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Cambridge O Level Maths Your notes
Geometry Toolkit
Contents
Symmetry
2D Shapes
3D Shapes
Unit Conversions
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Symmetry
Your notes
What is symmetry?
Symmetry in mathematics can refer to one of two types
Line (or Plane) symmetry which deals with reflections and mirror images of shapes or parts of
shapes in both 2D and 3D
Rotational symmetry which deals with how often a shape looks identical (congruent) when it has
been rotated
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Rotational Symmetry
What is (the order of) rotational symmetry? Your notes
Rotational symmetry refers to the number of times a shape looks the same as it is rotated 360° about
its centre
This number is called the order of rotational symmetry
Tracing paper can help work out the order of rotational symmetry
Draw an arrow on the tracing paper so you can easily tell when you have turned it through 360°
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
Notice that returning to the original shape contributes 1 to the order
This means a shape can never have order 0
A shape with rotational symmetry order 1 may be described as not having any rotational symmetry
(The only time it looks the same is when you get back to the start)
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Examiner Tip
Your notes
Tracing paper may help for rotational symmetry
One trick is to draw an arrow facing upwards so that when you rotate the tracing paper you
know when it is back to its original position
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Worked example
Your notes
For the shape below, shade exactly 4 more squares so that the shape has rotational symmetry order 4.
The shape below appears the same 4 times if rotated through 360 degrees.
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Lines of Symmetry
What is line symmetry? Your notes
Line symmetry refers to shapes that can have mirror lines added to them
Each side of the line of symmetry is a reflection of the other side
Lines of symmetry can be thought of as a folding line too
Folding a shape along a line of symmetry results in the two parts sitting exactly on top of each
other
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It can help to look at shapes from different angles – turn the page to do this
Your notes
Some questions will provide a shape and a line of symmetry
In these cases you need to complete the shape
Be careful with diagonal lines of symmetry
Use tracing paper to trace the shape and the reflection line and then flip on the line to see how the
shape will reflect
“Two-way” reflections occur if the line of symmetry passes through the shape
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Your notes
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Your notes
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Your notes
How do I solve problems involving symmetry?
Symmetry can be used to help solve missing length and angle problems
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Your notes
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Your notes
Examiner Tip
It may help to draw a diagram and add lines of symmetry to it or add to a diagram if one is given in a
question
You should be provided with tracing paper in the exam, use this to help you
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Worked example
Your notes
For the shape below,
(a) Write down the number of lines of symmetry.
The only line of symmetry is shown below.
Answer = 1
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(b) Shade exactly 4 more squares so that the shape has 4 lines of symmetry. Your notes
The shape below has a horizontal, a vertical, and 2 diagonal lines of symmetry.
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Planes of Symmetry
What is a plane of symmetry? Your notes
A plane is a flat surface that can be any 2D shape
A plane of symmetry is a plane that splits a 3D shape into two congruent (identical) halves
If a 3D shape has a plane of symmetry, it has reflection symmetry
The two congruent halves are identical, mirror images of each other
All prisms have at least one plane of symmetry
Cubes have 9 planes of symmetry
Cuboids have 3 planes of symmetry
Cylinders have an infinite number of planes of symmetry
The number of planes of symmetry in other prisms will be equal to the number of lines of symmetry
in its cross-section plus 1
Pyramids can have planes of symmetry too
The number of planes of symmetry in other pyramids will be equal to the number of lines of
symmetry in its 2D base
If the base of the pyramid is a regular polygon of n sides, it will have n planes of symmetry
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Examiner Tip
Your notes
If you’re unsure in the exam, consider the properties of the 3D shape.
Is it a prism or a pyramid?
How many lines of symmetry are there in the 2D faces or cross-section?
Worked example
The diagram below shows a cuboid of length 8 cm, width 5 cm and height 11 cm.
Write down the number of planes of symmetry of this cuboid.
A plane of symmetry is where a shape can be "sliced" such that it is symmetrical.
A cuboid with three different pairs of opposite rectangles has 3 planes of symmetry.
3 planes of symmetry
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2D Shapes
Your notes
Properties of Polygons
You will need to remember the names and properties of polygons in 2D, including where they have equal
sides and angles, how their diagonals intersect, which angles are equal and where they have lines of
symmetry.
What 2D shapes should I know?
You should know the general names of all the 2D polygons
A triangle has 3 sides
A quadrilateral has 4 sides
A pentagon has 5 sides
A hexagon has 6 sides
A heptagon has 7 sides
An octagon has 8 sides
A nonagon has 9 sides
A decagon has 10 sides
A polygon is a flat (plane) shape with n straight sides
A regular polygon has equal size sides and angles
You should know the names and properties of the different types of triangles
An equilateral triangle has 3 equal sides and 3 equal angles
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An isosceles triangle has 2 equal sides and 2 equal angles
A right triangle has one 90° angle
You should know the names and properties of the different types of quadrilaterals Your notes
These are squares, rectangles, parallelograms, rhombuses, trapeziums and kites
What are the properties of rectangles and squares?
