being

fed into the main extension system. The KVKs have also been

given the responsibility of conducting at least some good

integrated farming system demonstration which could serve

as model for extension agencies.

National Demonstration (ND)
 National Demonstration is a programme based on the

concept of increasing the productivity per unit area and time

by using proven agricultural technology. ICAR’s National

demonstration programme on major food crops was launched

in 1964.

 The basic purpose of programme was to show the genetic

production potentiality of new technology of major crops per

unit of land and per unit of time and to encourage the

farmers to adopt and popularise the technologies for

accelerating production and improved cultivation practices.

Objective

The main objective of this programmes are

1. To demonstrate convincingly to farmers the production

potentialities of a unit area of the land by using high yielding

varieties of crops and adopting a multiple cropping

programme with full package of practices such as balanced

use of fertilisers and effective water management techniques.

2. To demonstrate use of implement for different operations

and use of soil testing laboratories for use of balanced

fertiliser doses.

3. To fully exploit these demonstrations for the purpose of

training farmers in improved cultivation practices and to use

them as recognised and effective audio visual aids for the

flow of latest research technology and results to farmers.

 4. To provide research workers a first hand knowledge of the

problems faced by farmers in growing high yielding varieties

and to identify the constraints limiting the crop production.

5. To minimise the time lag between the research generated

and its application in field.

 The performance of high yielding varieties of cereals was

very promising but its full production potential was not

demonstrated on a large scale to the farmers. Higher yields

obtained on the research station did not impress the farmers.

Who preferred to see the performance of these varieties on

their own farms. Moreover, the scientists were looking for

scientific feedback from field which would ultimately help

them further refine the technology.

 At this juncture in 1965-66 the ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India initiated a nationwide programme in

which demonstrations are connected on farmer’s fields. This

was the beginning of National Demonstration project (NDP).

Demonstrations under this project were carried out mainly by

the scientists of the SAU’s and ICAR institutes in

neighbouring villages. The scientists were required to

demonstrate the potentiality of new seeds and package of

practice on an area varying from 0.4 ha to 1.0 ha on farmers

field single crop demonstration are carried out for crops like

wheat, paddy, sorghum, pearl millet and maize.

Procedure to conduct national demonstration

 A demonstration has to be conducted on 0.4 ha land for full 1

year. Yield target of 9 tonns of food grains for two crop per

year per ha had been fixed. If achieved the difference in the

yield levels show the gap between how much is produced and

how much can be produced and how much can be produced

by the farmers. A sum of Rs. 500 per year for three crops

(Multiple demonstrations) was given for meeting the cost of

critical inputs. For the first crop the amount was Rs. 200 and

for subsequent crops Rs. 150 each has been embarked.

 The NDP was implemented at district level by a team of 4

subject matter specialists. Who were entrusted with the

responsibilities to conduct the demonstration on farmers

field. They also organise field days at the time when

important field operations were performed. Thus a large

number of farmers got educated about new technology

demonstrated on farmers field.

 In all 25 demonstrations per season were laid on the farmers

field in each district. Very intensive cropping system

techniques of soil and water management including use of

machinery and plant protection were demonstrated under

National Demonstration Project (NDP). Thus these

demonstration served as pace settlers which are the first

demonstrations and are to be emulated by local extension

workers and farmers.

Front Line Demonstration(FLD)

 The main objective is to demonstrate the production

potentiality of improved package of various crops under the

 farmers conditions and resources. The FLD’s are conducted

on various major crops of the district viz., sorghum, maize,

pigeon pea, castor, paddy etc. the main emphasis was to

introduce new crop genotypes along with improved practices

and critical inputs which were new and hitherto not adopted

by the farmers. However, during FLD’s programme emphasis

was given to increase production and productivity of major oil

seeds, pulses cereals and other crops keeping in view the

importance given to these crops at national level. The

Rangareddy district, the mandatory area for the KVK is

characterized by rainfed cultivation mostly 87 %. There is

considerable area under paddy which is being cultivated by

farmers by utilizing the ground water irrigation.

 Before the starting of the season, crop wise meeting are used

to be held in the village by which KVK staff gets an

opportunity to assess the situation and select demonstrator

farmers for each crop. The input requirements are worked

out for each participating farmer. Next, preseason training

programmes areused to be conducted in the village itself.

 Another way of preparing the farmers for FLD is to

intensively visit the corners of village and selecting and spot

if any farmer who is interested in the adopting of a particular

technology. The selection of a good demonstrator may pose a

problem if there is competition among the farmers. The

situation arises out of this can be settled by following the set

criteria for conducting FLD’s farmer who comes forward

voluntarily to join the programmes without expecting any

critical inputs are given importance. Another method is to

 forge functional linkages with line departments like

agriculture and NGO’s who helps KVK in extending the FLD

in different parts of the district. This is for mutual advantage

and farmers will get needed help from

different organization at the same time.

 Another aspect of conducting FLD’s is in large numbers in a

bigger area spreading over different blocks in the district.

This helped the KVK especially in expanding the area under

maize crop in a shorter period. The number of FLD’s are

more and large number of farmers are participating, the rate

of adoption was found to be faster and higher as it happened

in case of maize. Due to this the time lag between

introduction of technology and its adoption is also proved to

be less. However, this can be achieved only if resources are

made available to cover a large number of farmers.

Appropriate Technology

In order to demonstrate the potential technologies suitable to

cropping system of the KVK operational area and also to

achieve the natural goal of increasing oil seeds and pulse

production in the country. Attention was given towards the

following for educating the farmers.

• Timely supply of quality seed to increase seed replacement

ratio.

• Specific management practices with special emphasis on

low cost technologies.

• INM with greater emphasis on biofertiliser sulphur

 • IPM with botanicals and biopesticides.

• Use of new HYV, use of nutrients, efficient water use, plant

protection etc.

Technology assessment and refinement

programme (TARP)

 The Indian council of Agricultural Research launched an

innovative technology assessment and refinement

Programme called Institutions Village Linkage Programme

(IVLP) during 1995. The concept is based on participatory

modes ensuring greater linkage between scientist and farmer

in a bottom up approach.

 It ensures access to agricultural technologies generated by

the entire ICAR institutes or SAU or by the entire agricultural

research in the country to the farming community in a village

or a cluster of villages representing around 1000 farm

families.

Objectives

The specific objectives of the programme are

1. To introduce technological interventions, with emphasis on

stability and sustainability along with productivity for small

farm –production system.

2. To introduce and integrate appropriate technologies to

sustain productivity and profitability, taking environmental

issues into consideration in a comparatively well defined

production system. 3. To increase the agricultural

 productivity with marketable surplus in commercial farm

production system with on and off –farm value addition.

4. To facilitate adoption of appropriate post harvest

technologies for conservation and on – farm value addition of

agricultural products, by products and wastes for greater

economic dividend.

5. To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for

removal of drudgery, increased efficiency and higher income

of farm women.

6. To monitor socio-economic impact of the technological

intervention for different production system.

7. To identify extra pollution domains for new technology or

technology modular based on environmental characterisation

at micro and macro levels.

8. Organising PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal).

Specific aims of the project

 In this programme there is change in the concept and

philosophy as well as in application of methodologies that are

different from the conventional methods and tools used in the

research process. In this paradigm the concept of agro econ

system analysis using participatory rural appraisal (PRA)

tools are used instead of conventional survey research.

 Its basic idea is that community itself based on its rich

experiences should characterise its own resources, situation

and problems, should identify the areas of activity, keeping

 its own goals and requirements into consideration; should

develop the programme for technology assessment, and

should finally refine the technology suiting its own condition

and requirements.
Meaning of Communication

 The word ‘communication’ comes from the Latin

‘communis’ meaning ‘common’. This implies that when we

communicate. We are trying to establish ‘communality’ with

someone through a message.

 Communication then is a conscious attempt to establish

commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like with

other. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a

receiver tuned together for a particular message or series

of message.

 The word communication has many different meanings for

different persons. According to Webster’s new world

dictionary communication means, transmitting giving and

receiving of information, signals or messages by talk,

gestures, writing etc.

 However in this publication we will be concerned with this

concept only as a science or art of communicating as a

branch of study and that too in relation to communication in

between human beings only.

Meaning of Communication

• Communication making/establish commonness between

sender and receiver

 • Interchanging ideas, feelings, facts between two or more

people.

• It helps to movement of know-how.

• It is also called learning process.

Defination of Communication

 Communication word derived from Latin word communis

which means “common” Communication as the process by

which 2 or more people exchange their ideas, facts and

feelings in a way that each gains a common understanding of

the meaning, intent and use of message (Legans).

 Communication is a movement of knowledge between 2 or

more personality in order to achieve the expected results

(Winfield).

 Communication is the process of interchanging the ideas

opinions, experiences between 2 or more persons (Stevans).

 Communication is a deliberate attempt on the part of the

communications inorder to felicitate to expected response

from the others (Bellinghass).

 Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that

carries a message from one person to another (Broller,

1949).

