New Ideas for a New Age.
● People began challenging old traditions and questioning monarchies, religious
control, and rigid social hierarchies.
● New ideas emphasized reason, logic, and individual rights over blind obedience and
inherited power.
● Thinkers believed society could be improved through education, reform, and
progress.
The Enlightenment
● The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th
centuries.
● Also known as the Age of Reason—focused on logic, scientific method, and rational
thought.
● Enlightenment thinkers believed humans could improve society through reason and
critical thinking.
● They challenged monarchies, the church, and traditional authority.
● Key values included liberty, equality, democracy, secularism, and education.
Influence of the Enlightenment
● Inspired key political revolutions: American Revolution (1776) and French Revolution
(1789).
● Encouraged ideas of representative government, civil liberties, and individual rights.
● Promoted freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and fair justice systems.
● Laid the groundwork for modern democracy, liberalism, and human rights
movements..
Civilisation and Progress
● During the Enlightenment, Europeans believed in the idea of human progress and
that European society was the most advanced.
● Thinkers like Condorcet, Adam Smith, and Thomas Macauley saw history as a story
of constant improvement.
● This view promoted the belief that humans could control nature, improve society,
and build the ideal world.
‘Advanced’ Peoples and Eurocentrism
● As Europe explored other lands, they viewed non-Europeans as less developed.
● Civilizations like the Chinese were acknowledged for farming, while others (like
Indigenous Australians) were labeled primitive.
● This way of thinking is called Eurocentrism—valuing European culture as the best.
● Even well-meaning settlers believed it was their duty to bring European civilization to
‘uncivilized’ people.
Revising the Idea of Progress
● Europeans often ignored achievements of other civilizations (like Islamic
advancements in mathematics and gunpowder from China).
● The belief in European superiority was used to justify colonization and land seizures.
● Modern challenges like global warming have caused a shift—now, Indigenous
knowledge is seen as more sustainable in some ways.
Technological Advancements
● From the 1700s onward, science and technology dramatically advanced.
● Inventions like the spinning jenny (1772) revolutionized cotton production.
● This led to the rise of cotton mills and factory systems, changing how goods were
made and increasing productivity.
Advances in Medicine
● New scientific discoveries helped doctors understand the spread of disease and
effects of diet and hygiene.
● Inoculation (introduced to Europe by Lady Mary Montagu in 1726) was used to build
immunity.
● In 1796, Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox using cowpox.
● Vaccination significantly reduced death rates and is credited with saving millions of
lives.
Living and Working Conditions
● People migrated to cities for factory work, often living in cramped, unhygienic
housing.
● Homes were shared by multiple families, with no proper sewage, attracting disease
and rats.
● The Industrial Revolution caused cities like London to grow rapidly, but poor
infrastructure led to terrible living conditions for workers.
Conditions for Women and Children
● Women worked in coal mines as harriers, dragging coal carts with chains around
their waists, leading to injuries and childbirth issues.
● Many children worked in dangerous environments like mills and mines, suffering
from long-term health problems.
● Robert Southey, a poet, described cellars and slums where poor families lived in filth,
darkness, and overcrowding.
Factory Conditions
● Factory workdays lasted 12–16 hours in hot, polluted environments.
● There were no safety regulations, so injuries and deaths were common.
● Small children were employed for long hours and dangerous tasks, which affected
their growth, health, and safety.
The Age of Revolution
● A revolution happens when many people are deeply unhappy and overthrow the
government.
● The American (1775–1783) and French (1789–1799) revolutions were major
examples.
● Both led to complete changes in political, social, and economic systems.
● Though they began with violence, revolutions are usually long processes of change.
The American Revolution
● After the Seven Years War, Britain taxed its American colonies to repay war debt.
● Colonists protested “no taxation without representation” and boycotted British
goods.
● Conflict began in 1775; the War of Independence lasted 7 years.
● In 1783, the US was officially recognized as independent via the Treaty of Paris.
The French Revolution
● Started in 1789, aiming to remove inequality, monarchy, and class privilege.
● Introduced ideas like voting rights, equality before the law, and freedom of speech.
● Even death sentences were equalized—nobles and commoners faced the same
punishment.
● Jobs and roles were based on merit, not noble birth, leading to the idea of the
modern citizen.
Classical Influence on Modern Democracy
● Democracy in places like Ancient Athens and Rome influenced modern systems.
● In Athens, only male property owners could vote; Rome was governed by a wealthy
Senate.
● Early modern democracies copied these ideas—voting was restricted to the wealthy.
● Over time, systems became more inclusive, but classical models were the starting
point.
Rise of Republicanism
● A republic is a government with a citizen head of state, not a monarch.
● The first modern republic was the USA, followed by France after their revolutions.
● Republicanism became a key Enlightenment idea—power should be with the people.
● In 1793, France required 1 deputy per 40,000 citizens, to ensure fair representation.
Liberalism
● Liberalism supported individual rights, freedoms, and limited government.
● Believed people are born free and equal, and government should protect—not
limit—those rights.
Nationalism
● Nationalism is the belief that people of a shared culture, language, or race should
belong to one nation.
● The French Revolution promoted nationalism by making people citizens, not
subjects.
● People now felt loyal to their elected governments and were willing to defend them.
● After Prussia’s victory over France in 1871, 25 German states united into one
German nation.