Rectangles and squares have four equal right angles (90°)
Rectangles have two pairs of equal, parallel sides
Squares are just regular rectangles, all four of their sides are equal
The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other at the centre of the rectangle
This means that they cut each other in half
There will be two pairs of angles at this point
For a rectangle, one pair of obtuse angles and one pair of acute angles
For a square, all four angles will be equal to 90°
Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to find the length of the diagonal of a square or rectangle
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Your notes
What are the properties of parallelograms and rhombuses?
Parallelograms and rhombuses (rhombi) have two pairs of equal, opposite, angles
Parallelograms and rhombuses have two pairs of opposite, parallel sides
Rhombuses have four sides of the same length
Rhombuses are also parallelograms, but they are not regular as they do not have four equal angles
A square is a regular rhombus
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, forming two pairs of opposite angles
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles (90°)
This means that they cut each other in half
The diagonals will not be of equal length
What are the properties of trapeziums?
Trapeziums have one pair of opposite, parallel sides
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These are not of equal length
Trapeziums may not have any equal angles
As with all quadrilaterals, the angles add up to 360° Your notes
If a trapezium has a line of symmetry, it is classed as isosceles
Isosceles trapeziums have two pairs of equal angles
The non-parallel sides in an isosceles trapezium will be equal length
An isosceles trapezium has two diagonals of equal length
What are the properties of kites?
Kites have one line of symmetry, known as their main diagonal
The angles opposite the main diagonal are equal
The diagonals of a kite bisect each other at right angles (90°)
This means that they cut each other in half
The diagonals will not be of equal length
Kites have no parallel sides
Kites have two pairs of equal, adjacent sides
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Your notes
Examiner Tip
Commit the facts and vocabulary in this revision note to memory
You will most likely need to use some of them to work out higher level geometry problems
Worked example
Complete each statement.
i) A quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides is called a ............................................... .
A quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides is called a trapezium.
ii) A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides is called a ............................................... .
A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides is called a parallelogram.
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Properties of Circles
What are the properties of circles? Your notes
Circles are different to other 2D shapes and you must be familiar with their vocabulary
A circle's perimeter is called a circumference
Its line of symmetry is called a diameter
The line from the centre of the circle to its circumference is called a radius
circumference
The ratio is equal to π
diameter
Circles have many angle properties and you will need to learn some of them
Examiner Tip
If it isn't already there, it often helps to draw the radius from the centre to a given point on any
circle diagram you are asked to work with
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3D Shapes
Your notes
Properties of 3D Shapes
You will need to remember the names and properties of many 3D shapes, the number of faces they have,
the shapes of the faces and where they have planes of symmetry.
What 3D shapes should I know?
You should know the general names of prisms
A prism is a 3D shape with the same cross-section throughout
The cross-section of a cube is a square
The cross-section of a cuboid is a rectangle
The cross-section of a cylinder is a circle
You will also have to work with other prisms, such as triangular prisms
In these cases the exam question will make sure the shape of the cross-section is clear
You should know the names and properties of the different types of pyramids
A pyramid has a flat base with sloping sides that meet at a point at the top
The base will be a 2D shape
Most pyramids are named after the shape of their base
e.g. a square–based pyramid
Some pyramids have special names you should know
A cone has a circular base
A tetrahedron’s base is an equilateral triangle
You should know the name and properties of a sphere
What are the properties of 3D shapes?
3D shapes have a number of faces, vertices and edges
A face is an individual surface of the 3D shape
A vertex (plural, vertices) is a corner of the 3D shape
An edge joins one vertex to another
You should know the number and shape of the faces for the common 3D shapes
A cube has 6 equal, square faces
A cuboid has 3 pairs of equal, rectangular faces
A cylinder has two equal circular faces and one rectangular face (its curved surface area)
A triangular prism has two equal triangular faces and three rectangular faces
If the triangular faces are equilateral then all of the rectangles will be equal
If the triangular faces are isosceles then two of the rectangles will be equal
A square-based pyramid has one square face and four equal triangular faces
A tetrahedron has four triangular faces
3D shapes can be unfolded into a net to display their faces in 2D
A net is just a pattern that could be folded to make the 3D shape
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Your notes
Examiner Tip
Remembering the properties of 3D shapes will help, particularly with questions involving surface
area
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Nets of Solids
What is a net of a solid? Your notes
A net of a solid is a 2D drawing that can be cut out and folded to make a 3D shape
Each of the faces of the 3D shape are arranged in a certain pattern
Not every arrangement of the faces will create a net of that solid
Many solids can have more than one different arrangement that will work to make the 3D shapes
The area of the net of a 3D shape is the same as the surface area of the solid
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What does the net of a cube or cuboid look like?