 Communication is the discriminatory response of an

organism to stimulus (Stevans, 1942).

 Communication is the mutual interchange of ideas by any

effective means (Thayer, 1968).

 Communication is the control of behavior through discipline

and reinforcing stimuli (Hastman, 1966).

 Communication is the process of effecting an idea

interchange of understanding between 2 or more people

(Thayer, 1968).

 Communication is the arrangement of environmental

stimulus to produce certain desired behaviour on the part of

the organisms (Thayer, 1968).

 Communication occurs when two corresponding system

coupled together through one or more non –corresponding

systems assume identical status as a result of single transfer

along the chain, we are trying to established commonness

(Schramm).
Elements of Communication

I. COMMUNICATOR

 In the context of agricultural and rural development

extension worker/extension functionaries/change agent is the

communicator who starts the process of communication. The

extension worker and mass media like radio are sometimes

visualised as sources or originators of message, which is not

correct. Knowledge generates through research and as such

the research institutes, research projects.

 Agricultural Universities are the originators or sources

of message. The extension worker obtains the required

 information from research and carries it to the audience, the

farmers. To enhance the process, he may take the help of

some aids, known as audio-visual aids. He also carries back

the reactions of the farmers, their problems etc. as feedback

information to research for finding out solutions for the same.

 The credibility of the communicator and the organisation he

represents is important for effective communication.

Credibility means trust worthiness and competence. Before

the audience accepts any message will judge whether

communicator and the organisation can be relied on and is

competent enough to give the information, who tells is,

therefore, very important in extension communication.

The characteristics of a good communicator are

He knows

i. His objectives –have them specifically defined.

ii. His audience – their needs, interests, abilities,

predispositions

iii. His message – its content, validity, usefulness,

importance

iv. Channels that will reach the audience and their

usefulness

v. How to organise and treat his message

vi. His professional abilities and limitations.

He is interested in

i. His audience and its welfare

ii. His message and how it can help people

iii. The results of communication and their evaluation

iv. The communication process

v. The communication channels – their proper use and

limitations.

vi. How to improve his communication skills.

He prepares

i. A plan for communication – a teaching plan

ii. Communication materials and equipments

iii. A plan for evaluation of results

He has a skill in

i. Selecting messages

ii. Treating messages

iii. Expressing messages – verbal and written

iv. The selection and use of channels

v. Understanding his audience

vi. Collecting evidence of results.

Poor communicators on the other hand

1. Fail to have ideas to present that are really useful to

the audience

2. Fail to give the complete story and show its relationship

to people’s problems.

3. Forget that time and energy are needed to absorb the

material presented.

4. Feel they are always clearly understood

5. Refuse to adjust to close minds

6. Talk while others are not listening

7. Audience understanding

8. Fail to recognise others view point and develop

presentation accordingly.

9. Fail to recognise that communication is a two way

process.

10. Let their own biases over influence the presentation

11. Fail to see that everyone understand questions brought

up for discussions.

12. Fail to provide a permissive atmosphere

 13. Disregard the values, customs, prejudices and habits of

people with whom they attempt to communicate.

14. Fail to start where people are, with respect to

knowledge, skill, interest and need.

Message

II. MESSAGE

 The recommendations from research, the technology

constitute the content or subject matter, the message

information’s which are relevant to a particular set

of audience constitute the message, otherwise for them they

are ‘noise’. A good message should clearly state what to do,

how to do, when to do and what would be the result.

 To produce desirable changes in human behaviour, the

message must be motivating. Messages which are relevant,

interesting behaviour, the useful, profitable, credible (Latest

and best on research findings) and complete (Neither too

much, nor too little) are likely to motivate the people.

A good message must be

i. In line with the objective to be obtained.

ii. Clearly understandable by the audience

iii. In line with the mental, social, economic and physical

capabilities of the audience.

iv. Significant –economically, socially or aesthetically to the

needs interests and values of the audience.

v. Specific – no irrelevant materials

vi. Simply stated –covering only one point at a time.

vii. Accurate – scientifically sound, factual and current

viii. Timely – Especially when seasonal factors are

important and issues are current.

ix. Supported by factual material covering both sides of the

agreement

x. Appropriate to the channel selected.

xi. Appealing and attractive to the audience-having utility

immediate use.

xii. Applicable – audience can apply recommendation

xiii. Appealing and attractive, adequate – combining

principle and practice in effective proportion

xiv. Manageable - can be handled by the communicator

and within limits of time.

In contrast, poor communication often

i. Fail to clearly separate the key message from the

supporting content or subject matter.

ii. Fail to prepare and organise their message properly.

 iii. Use inaccurate or fuzzy symbols –words, visual or real

objects to represent the message.

iv. Fail to select messages that are sharply in line with the

felt needs of the audience.

v. Fail to present the message objectively – present to

material, often biased, to support only one side of the

proposition.

vi. Fail to view the message from the standpoint of

the audience.

vii. Fail to time the message properly within a presentation

or within a total programme.

Channel

III. CHANNEL

 Channel of communication constitutes the medium through

which information flows from a sender to one or more

receivers. Face to face, word of mouth is the simplest and yet

one of the most widely use and effective means of

communication, particularly for the developing countries.

 As society changes from traditional to modern, the

communication channel changes from oral to media system.

Because of the large member of audience or receivers of

information and because of physical distance of the

communicator and the receivers of information, it is

necessary to use different media of communication. Even in

interpersonal, face to face, word to mouth communication, it

becomes necessary to use some aids to make communication

more effective.

The channels of communication may be classified into a

number of ways according to different criteria.

According to form

Spoken: Farm and home visit, office call, meeting of all kinds,

radio talk etc.

Written: Personal letter, farm publications, news paper etc.

According to nature of personnel involved

Personal localite :

They are the local leaders and local people who belong to

receivers own social system. Personal localite channels are

important in traditional social system.

Personal cosmopolite :

These are the channels of communication from outside the

social system of the receiver. They are the extension workers

of various organisations and are important in changing the

farmers from traditional to modern.

Impersonal cosmopolite :
Here the channels of communication are from outside the

social system of the receiver and at the same time no

personal face to face contact is involved. These are mass

media, which are important in areas of high urban influence

and farmers who are modern or are changing from traditional

to modern.

According to nature of contact with the people

Individual contact :

The extension worker communicates with the people

individually, maintaining separate identity of each person.

Examples are farm and home visit, office call, personal letter

etc.

Group contact :

The extension worker communicates with the people in

groups are not as individual persons.

Examples are group meeting, small group training, field day

or field visit, study tour etc.

Mass contact :

The extension worker communicates with a mass of people

without taking into consideration, their individual or group

identity.

Examples are mass meeting, campaign, exhibition, radio,

television etc.
 Treatment of Message

IV. TREATMENT OF MESSAGE

 Treatment means the way a message is handled, so that the

information gets across the audience. It relates to the

techniques or details of procedure or manner of performance,

essential to effective presentation of the message clear,

understandable and realistic to the audience.

 Treatment of the message by the communicator shall depend

to a great extent on choice of the channel and the nature

of audience. The task cannot be reduced to a formula or

recipe. Treatment is a creative task that has to be tailor-made

for each communication function.

 For example, treatment of a message will be different to

when it is conveyed in a meeting or published in a folder or

telecast. Similarly, there will be difference in the treatment of

the message according to the level of literacy, socio-economic

condition and degree of progressiveness of the audience.

 Designing treatments usually requires original thinking, deep

insight into the principles of human behaviour and skill in

creating and using refined techniques

of message presentation.
The following are the categories of bases useful for varying

treatment.

Matters of general organisation

1. Repetition or frequency of ideas and concepts.

2. Contrast of ideas.

3. Chronological compared to logical and psychological.

4. Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue.

5. Emotional compared to logical appeals.

6. Starting with strong arguments compared to them until

the end of presentation.

7. Inductive compared to deductive.

8. Proceeding from the general to the specific and vice

versa.

9. Explicit drawing conclusions compared to leaving

conclusions implicit for the audience to draw.

Matters of speaking and acting

1. Limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and

to the time allotted. Too many ideas at one time are

confusing.

2. Be yourself, you can’t be anyone else. Strive to be clear,

not clever.
 3. Know the facts, fuzziness means sure death to a message

4. Don’t read your speech. People have more perfect for a

communicator who talks to the audience.

5. Know the audience. Each audience has its own

personality, be responsive to it.

6. Avoid being condescending (Patronising). Do not talk or

act down to people, or over their heads. Good treatment of

messages result in hitting the target. Never overestimate

the knowledge of an audience or underestimate its

intelligence.

7. Decide on the dramatic effect desired. Effective

treatment required sincerity, smoothness, enthusiastic,

warmth, flexibility and appropriateness of voice, gestures,

movements and tempo.

Audience

V. AUDIENCE

 The audience or receiver of message is the target of

communication function. An audience may consist of a single

person or a number of persons. It may comprise men, women

and youth. An audience may be formed according to

occupation groups such as field crop farmers, fruit growing

farmers, dairy men, poultry keepers, fish farmers,

 homemakers etc. Audience may also be categorised

according to farm size such as marginal, small, medium or

big farmers or according to farm size whether belong to

scheduled caste, scheduled tribe etc.

