A Concise Guide to Space Systems Engineering

Shen Ge, PMP CSSGB EIT

Last Updated: March 18, 2018

Introduction

Systems engineering is the art and science of developing a system capable of meeting requirements within opposed constraints.
A system is a set of elements that function together to produce a desired capability. These elements not only include software and
hardware but also facilities, personnel, processes, etc. needed to produce system level results. Systems engineering seeks to optimize the
overall design and not favor a subsystem at the expense of another. It is about getting both the design right (meet requirements) and
getting the right design (meet stakeholder expectations).

More specifically, spacecraft systems engineering is the comprehensive engineering task of spacecraft design which includes several
major functions:
1. Requirements definition

2. Resource allocation and management

3. System level trade studies

4. Technical integration

Space Systems Life Cycle

A fundamental concept is the program or project life cycle which lays out everything that should be done to accomplish the said
program or project divided into distinct phases separated by key decision points (KDPs). KDPs are events where the readiness of a
program or project needs to be examined before it can progress to the next phase (or the next KDP). In other words, they are natural
points of "go" or "no-go" decisions. A program or project that fails to pass a KDP may either be terminated or be allowed to try again
after addressing shortcomings.

The first phase is actually a pre-formulation called Pre-phase A : Conceptual Studies. The purpose here is to produce a broad spectrum of
ideas and alternatives where new programs or projects can be selected. It can include examinations on high-risk or new technology
areas. Here, identifying the stakeholders is crucial. In addition, resources such as people and facilities should be estimated. Systems
engineers should know that in this phase, the emphasis is to establish feasibility instead of optimality where a clear vision is produced on
what the problems are, how the program addresses them, and how the solutions will be feasible and cost-effective.

A spacecraft life cycle after initial idea generation and feasibility check goes into Phase A: Preliminary Analysis. This study is a conceptual
design that will meet the mission statement. It doesn’t have to find the “best” design.
Next comes Phase B: Definition where technical and business baselines for the project are defined.

After Phase B, Phase C/D: Full Scale Development initiates. A full-scale development program has its own life cycle which includes
the preliminary design phase with an emphasis on

1. Functional performance

2. Requirements definition

3. Interface definition

The phase ends with the preliminary design review (PDR) which is a formal customer review to evaluate how adequate the preliminary
design and how well it complies with customer requirements. After PDR, part of the design is frozen which means it will likely not be
changed in the future.

Next comes the design phase where drawings are made and software coded. Subsystem level build and test initiates. This design phase
ends with the critical design review (CDR) which is a formal customer review to evaluate design adequacy and interface definitions.

The third phase is the assembly, test, and launch operations (ATLO) phase where flight-qualified subassemblies are assembled into a
flight spacecraft. Phase ends with a pre-ship review.

Lastly, in Phase C/D comes the launch phase which means reassembly of the spacecraft after the parts are shipped to the launch site and
rested. Just prior to launch, one final test is conducted to assess any problems.

Phase E: Mission Operations starts immediately after launch where the spacecraft is controlled and commanded.
Please note that the above life cycle is for government procurement only. Commercial companies can do things very differently since
what drives the project may be due to financial concerns, board of directors’ approval, minimal customer oversight, legal and regulatory
considerations, and no set of established procedures.

Spacecraft Project Elements

A spacecraft project can be divided into five mostly separate project elements as such

1. Payload – A set of instruments that perform the mission.

2. Launch system – The vehicle and support equipment that puts the spacecraft into orbit

3. Tracking and data systems

4. Mission operations (MOS)

5. Spacecraft subsystems

The largest component of consideration for spacecraft systems engineering is the spacecraft subsystems which is traditionally divided
into 8 subsystems.

1. Orbital mechanics (ORB)

2. Propulsion (PROP)
3. Attitude control (ACS)

4. Power (EPS)

5. Thermal control (TC)

6. Command and data handling (C&DH)

7. Telecommunication (COM)

8. Structure and mechanisms (STR)

A functional block diagram (FBD) is a simple high level drawing to visualize the relationships between the subsystems. These diagrams
are prepared and continually updated by the system engineering team.
Figure 1: An example of a spacecraft functional block diagram is depicted. Source is the PRISMA technology mission. eOPortal Directory.
([Link]

Design Parameters

The main parameters to calculate, control, and update for each spacecraft mode of operation (launch, cruise, mission, end of life, etc.) are
the mass and the power. Spacecraft mass properties can be divided into three categories

1. Spacecraft moments of inertia

2. Spacecraft mass

3. Center of mass

Historical experience shows that spacecraft mass always increases as design continues.

Aside from mass and power, other design parameters include

1. Propulsion

2. Computer resources

3. Processing time and data bus usage

4. Thermal margin
5. Battery margin

6. Force / torque margin

7. Electronics operating time

8. Schedule

Launch Vehicle Interface

Last but not least, the launch vehicle is the most critical interface with the spacecraft. The choice of a launch vehicle is usually decided
very early on. The main two technical considerations are

1. Launch mass capability – constrains mass of spacecraft

2. Fairing diameter envelope – constrains size of spacecraft

The launch vehicle’s fairing dimensions control the size of the spacecraft in launch configuration. A spacecraft may exceed these
dimensions in cruise or on-orbit but only through the use of deployment mechanisms, such as a spring or a solar panel that unfolds.
Provisions must be made for dynamic deflection of the fairing; hence, there is reduced dimensions for the spacecraft. This is known as
the dynamic envelope.

The launch vehicle shroud limits the spacecraft to a diameter about the z-axis and to a length in the z-axis. The diameter is usually the
more severe restriction. Shroud diameters are typically 8, 10, 12, or 15 feet. A launch vehicle adapter is absolutely needed to adapt the
launch vehicle structure to the spacecraft structure and allow for spacecraft separation. The International Reference Guide to Space
Launch Systems is a useful resource on launch vehicle shrouds and interfaces. A brief overview of the accommodation data for a launch
vehicle is

1. Payload compartment

a. Max Diameter

b. Max Length

2. Payload integration

3. Environment

a. Max axial load

b. Max lateral load

c. Max lateral / longitudinal frequency

d. Max acoustic level

e. Sound pressure

f. Max flight shock

g. Max dynamic pressure on fairing

i. Max pressure change rate in fairing

j. Cleanliness level of fairing

4. Payload delivery

a. Orbital injection accuracy (3 sigma)

b. Attitude accuracy (3 sigma)

c. Nominal payload separation rate

d. Deployment rotation rate (if available)

e. Loiter duration (in orbit)

f. Maneuvers available (collision avoidance, thermal, etc.)

g. Multiple payloads (possible yes or no)

References

[1] NASA Systems Engineering Handbook. NASA. [Link]