 In addition to knowing the identity of an audience and some

of its general characteristics, there are other somewhat more

specified aspects that help to classify the exact nature of an

audience and how to reach it.

 The following are some of these.

1. Communication channels established by the

social organisation.

2. The system of values held by the audience-

custom, tradition etc.

3. Forces influencing group conformity- custom

tradition etc.

4. Individual personality factors – susceptibility to

change etc.

5. Native and acquired abilities

6. Educational, economic and social levels.

7. Pressure of occupational responsibility how

busy or concerned they are

8. People’s needs are as they see them, and as the

 professional communicators see them.

9. Why the audience is in need of changed ways

of thinking, feeling and doing.

10. How the audience views the situation.

Audience Responses

VI. AUDIENCE RESPONSE

 The response of the audience is the ultimate objective, the

goal of any communication function. Response of

an audience to messages received may be in the farm of some

kind of action results, extension communication does not

achieve its most essential objective

• Understanding versus knowledge

• Acceptance versus rejection

• Remembering versus forgetting

• Mental versus physical action

• Right versus wrong

 Extension communication is never complete without feedback

information FEEDBACK means carrying some significant

responses of the audience back to the communicator.

Communication work is not an end itself. The extension

worker i.e. the communicator, should know what happened to

the audience, the farmers, after the message has reached.

Characteristics of the Feedback

• Feedback is source oriented

• Feedback varies in different communication situations.

• Feedback affects the source or communicators

• Feedback exerts control over future messages.

• Feedback affects communication fidelity

• Feedback maintains the stability and equilibrium of a

communication system. .

Model of Communication

According to Aristotle, communication has three

ingredients

1. Speaker – The person who speaks

2. Speech –That he produces and

3. Audience – The person who listens

The Shanon- Weaver (1949) model is consistent with

Aristotle proposition. According to them, the

ingradients of communication are,

1. Source

2. Transmitter

3. Signal

4. Receiver

5. Destination

Compared with the Aristotelian model: The source is the

speaker, the signal is the speech and the destination is

the audience, plus two added ingredients, a transmitter

which sends out the source’s message and receive which

catches the message for the destination.

According to Berlo (1960) the model of communication

consists of

1. Communication source

2. Encoder

3. Message

4. Channel

5. Decoder

6. Communication receiver

 Code is a system of signals for communication. Encode

means to put the message in to code or cipher. Chanel means

the medium through which the signals move and decoder

means which converts the message in code into ordinary

language which may be easily understood.

According to Schramm (1961) the communication

process involves

1. Source

2. Encoder

3. Signal

4. Decoder

5. Destination

The approach appears to the mechanistic as the author deals

with the process and effects of mass communication.

The communication model forwarded by Leagans

(1963) has the following elements

1. Communicator

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Treatment of message

5. Audience

6. Audience response

 The task of communication according to him is to provide

powerful incentives for change. Success at this task requires

thorough understanding of the six elements of

communication. A skilful communicator sending

useful message through a proper channel, effectively treated,

to an appropriate audience that responds as desired.

Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) thought of the

communication process in terms of the S-M-C-R-E model, the

components of which are

1. Source

2. Message

3. Channel

4. Receiver

5. Effects

 According to them a source (S) send a message (M) via

certain channel (C) to the receiving individual (R). Which

causes some effects (E) i.e. changing the existing behaviour

pattern of the receiver.

 Communication, in extension may also be thought of as two

way ‘stimulus response’ situation in which the necessary

stimulus is provided by the communicator, the extension

worker, in the form of a message, which produces certain

response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa. A

favourable response by the audience reinforces learning. A

diagrammatic representation of the extension communication

 system on the basis of the model suggested by Leagans

(1963) is presented.
Audio-Visual AIDS

 The term audio-visual aid has a specific meaning. Literally,

audio refers to sound waves that can normally be heard by

the human ear. However, in the present contest it implies

relating to hearing. Similarly, the term visual implies relating

to sense of receiving. The expression aids implies those

instructional devices or teaching aids which makes teaching

more effective.

 Audio –visual aids are those instructional devices that may be

used by a teacher or a communicator in order to facilitate

better understanding on the part of learners by involving

their many senses, particularly those relating to seeing and

hearing. There is also a saying that a learner remembers 10

% of what he hears. 50 % of what he sees, and 90 % of what

he hears, sees and does. This also explains the obvious

emphasis on seeing and hearing in the use of audio visual

aids.

1. These aids are only to assist the

communication in his job of better teaching. They

are not meant to replace him.

2. For using these aids, the emphasis is on non

verbal experiences.

3. Use of these aids involves many senses of the

 learners, particularly those relating to seeing and

hearing.

4. Audio –Visual aids do not include text books

nor do they imply all teaching materials, teaching

methods, or teaching techniques.

5. Inclusions of audio-visual aids is not

fundamental in a teaching –learning situations,

they should not be used to decorate the learning

situation. Their use is justified only if they

contribute to effective learning.

The Proper Nomenclature

 Audio –visual aids has been called by different names eg:

Instructional aides, multisensory materials, aid to perceptual

learning, audio-visual education, audio visual aids etc. The

terms instructional aides, multisensory materials and aids to

perceptual learning are too broad and general and may

includes many other aids or materials useful for teaching, but

not generally referred to as audio-visual aids. There is no

such thing as audio –visual aids for us.

 These aids are meant to assist the teacher in developing a

better learning on the part of the learner. Audio-visual

materials may also refer to materials such as colourred

papers, pencils etc. that may be used in the preparation of

audio –visual aids. Audio visual techniques again refer to the

various techniques employed by a teacher in the effective use

of an audio-visual aid.
Importance of Audio-Visual AIDS

 Dale has listed the following importance of using audio-

visual aids

1. Reduces the time lag

2. Make learning permanent

3. Add interest and involvement

4. Stimulate self activity

5. Provide direct interest

6. Develop continuity of thought.

7. Develop meaningful vocabulary

8. Enlarge the range of possible experience

9. Teach efficiently

10. Add highly useful variety

11. Improve the effectiveness of other materials.

12. Multiply messages.

 Further Hoban, Finn and Dale (1950) on the basis of a

review of research studies, draw the following conclusions

about the contribution of audio visual aids to teaching.

1. They supply a basis for conceptual thinking and hence

reduce meaningless word responses of learners.

2. They have a high degree of interest for learners.

3. They make learning permanent.

4. They offer a reality of experience which stimulates self

activity on the part of learners.

5. They develop a continuity of thought, which is especially

true of motion pictures, television etc.

6. They contribute to growth of meaning and hence to

vocabulary development.

7. They provide experience not easily obtained through other

materials and contribute to the efficiency, depth and variety

of learning.
 Classification of Audio visual Aids

1. Audio aids: The instructional device through

which message can be only heard are known as audio aids

Examples: Tape recorder, radio and telephone

2. Visual aids: The instructional device through which helps

to visualise the message is known as visual aids

a. Projected visual aids: examples- slides, Over

head projector, power point slides

b. Non projected visual aids: examples-Poster,

charts, graphs, models, specimens, chalkboards,

picture and photographs

c. Display type: Visuals are those which are

spread before the audience for viewing, who get

the message by looking at them.

Examples; Poster, models, exhibits and specimens

 d. Presentation type: Visuals are those presented

or projected before the audience for viewing but

at the same time, one explains or present

the message of the visuals. So that

the message gets a meaningful understanding of

them. Example; Slides, Over head projectors,

charts and power point slides

3. Audio visual aids: The instructional device through which

the message can be heard and seen simultaneously are

known as audio aids

a. Projected Audio visual aids: examples; Video

and cinema

b. Non project Audio visual aids: examples;

Drama, Puppet show and street play

Selection of Audio visual aids

1. Teaching objective

2. Nature of subject matter

3. Nature of audience

4. Size of audience

5. Availability of equipment’s, materials and funds

6. Skill and experience of extension agent in preparation and

use of audios visual aids

 Meaning

 Programme planning is a division of making process which

give direction and intensity to extension education efforts of

extension services to bring about economic, social and

technological change.

 Programme planning is a procedure of working with the

people in an effort to recognise unsatisfactory situation or

problems and determine possible solutions or objectives and

goals. This is a conscious effort to meet the needs interests

and wants of the people for whom the programme is

intended. The elements of people’s needs become a central

concern of planners for rural development.

In making a programme, the following questions give key

orientation and justification:

• What needs do people have?

• How can needs be identified?

• What plans of priority should be set up for

meeting people’s needs?

• What resources are necessary to meet people’s

need?

• How should resources be organised and

directed to help people meet their need?

 In programme planning, we are required to know where we

are now and where we ought to go so that we may better

 judge what to do and how to do it? It gives meaning and

system to action. It prepares the basis for a course of future

action. It is an intentional effort carefully designed to attain

certain specific and predetermined goals assumed to be

important.

1. Extension programme planning is process:

 The dictionary meaning of process is any phenomenon which

shows a continuous change in time or any continuous

operation or treatment. If we accept this concept of process,

we view events and relationship as dynamic, ongoing, ever

changing an continuous. When we label something as a

process we also mean that it does not have a beginning an

end a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. The

basis for the concept of process is the belief that the

structure of physically reality cannot be discovered by man it

must be created by man.

 This definition of process suggests that a process is involved

in which a series of actions culminates in the accomplishment

of goal (Boyle 1965). Viewed in this way, the concept of

process involves a method, i.e., a process should be viewed as

a sequential set of steps or several systematically ordered

steps of planning, the performance of which leads to the

accomplishment of a goal. In extension programme planning,

 the immediate goal would be the development of a

programme document.

 The concept a person has of the extension programme

planning process will affect actions and mode of researching

the process. Many programme planning process take place at

any particular time at different levels of the extension

organisation. For example, programme planning occurs at

the national level, at the state level and at the block level. In

fact, planning at the block level is lacking place when

i. They long time plan or projected plan is being

developed.

ii. The schematic budget is being planned

iii. The annual plan of work is being developed

iv. Detailed plans for individual having

experiences are developed within a major project.

Top

2. Extension programme planning is a decision making

process:

 Planning is basically a decision making process and so is

extension programme planning. In execution programme

 planning. Scientific facts are put to value judgements of the

people through the implementation of rational planning

model in order to decide a programme which will be carried

out through the extent on teaching activities.

3. Extension programme planning requires advance

thinking:

 If we could know where we are and where we are to go. We

could better judge what to do and how to do. This statement

lies at the heart of the nature of planning. Planning does not

takes place in a vaccum or automatically. It has to be made to

happen.

 The most basic fact giving rise to planning is that effective

rural development results from choice, not from chance; it

results from design, not from drift. Good extension

programme planning is an intellectual activity since it usually

involves a study and use of acts and principles. It requires

knowledge, imagination and reasoning ability. It is a complex

exercise as it involves people, their needs, thin interests,

useful technology, educational process, analysing a situation

and making decision about what should be done, determining

useful actions, projecting the desired shape of things in

 future and several other components, which are rarely

simple.

4. Extension programme planning required skill and

ability on the part of planners:

 Planning effective extension education programme require a

number of high level professional skills. Needed abilities

include understanding and skill in the following broad areas,

a. Understanding the nature and role of extension

education organisation.

b. Knowledge and understanding of the

technology related to the subject with which the

programme is concerned.

c. Ability to clarify the objectives of a programme

and to so state them that they are useful in

guiding its execution.

d. Skill at seeing the relationship between

principles and practice.

e. Skill at inquiry and human relationships.

Top

5. Extension programme planning is built around

content:
 A programme reading any extension activity can only be built

on the basis of content. Without some express purpose, there

can be no planning. Extension programme planning is built

around available improved technology, the people, their

resources, problems, needs and interests.

6. Extension programme planning is a social action

process:

 Extension programme planning involves interaction and the

decisions so taken in the form of a programme effect others.

Interaction assumes some type of communication between

two or more people in the planning process. So when the

extension staff involving specialists and peoples

representatives decides out the programme content for

extension teaching for the coming year it is involved in social

planning. In this process, the scientific data is put to value

judgements as so to decide the intended direction of change

and also the appropriate methods to be used to reach these

goals. Further, the resultant programme has many social

consequences it terms of interaction with other people. Eg:

To inform them educate them, persuade them, in order to

introduce improved technology into their minds and actions.

7. Extension programme planning is a collaborative

effort:
 Extension programme planning is a collaborative effort

involving identification assessment, evaluation of needs,

problems, resources, priorities and solutions.

8. Extension programme planning is a system:

 Extension programme planning is a system as its procedures

and processes are interrelated, ordered and linked

progressively to form a collective whole. It includes several

sub processes, such as planning designing, implementing,

evaluation etc.

9. The end product of extension programme planning is

an extension programme:

 The first consideration for anyone who is to concern himself

with a process or set of procedures for planning is to clearly

identify the primary purpose of the planning process to be

developed. Many have suggested that the purpose of

planning is for educating those who participate.

 According to Vandeberg (1965), the primary purpose of any

planning, first and foremost is that of developing a sound,

defensible and progressive course of action or plan. In the

process followed, many other benefits might occur such as

the education of participants, but we want a plan which can

and will be used.

Programme Planning Defination

 Programme planning is viewed as a process through which

representatives of the people are intensively involved with

 extension personnel and others professional people in

activities of

a. Studying facts and trends

b. Identifying problems and opportunities based

on these facts and trends.

c. Making decision about problems and

opportunities that should be given priority.

d. Establishing objectives or recommendations for

future economic and social development of a

community through educational programmes

(Boyle, 1965).

 This is the process whereby the people in the country,

through their leaders, plan their extension programme.

Country and state professional extension staff members assist

in this process. The end results of this process is a written

programme statement (Lawrence, 1962).

 Extension programme planning is the process of determining

developing and executing programmes. It is a continuous

process, where by farm people, with the guidance

and leadership of extension personnel attempt to determine,

analyse and solve local problems. In this, there are three

characteristics
 a. What needs to be done,

b. When it should be done, and

c. How it should be done (Musgrow, 1962)

 It is an organised and purposeful process initiated and guided

by the agent, to involve a particular group of people in the

process of studying their interests, needs and other

problems, deciding upon and planning education and other

actions to change their situation in desired ways and making

commitments regarding the role and responsibilities of the

participants (J.L. Compton).

 It is process of working with the people in an effort to

recognise the unsatisfactory situation problem and determine

possible solution or objectives or goals. Programme planning

may be on the long range or on an annual basis (S.L. Intobia,

L.L. Somani, J.P. Lakhera).

Scope and objectives of
programme planning

 For achieving success of any programme or work it is

essential that you should have a planning of the project.

 The general objective of having extension programme is to

influence people to make changes in their way of life and in

making and living. The assumption is that there is need for

change and if people are not aware, it is necessary to make

them aware of this; and to develop their needs.

 The objectives of programme planning are:

1. To ensure careful consideration of what is to be

done and why

2. To furnish a guide against which to judge all

new proposals.

3. To establish objectives towards which progress

can be measured and evaluated.

4. To have a mean of choosing the important from

incidental (Minor, less important) problems and

the permanent from the temporary changes.

5. To develop a common understanding about the

means and ends between various functionaries

and organisations.

6. To ensure continuity during changes in

personnel.

7. To help in development of leadership

8. To avoid waste of time and money and promote

efficiency.

9. To justify expenditure and to ensure flow of

funds.

10. To have available in written form a statement

for public use.

11. Avoiding future problems

12. Minimise the conflicts

 13. Provide guidance

14. Provide reliable information

 Some extension workers like to make a distinction between

the meaning of objective and scopes. If objectives are defined

as directions of movement, then a goal may be defined as the

distance in any given direction one expects to go during a

given period of time.

Scope and role

1. They should tell who is to be affected

2. They should describe the kind of changed behaviour on

new situations to be attained through the teaching effort.

3. They should serve as a criterion for accepting or rejecting

various kinds of educational activities to be carried on.

4. They should serve as a point of departure for evaluating

the teaching effort.

Principles of Programme Planning

1. Factual Situation

Data should be reliable and collected from villagers

themselves and are aware of their own problems.

2. Level of the people

Programme should include maximum number of people

through assigned responsibility, leadership and participation.

3. Comprehensiveness

Programme should be oriental to community groups; this will

ensure greater participation of the people in the execution of

the programme.

4. Educational

It should be educational directed towards encourage people

to solve their own problems. Individuals and collectively.

5. Democratic Approach

Programme should be grown on the lines of democrat

principles with participation of all the members of the group.

6. Organisation

Village organisation should be used as tolls to accomplish the

osectives.

7. Voluntary leadership

Maximum use of voluntary leadership in the process of both

planning and execution of the programme.

8. Flexibility: Planning should be flexible and it must have

definite
 Objective of the programme each objective should be

significant and economical to the people. It should be flexible

to meet long & short time needs.

9. Recognition of needs

The programme should go for solutions which meet

recognised needs.

10. Objectives

Should be clearly defined at the levels in terms of people will

understand.

11. Evaluation

A good programme provides for evaluation of results.

12. Well trained personnel:

Programmes should be carried on the well trained personnel

and effectively supervised.

13. Achievable

The programme should be achievable considering such

factors as personnel, cost, time, facilities.

Steps in programme planning


 The principles of extension program planning will help to

develop the logical steps in programme planning process

1. Collection of facts and figures

2. Analysis of situation

3. Identification of problems

4. Determination of objectives /goals

5. Developing plan of work and calendar of

operation

6. Follow up through plan of work and calendar of

operation

7. Evaluation of progress

8. Reconsideration and Revision of programme

1. Collection of facts and figures

 Collection of reliable data is the basic requirement of good

planning. Extension worker must collect and interpret

authentic information for the use of community leaders. He

should make bench mark survey from where people start the

process of programme planning.

 From available records.

 Information relating to:

• Major crops grown by the farmers in that area

• What methods they are using in their farm

• How these methods are to be corrected

• People (Population, farm families, occupation, transport,

drinking water, medical facilities, social classes, local

leaders)

• Their enterprises
 • Level of technology

• Facilities and constraints, values etc,.

• Resources (Irrigation, drainage)

 Method of collecting:

• Collected from village panchayats revenue records, local

newspapers and personal visits. Reports from local leaders

• Discussions and meetings with local famers

2. Analyse the situation:

 For making the assessment data useful to the person

committee Analysis means that data should be translated into

ideal language for the explanation of the meaning of facts by

taking the help of local experienced farmers, specialists in an

unbiased way, keeping in view the feelings expressed by the

client system.

3. Problem identification:

 The interpretation of the data after good analysis helps in

identifying the problems correctly.

These facts raise the interest of the people

There may be many problems, but only the urgent and

significant ones which may be solved with the available

resources and within the limits of the time should only be

selected. Example: Low income level of farmers, employment

and nutrition of families.

Set the objectives: On the basis of the significant needs

identified essential to decide the objectives determined by

the changes as well as the villagers The success or failure of

 any programme depends upon whether the objectives are

achieved or not.

Objectives should have clarity, understandings, achievability,

developmental potential, create interest and satisfaction

among the people. It may be measured and evaluated in

terms of costs and benefits. Example: Increase the income

level of farmers.

Top

5. Formulate plan of work:

 In written form indicating who shall do which job, i.e,.

what the change against system and client system shall do

who will be responsible for the whole planning process

which institution, organisations, service departments shall be

involved

what will be the farmings

what type of learning experience needs to be provided,

teachings

 The calendar of operations shall be prepared on the basis of

the plan of work and shall specify when a particular work

shall be done, preferably mentioning date and how much

quantity of different inputs (credits) required and when they

must be made available.

When ware and for how many days the farmers shall be

trained

Who are the specialists to be involved

This is atleast for one season or for a period of one year.

6. Execution of Plan:
 success of any programme depends on how well it is, it

should be exercised in such a way that it must have a

coordination with the extension service The sum of each

activity should be followed as set forth in all required

assistance should be provided during the execution. All steps

of programme should be discussed first with the related

persons or local persons so that good cooperation can be

maintained. The whole plan should be executed as decided

and unnecessary changes should not be made. Any change

should be made the basis of evaluation and replacing which

should be accepted by all the concerned persons.

7. Evaluate the programme:

• Evaluation of any programme during and after the

execution is essential to judge whether the programme is

moving in the right direction or not.

• Negative factor or any difficulty or impeding problem

should be removed.

• Positive factor of the programme should be accelerated

• Evaluation should be made jointly by the extension worker

and local or concerning organisations

Through: Records, prepared documents, reports, discussions

with concerned persons

I- Before starting of programme

II- During the execution of programme

 III- After the completion of programme

Evaluation helps in:

• To establish a bench mark

• Shows how far our plans have progressed

• Shows whether we are proceeding in the right direction.

Proof of omissions, recommended changes suggests new

directions.

• Indicate the effectiveness of the programme

• Helps to locate strong and weak points in any work or plan

• Improves skills in working with the people

• Helps to determine priorities for activities in the plan of

work

• Brings confidence and satisfaction to our work.

8. Reconsideration:

 The situation should be reconsidered to review the social and

economic changes of the people so that whole process may be

again modified or new objectives. This should be done not

only with the participants, but also with scientists,

administrators, local bodies.

 It helps to make necessary corrections and modifications

for the programme. Here emphasis should be on the removal

of technical ……….. is any and how to obtain more

cooperation and involvement of the participants and various

organisations. This is to make more effective, so to attain

objectives.
 Definition

1. It is a process of systematically drawing upon experience

as a media of making future efforts more effective.

2. Programme evaluation is the determination of the extent

to which the desired objectives have been attained or the

amount of movement that has been attained or the amount of

movement that has been made in the desired direction.

3. Evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and

providing useful information for judging decision alternative.

Types of evaluation

1. Self evaluation: This is to be carried out by every worker as

a matter of routline. This requires the self critical attitude,

which is so essential for extension work.

2. Internal evaluation: Evaluation carried to by the agency

responsible for the planning and implementation of the

programme. Some of the other methods for internal

evaluation are systematic use of diaries and reports of

workers, planned visits of staff members to work spots.

3. External evaluation: Evaluation conducted by a person or a

committee outside the area of operation.

Purpose of Evaluation
1. Programme improvement : Evaluation is the integral

part of the education process. It is focused on improvement

of this process. We can discover ways and means for

improving our educational work.

2. Programme accomplishments : Evaluation helps us to

determine progress with any activity or job. It also allows us

to assess the results of our educational efforts.

3. Public relation : Evaluation provide realistic information

to report to the public, parliament and legislative bodies.

4. Profession growth : Evaluation enhances our knowledge.

It gives us an index as to how we are doing as professional

workers.

5. Professional security : Evaluation provides us with

information that gives us satisfaction, a feeling of

accomplishment, confidence in ourselves and in the extension

education function.

6. Effective workmanship: evaluation gives us the

opportunity to work together as an extension staff.

7. Impact of the extension programmes : Evaluation help

to determine the short term and long term impact of the

extension programme.

8. Content of the programme :Evaluation enables

determination of whether the content is contributing to the

overall objectives of extension or not.

9. Method of extension teaching : Evaluation provides

information as to whether the extension teaching methods

are being used effectively or not, or whether non extension

methods are being used. It also helps in involving new

methods of extension.

Thus the purpose of extension evaluation is to discover the

extent to which programme objectives are being achieved, to

determine the reasons for specific success and failures.

Evaluate Programme Management

1. Appropriate groups and organisations are involved in

carrying out the programme.

2. Volunteer local leaders who assisted in carrying out the

programme are given adequate training by the extension staff

to do the job assigned.

3. To subjected matter presented is current and appropriate

to meet the programme objectives.

4. The methods and materials used to present the subject

matter are varied and stimulating.

5. Identifies the evidence you need to gather about the

criteria work out the methods for collecting the evidence.

Evaluate Programme Results

State the specific objectives to be evaluated in operational

terms so they are measurable.

• Collect evidence from the specific group. You are trying to

teach.

• Obtain valid and reliable evidence.

• Select appropriate methods for collecting evidence such as

observations, personal interviews, mailed questionnaires,

group interviews and the like.

• If the total population cannot be included in obtaining

evidence, be sure a sample is selected that adequately

represents the whole population you are trying to teach.

• Draw only those conclusions about the programme that can

logically be derived from the evidence collected.

Contribution to Evaluation

• Contribution help to establish a bench mark. The first

principle in programme building i.e. to get the facts about a

situation and the first measurement in evaluation must be

taken at the point where people start.

• Evaluation shows how far our plans have progressed.

Studies of extension work have shown that it after takes

years of constant teaching to ensure general adoption of

practices.
• Evaluation shows whether we are proceeding in the right

direction. It helps to test our objective and recommend

changes where needed.

• Evaluation indicates the effectiveness of a programme.

After all the end product of our work is to produce

educational or material changes. Any good teaching plan

must include the process of evaluation.

• Evaluation helps to determine priorities for activities in the

plan of work. As extension become more complex, one of the

greatest problems is to determine what to do, how much to

do and what to omit

Evaluation Principles

• Evaluation of a social programme should be interms of the

objectives of the programme.

• Evaluation should include assessment and appraisal of both

the product and the process.

• Evaluation should be a continuous process, not just a point

in time judgement.

• Evaluation should be made by teams comprising

professionals, social scientists and client representatives.

• Evaluation should be done in the context of an

organisations philosophy and objectives. • Evaluation like

planning, should takes place at multiple levels.

 Importance of Extension Evaluation

 It is done to measure the degree of the programme in terms

of the objectives and goals set forth. This is basically done to

determine the changes in the behaviour of people as a result

of extension programme.

 The evaluation is done not only for the physical achievement

but also the method and techniques used and of the other

steps in programme. Programme planning process so that the

strong and weak points may be identified and necessary

changes made. Importance

1. Considerable savings can be made by

conducting formative evaluation at training stage.

2. The plants for coordination outside extension

were followed as planned after periodic

evaluation indicated that no changes were

required.

3. Evaluation keeps the extension agency on right

track and helps in differentiating means from

ends.

4. Evaluation helps in planning of future

programme based on evaluation result of

previous one.

 Programme improvement :Evaluation is a integral part of

education process. It is focused on the improvement of this

 process. By taking a critical outlook, we can discover ways

and means for improving out education efforts. Thus

evaluation gives direction to continued improvement in

programming. It is also provides fresh data regarding

situations essential for improving programming functions.

 Programme accomplishment :Evaluation helps us to

determine progress with any activity or job. It also allows us

to assess the results of our education efforts through

evaluation. We can assess the strength, weakness and value

of our extension activity and teaching method used. Thus

evaluation helps to determine the degree to which specific

objectives are being achieved and in the process also helps to

clarify these objectives.

 Public relations :Evaluation provides realistic information to

report to the public, parliament and legislative bodies.

Organisation, individuals and professional groups in the

community need to be constantly informed regarding the

extension programme.

 Profession growth :Evaluation enhances our knowledge it

gives us an index as to how we are doing as professional

workers. Hence we learn when we evaluate and thereby can

rectify our shortcomings.

 Professional security: Evaluation provides us with

information that give us satisfaction, a feeling of

accomplishment, confidence is ourselves and in extension

education function. It also gives satisfaction to extension

workers, panchayat samiti members, leaders and other staff

members.
 Effective workmanship :Evaluation gives up the opportunity

to work together as an extension staff to determine the

effectiveness of our educational programmes.

 Impact of extension programmes :Evaluation helps to

determine the short term and long-term impact of the

extension programme in terms of social and economic

dimensions.

 Content of the programme :Evaluation provides information

as to whether the extension teaching methods are being used

effectively or not, or whether any non extension methods ae

being used etc. it also helps in involving a new methods of

extension evaluation enables determination of whether the

content is contributing to overall objectives of extension or

not.

 Thus the purpose of extension evaluation is to discover the

extent to which programme objectives are being achieved. To

determine the reasons for specific success and failures to

uncover principles underlying a successful programmes to

direct the course fo a programme with techniques for

increasing effectiveness, to redefine the --------- to be used for

attaining goals and to obtain continuous support, satisfaction

and improvement.

Importance in programme planning

1. Evaluation helps to establish a benchmark, the first

principle in programmer building is to get the fact about a

situation and the first measurement in evaluation must be

taken at the point where people start or just before the

teaching process begins.

2. Extension shows how far our plans have progressed.

Studies of extension work have shown that it often takes

years of constant teaching to ensure general adoption of

practices.

3. Evaluation shows whether we are proceeding in the right

direction. It helps to test our objectives and to recommend

changes were needed.

4. Evaluation helps to locate strong and weak points in any

programme or plan. Improvement can be made only when we

locate weak points and makes and effort to strengthen them.

5. Evaluation improves our skill in working with people. In

programme building, much skill is required to enable people

to bring all the facts together and to arrive at sound

conclusions without domination by professional workers.

6. Evaluation helps to determine properties for activities in

the plan of work. As extension becomes more complex, one of

its greatest problems is to determine what to do, how much

to do and what to omit.

7. Evaluation brings confidence and satisfaction to extension

work. Volunteer leaders, even more than paid workers benefit

by the satisfaction they get from knowing what results are

obtained. When the evaluation slows a negative result, we

can then change or work in line with what has been found
 and proceed with confidence with the results of evaluation

studies rural people can more intelligently participate in

future planning of their own programmes.

Characteristics of Evaluation

• The objectives of an extension programme must be stated

in clear and measurable terms. Only then can relevant and

specific evidence be collected and analysed to determine

the management and the successes and failures of the

programme for achieving its objectives.

• Instrument of measurement for collecting evaluate

information must be very carefully designed. Not only

should they valid, but contain specific indicators to ensure

that relevant information is collected.

• Information or evidence collected for evaluation purposes

must be reliable. Reliability refers to the extent to which

the information collected is dependable.

• Evaluate information must also be valid. Validity means

the extent to which the data measures what it is supposed

to measure.

• Evaluative information should be of practical use. In other

words evaluation should be done in such a way that its

finding or conclusions could be used for improving the

programme planning, management and impact

Last modified: Thursday, 12 January 2012, 11:27 AM

 Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)

Introduction

 The past decade has witness more shifts in the rhetoric of

rural development than in its practice. These shifts includes

the now familiar reversals from to down to bottom up from

centralised standardisation to the local diversity and from

blueprint to learning process. Linked with these and form

Blueprint. There have also been small beginning of changes

in modes of learning. He move here is away from extractive

survey questionnaires and towards participatory appraisal

and analysis in which more and more activities, previously

appropriated by outsiders are carried out by the local rural or

urban people themselves.

 In these changes, a part has been played by two closely

related families of approaches and of methods, often referred

to as PRA which spread in the 1980’s and is further evolution

into PRA which has come about fast and began to spread in

the 1990’s. The purposes of this chapter are to outline the

origins, principles and for PRA to explore and assess its

strength, weakness and paradigmatic significance.

Sources of PRA
 The approaches and methods described as PRA and evolving

so fast that the to propose one secure and

final definition would be unhelpful. As PRA further evolves,

there will be changes in what it can usefully mean. It has

been called an approach and method for learning about rural

life and conditions from, with and by rural people the

prepositions have sometimes been reversed in order to ready

by with and from PRA is though more than just learning.

 It extends into analysis planning and action. PRA as a term is

also used to describe a variety of approaches to cover these a

recent description is that PRA is a family of approaches and

methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and

analyse their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and to

act.

 Five streams which stands out of as sources and parallel to

PRA are in alphabetical order

1. Active participatory research

2. Agrecosystem analysis

3. Applied anthropology

4. Field research on farming system

5. Rapid rural appraisal

Active participatory research

 It is nothing but the family of approaches and methods which

use dialogue and participatory research to enhance the

people’s awareness and confidence and to manpower their

action. Activist participatory research in this sense ownes

much to the work and inspiration of Paulo Freire Key

commonly shared ideas and imperatives that stands out are

1. A poor people are act creative and capable and

can and should do much of their own

investigation, analysis and planning.

2. Outsiders have a role as convenors, catalysts

and facilitators and

3. The weak should be empowered.

Agroecosystem analysis

 Agroecosystem analysis was so powerful and practical that it

quickly overlapped with and contributed much to PRA. In

some cases, either or both lables could be used to describe

what was done. Some of the major contributions of

agroecosystems analysis to current PRA and have been

1. Transects

2. Informal mapping
 3. Diagramming and

4. innovation

PRA represents an extension and application of social

anthropological insights, approaches and methods, cross –

fertilised with others. Some of the many insights and

contributions coming from and shared with social

anthropology have been;

1. the idea of field learning as flexible art rather

than rigid science.

2. The value of field residence, unhurried

participant observation and conservations.

3. The importance of attitudes, behaviour and

support.

4. The emic-etic distinction and

5. The validity of indigenous technical

knowledge.

Definition of PRA

 It has been questioned whether it is useful to define PRA as

separate from RRA. One view is that lables do not matter.

There is a plethora of levels for approaches and methods of

learning about rural life and condition. Many of the sets of

learning about rural life and conditions. Many of the sets of

 practices overlap. There is continuous innovation. Sharing

and exchange.

 In this view, the only importance of a label is the sense of

pride of ownership and originality which it gives, so

strengthening commitment, enthusiasm and good work

among its practitioners. Otherwise, there would be no point

in defining an exclusive territory of activities for PRA or any

other set of approaches or methods.

Principles shared by PRA

1. A reversal of learning :To learn from rural people directly

on the site and face to face gaining from local, physical,

technical and social knowledge.

2. Learning rapidly and progressively with conscious

exploration. Flexible use of methods, opportunism,

improvisation, flexible and use of methods, opportunism

following a blueprint programme but being adaptable in a

learning process.

3. Offsetting biases :Especially those of rural development

tourism, by being relaxed and not rushing. Listening not

lecturing. Probing instead of passing on to the next topic

being unimposing instead of important and seeking out the

poorer men and women and learning their concerns and

priorities.

4. Optimising tradeoffs: Relating the cost of learning to the

useful truth of information, with tradeoffs between quantity,

relevance, accuracy and timeliness. This includes the

 principles of optimal ignorance knowing what is not worth

knowing and of appropriate impression not measuring more

than needed. As keyness is reputed to have said it is better to

be approximately right than the precisely wrong.

Scope of PRA

Definition of PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal)

 PRA is the methodology for interacting with villagers and

seeking their participation in putting forward their points of

views about problems, analysing them and utilising the

information to acquire learning.

Scope and features of PRA

1. It takes into account the people’s indigenous knowledge

2. It is learning through participation about livelihood system

and interaction of various facts.

3. It helps in joint evaluation of problems and opportunities.

4. The PRA is concerned with collecting information through

participation.

5. It helps farmers to communicates their perception in their

own language and mode of communication. Thus the of use

symbols, maps and drawings is made not in standard forms of

art but in a manner villagers can understand and do

naturally.
6. It requires living and looking at life from close quarters,

using methods that enables participation and learning. It lays

emphasis on listening to peoples experiences, history,

culture, priorities and performance.

7. It encourages multidisciplinary investigation using multiple

methods for cross checking to allow different perspectives.

8. Attitude of listening, learning and respect for rural people

is essential for conducting PRA to enable mutual learning and

understanding.

PRA methods

1. Diagram: The diagrams help in easy communication

between researchers and villagers. It helps in cross –

checking of information. It generates interest and more

detailed discussions. Use of villagers own symbols and

method of drawing gives them confidence and co – equal

status to share their perceptions.

2. Transact walk: Participatory transact walk is a group

activity of villagers and researchers to walk along various

agro-ecological zones of the village and discuss about land

use pattern, problems and rural ecological conditions. The

experiences of the participating villagers about their

participations are discussed by groups.

3. Ranking and scoring: This method provides a chance to

rural people to express their preferences and reasons for

liking certain items. Here preference ranking, pair wise

ranking, wealth ranking and relationship two factors are

 explored. It involves preparation of list of households and

assigning a number of each. Then key informants are asked

to rank individually according to their own criteria. The

criteria used by them are discussed later. Final wealth

classification is prepared on his basis.

4. Do it yourself: The activities of rural people can be

understood better if experts also get opportunities to practice

them and realise their actual utility. It gives real ideas and

helps i getting along with the people. They would appreciate

such gestures of physical help.

5. Maps and models: Participatory mapping releases

creativity of people and reveals their ways of using symbols.

People open up with enthusiasm on using local materials and

discussion becomes easier.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Ecological
Methods For Community Based Agro Forest
(AF) Research

 The methods for agroforestry in general and community

based AF research in particular must constitute a radical

departure from traditional agronomy and even from many of

the farming systems research methods that have become

established in formal scientific circles. Whether in formal or

informal research programme the approach should often be

more ecological than agronomic, the focus on the place of

trees, wood lands and savannas in the habitat of farmers and

herders.

 Within ecology, both qualitative and quantitative sampling

and monitoring techniques have been developed to study

 whole systems and the complex relationships between

organisms and their environments (Odum, 1984) (Conway,

1985). Moreover, the theory and the methodology are well

suited to a sliding scale of analysis from tree soil interactions

to regional land use systems, (Odum, 1984: Rochlean, 1983:

Hart, 1985; Conway, 1985), where as agronomy is firmly

rooted in the plot.

 The development of AF and Woodland management systems

for rural landscapes can benefit particularly from the

convergence of methods in 2 sub fields of ecology-

ethnobotany and agroecology. While ethnobotany draws its

methods from human ecology and ethnographic. Traditions in

anthropology (Pasey, 1981) and naturalist traditions in plant

and animal ecology methods more from environmental

management and systems ecology (Hart, 1981; Altieri, 1983;

Conway, 1986).

 and agroecology provide tools for studying existing natural

ecosystems, traditional AF systems and recent innovations by

rural people. Their methods present ample scope for

incorporating indigenous technical knowledge, indigenous

capacity for experimentation in to the identification of species

for domestication and the design and testing of new Af and

woodland management systems .

Rapid rural Appraisal (RRA)

 Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) techniques can combine readily

with ethnoecological methods. However, it is the style rather

than the speed of RRA which is most critical.

 For example, researchers can nest ethnoecological data and

saple. Collection methods within a series of informal

interviews with rural community groups of 15 to 30 people,

followed by chains of household level and individual

interviews, mapping of farms and collection areas and

participation in gathering trips, processing and other

activities. Ruing subsequent stages of research the same

kinds of information gathering activities can be used for

monitoring and evaluation of experiments are on station, on

farm or in the forest , over a wide range of user- and

researcher partnerships with respect to experimental design

and management.

 The possibilities range from research designed experiments

on station to rural people’s own on site experiments that are

simply discovered and documented by research institutions.

Most programmes are based on a more direct collaboration

between the 2 groups, which includes a variety of roles for

land users and formal research institutions in experimental

design and management (Feldstein, Poats and Rocheleau,

1987).

 Most of the immediate work in community based agro

forestry research will focus on ecological adaptations of RRA

combined with experimental situations where the user is also

a researcher. However, the exact choice of methods and how

to combine and apply them is still largely a matter of taste,

style and available resources. For most professional

researchers, first attempts with such an approach will be

somewhat of a personal experiment to derive a coherent

 methodology from an eclectic collection of methods to answer

research questions framed in response to local

circumstances.

 The 2 cases which framed follow are not models, but

examples of such experiments. The emphasis is on lessons

learned and implications for follow – up. An example from

Kenya – trials , errors and hindsight Plant domestication –

Local knowledge and chain of interviews.

Management definitions

 The term management stems from, the word manage which

in turn, is derived from the French word

ménage meaning ‘housekeeping’.

 In general usage, the word management identifies a special

group of people whose job is to direct the effort and activities

of other people toward common objectives.

 Knootz and Weihrich (1988), Conceptualized management as

the process of designing and maintaining an environment in

which individuals.

 Working together in groups, accomplish efficiently selected

aims it means that

1. As managers, people carry out the managerial

functions of planning, organizing, staffing,

leading and controlling.

2. Management applies to any kind

of organization.
 3. It applies to managers at all organizational

levels;

4. The aim of all managers is the same to create a

surplus.

Principles of management

1. Division of work: Work specialization results improving

efficiency of operation. The concept of division of work can be

applied to both manage aerial and technical function.

2. Authority and responsibility: Authority is defined as the

right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.

Authority can be formal or personal. Normal authority is

derived from once official position and personal authority is

derived from factors like intelligence and experience.

Authority and responsibility go hand in hand.

3. Discipline: Discipline is vital for running

on organization smoothly. It involves obedience to authority,

adherence to rules, respect for superiors and dedication to

ones job.

4. Unity of command: Each employee should receive orders

or instruction from superiors only.

5. Unity of direction : Activity should be organized in such

a way that they all come under plane and are supervised from

one person
6. Subordination from the individual interest to the

general interest: Individual interest should not take

precedence over the goals of the organization.

7. Remuneration: The compensation paid to employees

should based on the ability of the firm to pay.

8. Centralization: depending on the situation

an organization should adopt be centralized are approach to

make optimum use of its personal.

9. Scalar chain : The reference to the chain of authority that

extends from the top to the bottom organization. The scalar

chain defines communication path in an organization.

10. Order : This refers to both material and social order

in organization material order indicated that everything is

kept in the right place to facilitate smooth coordination of

work activities. Similarly social order that the right person is

placed in the right job.

11. Equality : All employ should be treated fairly. A manager

should treat all employ in the same manner without

prejudice.

12. Stability of tenure personnel : A high labour turn over

should be prevented and managers should motivate they are

employees to do better job.

13. Initiative : employee should be encourage to give

suggestion and develop new work and better to practices.

 14. Esprit de corps : this means a management must a team

spirit in its employees.

Functions of Management

Definition of Management

 Management is creative problem solving. This creative

solving is accomplished through four functions of

management; planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

The intended results in the use of an organizations resources

in a way that accomplishes its mission and objectives.

 In management excel, this standard definition is modified to

align more closely with our teaching objectives and to

communicate more clearly the content of the organizing

function. Organizing is divided into organizing and staffing so

that the importance of staffing in small business receives

emphasis along side organizing .

Function of Management

Gulick first used the acronym ‘POSDCORB’ and UR wick

(1987) to explain the seven process of

administration/management planning, organizing, staffing,

directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. These

processes can explain the total working or management

conditions of an institution.
This theory has basic assumption that the development

processes and goals of the individual and his organization are

at crucial points and fundamentally different. This is an

antagonistic trend. The fusion theory is depicted as under.

Agricultural sector being an important part of the economy

must have professional scientists/technocrats managers. This

has to come by educational training designs aimed at

preparing agricultural scientists for the top leadership and

overall management.

The important management functions are planning,

organizing, motivating and controlling and these are central

to any discussion of management. These functions which

constitute the management process (a step by step doing

something) are relevant regardless the type

of organization or level of management. The management

process is briefly described as under.

1. Planning : It involves setting goals and

objectives for the organization and developing

work maps showing how these goals and

objectives are to be accomplished. Planning

includes both the broadest view of

the organization, eg. Its mission, and the

narrowest, eg : a tactic for accomplishing a

specific goal.

2. Organizing: It involves bringing together

resources – the people capital and equipment – in

the most effective way to accomplish the goals. It

therefore, involves an integration of resources.

And also it is establishing the internal

organizational structures of the organization. The

focus is on division, coordination and control of

tasks and the flow of information within

the organization. It is in this function that

managers distribute authority to holders.

3. Motivating: Motivating plays a large part in

determining the level of performance of

employees, which in turn influences how

effectively the organizational goals will be met. It

involves directing along with communicating and

leading. Leading or influencing requires three

general skills/competencies.

1. Diagnosing : it is conginitive

2. Adapting : it is a behavioural

competency and

3. Communicating : it is a process

competency

4. It involves feedback of results and

follow up to compare accomplishment

with plans and to make appropriate

adjustment with plans and to make

appropriate adjustments where

 outcomes have deviated from

expectations.

5. Controlling: Controlling is the function that

evaluates quality in all areas and detects

potential or actual deviations from

the organization plan. This ensures high quality

performance and satisfactory results while

maintaining an orderly and problem free

environment controlling includes information

management measurement of performance and

institutions of correcting actions.

Meaning of administration

 The Management of public affairs of a government or

institution is called administration. In extension education

knowledge of administration is very important which can be

developed by administrators. This knowledge will make the

administrators aware of some of the unanticipated

consequences of their decision. Secondly proper

administration makes the administrator to his/her skill.

Knowledge for solving problems of organization for which

they are members.

 Administration can be defined as the guidance leadership and

control of the efforts of a group of individuals towards some

common goal. According to this definition the essence of

administration is the ability of administrator to plan large

projects held together and organization for its

accomplishment. Keep the organization functioning smoothly

 and efficiently and achieve the agreed upon objecting well

within the allotment of the personal, time and resources

available and without doing all the work himself.

Basic principlesof administration

 It is assumed that increased effectiveness of administration

will occur when the principles of administration are followed.

These principles are also called guidelines as they guide the

administration in the performance of their job.

1. principle of Hierarchy

a. The members of the organizations are arranged in a

definite subordinate – super ordinate hierarchy of line

positions ( eg Clas I, II, III and IV). It is also known as the

‘Scalar process’, where in lines of positional authority and

responsibility run upward and downward through several

levels with a broad base at the bottom and a single head at

the top in order to preserve the ‘unity of command’

b. In the effective organization each worker knows who his

supervisor is and each supervisor knows whom he is expected

to supervise. If a worker is subject to orders from several

supervisors (as in case of village development officer), he

gets confused, in efficient and irresponsible. In this

arrangement the authority of making vital decision is

entrusted with a specialized person located at the helm of

the organization.

2. Principles of Authority
Effective administration will occur when authority allocated

to and individual or group of individuals is sufficient. The

authority and the responsibility should be clearly defined and

understand by all persons in the organizations. The different

types of authorities are given in the following pages.

3. Principles of responsibility with matching authority

The individual should not be burdened only with

responsibilities but should also be provided with matching

authority. This is more important in a decentralized form of

administration. Responsibility without authority is just lie

leaving an individual to fight with a tiger without a gun or

weapon.

4. Principles of span of control

Span of control is the number of subordinates one has he

supervise. In general, the span of control is such as to permit

to decision making as it needed. It helps in attaining quality

decision. It results in increased effectiveness and efficiency in

attaining the organizational objectives. Some of the factors

influencing the span of control include

a. the intensity and frequency of the need to see the chief,

b. the age of the agency

c. the magnitude of their problems

d. the professional competence and length of service of the

staff
e. the size of the agency

f. the size of the geographic area in which the supervisor

must operate

g. the importance of the decisions which the supervisor must

make

h. the degree of control that must be exercised

i. the degree of repetitiveness of the work to be done.

5. Principles of communication

There should be two way channel of communication, both

vertical and horizontal in the organization. Communication

ensures common understanding of organization values and

objectives clear and proper assignments of authority and

functions are required for success in large operations.

Employees want to know what is going on without a broad

sharing of information and purpose their morale will be low

and the agency’s task will be more difficult.

6. Principles of organizational structure

The organization can no longer remain fixed or static changes

in basic objectives, in size of staff, in professional

competency, adjustments in programme emphasis, in the

nature of institutional relationship within which

the organization must operate will have to be made. Similarly

the need for long range as well as short range planning of

programmer personnel and finances may require many

 adjustments, in the form of the administrative organizational

structures. In short the organizational structure should be

subject to continues adaptations as conditions warrant.

Functions of administration

 Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of

functions to meet the organizations goals. These ‘functions’ of

the administrator were described by ‘Henri Fayol’as the ‘5

elements of administration’.

1. Planning: Planning is deciding in advances what to do,

how to do it, when to do it and who should do it. It maps the

path from where the organization is to, where it wants to be.

The planning function involves establishing goals and

arranging them in logical order. Administration engages in

both short-range and long range planning.

2. Organizing: organizing involves identifying

responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities

into departments or division and specifying organizational

relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated efforts

among all the elements in

the organization. Organization must take into account

delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control

within supervisory units.

3. Staffing: staffing means filling job positions with the right

at the right time. It involves determining staffing needs,

writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to

fill positions.
 4. Directing: Directing in leading people in a manner that

achieves the goals of the organization. This involves proper

allocation of resources and providing an effective support.

Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the

ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in

directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on

staff needs and emphasis on economic production.

5. Controlling: Controlling is the function that evaluates

quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations

from the organization plan. This ensures high quality

performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an

orderly and problem free environment controlling includes

information management measurement of performance and

institutions of correcting actions.

6. Budgeting: Exempted from the list above, incorporates

most of the administrative functions, beginning with the

implementation of a budget plan through the application of

budget controls.
Human Resource Development(HRD)

 As a theory is a framework for the expansion of human

capital within an organization through the development of

both the organization and the individual to achieve

performance improvement. Adam smith states, “the

capacities of individuals depended on their access to

education”. The same statement applies to organisations

themselves, but it requires a much broader field to cover both

areas.
 Human resource development is the integrated use of

training, organization and career development efforts to

improve the individual, group and organizational

effectiveness. HRD develops the key competences that enable

individuals in organisations to perform current and future

jobs through planned learning activities. Groups within

organisations use HRD to initiate and manage change. Also

HRD ensures a match between individual and organizational

needs.

Concept:

• HRD is the integrated,

training organization and career development

efforts to improve individual, group

and organization.

• HRD ensures a match between individual and

organizational needs.

• HRD develops the competency among the

individuals.

Principles of HRD:

• To change the people educationally to bring

their changes in their farming and home.

 • change in farm ,home, public services balanced

simultaneously

Objectives of HRDP:

• Increase the economic and social level of the

people.

• to develop resources of the people(honesty,

hardworking, sincerity, knowledge and skill)

Leadership

 It is defined(by Happle) as the role and status of one or more

individuals in the structure and functioning of group

organizations which enable these groups to meet a need or

purpose, that can be achieved only through the cooperation

of the members of the group.

According to Hoffer and Gibson

“leadership is the unique relationship which exists in a group

when the processes of mutual stimulation makes it possible

for one person to influence others in the pursuit of a common

cause.”
Roles of leadership

 Group spokesmen: The leader has responsibility of speaking

for the group and representing the group’s interest and

position faithfully and accursedly. This means that he is fully

 aware of the group’s consensus of opinion and how it may or

may not coincide with his individual thinking.

 Group harmonizer: All social groups usually have both

uniformities and differences of opinion to maintain harmony

with a group, emphasis must be placed upon the uniformities

among the members rather than upon individual differences.

The leader is responsible for pointing out to the group, when

potencies conflict situations arise, that the common purpose

is sufficiently worthy of cooperation that the differences be

resolved peacefully. But it should be remembered that the

role of the group harmonizer is to promote harmony in line

with the basic purpose of the group, not to promote harmony

simply for harmony’s sake.

 Group planner: Generally persons are chosen

for leadership positions because it is assumed that they know

a little more about the problems confronting the group and

the possible solutions than the other members of the group

 Group executive: Most groups have some established

methods of conducting business and achieving consensus of

opinion on issues that come before them. The leader is the

one who presides when the group is conducting business as a

group executive the leader is responsible for seeing that the

business of organization is carried on according to

democratic principles.

 Group educator/teacher: In many groups the person

elected as leader is one who has had more training and

experiences that most of the members of the group. It is

 assumed that the leader knows more about the work of the

particular group than most of the members.

 Symbol of group ideals: All social groups have implicit or

explicit norms or ideals. as a rule, persons accepted as

leaders are those who have adopted these norms and leave

by them. The group expects its leadership to embody the

ideals of the group. If a person cannot accept the ideals of the

group and consistently make an effort to achieve them, he

should decline to accept the role of leadership for

the organization.

 Group discussion chairman: The preceding six roles have

been based upon Sanderson statement of the group functions

of leaders. The leadership roles are all interdependent and

related to one another. In recent years there has been an

increase interest in group discussion. Generally a group

meets for a panel discussion or a form or a group thinking

conference something apart from the routine business of

the organization.

 Group supervisor : Professional leaders such as extension

officers, in addition to serving as leaders of social groups also

devote a portion of their time of working with lay leaders and

group organizations like youth clubs, cooperative ,farmers

associations etc these organisations have their own lay

leaders. The extension officer’s role is not to take over the

work of the lay leaders, but rather to serve in the capacity to

advise them.
 Qualities or traits of leader
1. Happle has listed the following traits or qualities as,

desirable for effective leadership.

2. Physical fitness

3. Mental ability (intelligence)

4. Since of purpose(having definite ideas regarding the

aims of the group)

5. Social insight(sensitivity to other person’s position,

problems or points of view)

6. Communication(including good listening and speaking

acceptably in public)

7. Love for people(friendliness without favouritism or

without giving scope for indiscipline)

8. Democracy (giving all members equal opportunities for

participation etc.)

9. Initiative.

10. Enthusiasm

11. Authority (based upon mastery of knowledge and skills

in a particular field.)

12. Decisiveness(ability to make good and prompt decisions

or judgments)

13. Integrity of character

14. Teaching ability

15. Conviction and faith .