The net of a cube has 6 squares connected at certain edges Your notes
There are 11 different arrangements of the square faces that will form a net of a cube
The most common and easiest to remember is in the form of a cross
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Your notes
A cuboid has 6 rectangular faces, so its net consists of 6 rectangles
The rectangles will be in three pairs of two
There are 54 different nets of a cuboid
Again, the most common and easiest to remember are in the form of a cross
Pay attention to which rectangles are the same
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Your notes
What does the net of a cylinder look like?
The net of a cylinder consists of two circles and a rectangle
The length of the rectangle is equal to the circumference of the circles
Circumference = 2 × π× radius
The width of the rectangle is equal to the height of the cylinder
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Your notes
What does the net of a pyramid look like?
The net of a square based pyramid consists of one square and four congruent (identical) triangles
The side of the square is equal to the length of the base of each triangle
The perpendicular height of each triangle is equal to the slant height of the pyramid
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Examiner Tip
Your notes
You may be given the dimensions of the solid when asked to draw a net, make sure you put the
correct lengths in the correct places by imagining cutting out and folding up the net
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Worked example
Your notes
A cuboid measures 6 cm by 3 cm by 2 cm.
On the 1 cm2 grid, draw an accurate net of this cuboid. One face has been drawn for you.
The cuboid has three pairs of rectangles measuring 6 cm by 3 cm, 6 cm by 2 cm and 3 cm by 2 cm.
Make sure the net has two of each of these rectangles in the correct places.
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Your notes
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Unit Conversions
Your notes
Converting Units
How do I convert between units for lengths?
For metric units, conversion can be done by simply multiplying or dividing by powers of 10
You need to know the basic conversions
1 cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm
1 km = 1000 m
To decide whether to multiply or divide you need to ask yourselves does the number of units increase
or decrease
e.g. The number of mm is 10 times bigger than the number of cm so mm = cm × 10
You can do the conversion in stages
First convert kilometres into metres then metres into centimetres
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) then you can use ratios to help with
the conversions
There are 5 miles in 8 kilometres so to find how many miles are in 13 kilometres you would solve
5 : 8 = x : 13
How do I convert units for mass?
For metric units, conversion can be done by simply multiplying or dividing by powers of 10
You need to know the basic conversions
1 g = 1000 mg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 tonne = 1000 kg
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as pounds to kilograms) then you can use ratios to help
with the conversions
e.g. There are 2.2 pounds in 1 kilogram so to find how many kilograms are in 10 pounds you would
solve 2 . 2 ∶ 1 = 10 ∶ x
How do I convert units for volume/capacity?
For metric units, conversion can be done by simply multiplying or dividing by powers of 10
You need to know the basic conversions
1 l = 1000 ml
1 cl = 10 ml
1 ml = 1 cm3
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as pints to litres) then you can use ratios to help with the
conversions
e.g. There are 1.75 pints in 1 litre so to find how many litres are in 5 pints you would solve
1 . 75 ∶ 1 = 5 ∶ x
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Worked example
Your notes
Convert
a) 54 cm to mm,
1 cm = 10 mm
54 cm = (54 × 10) mm = 540 mm
540 mm
b) 12 300 cm to km,
First convert from cm to m.
100 cm = 1 m
12 300 cm = (12 300 ÷ 100) m = 123 m
Now convert from m to km.
1000 m = 1 km
123 m = (123 ÷ 1000) km = 0.123 km
0.123 km
c) 485 g to kg.
1000 g = 1 kg
485 g = (485 ÷ 1000) kg
0.485 kg
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Squared & Cubic Units
How do I convert between squared units? Your notes
Converting squared units (usually used for areas) is slightly trickier
You need to remember to square the conversion rates
This is because area is 2D
The fact the units have a "squared" on them will help you remember
You need to be able to use the basic conversions
1 cm2 = 102 mm2 = 100 mm2
1 m2 = 1002 cm2 = 10 000 cm2
1 km2 = 10002 m2 = 1 000 000 m2
There are also less common conversions
1 hectare (ha) = 10 000 m2
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) for lengths:
Write the conversion as a ratio
e.g. Miles to kilometres is 5 : 8
Square the numbers to get the ratio for the conversion of the units for area
e.g. Miles2 to kilometres2 is 25 : 64
How do I convert between cubed units?
You need to cube the normal conversion rates
This is because volume is 3D
The fact the units have a “cubed” on them will help you remember
You need to be able to use the basic conversions
1 cm3 = 103 mm3 = 1000 mm3
1 m3 = 1003 cm3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1 km3 = 10003 m3 = 1 000 000 000 m3
If you are given an imperial conversion (such as miles to kilometres) for lengths:
Write the conversion as a ratio
e.g. Miles to kilometres is 5 : 8
Cube the numbers to get the ratio for the conversion of the units for volume
e.g. Miles3 to kilometres3 is 125 : 512
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Worked example
Your notes
Convert
a) 8254 mm2 to cm2,
10 mm = 1 cm
100 mm2 = 1 cm2
8254 mm2 = (8254 ÷ 100) cm2 = 82.54 cm2
82.54 cm2
b) 2.54 m3 to cm3.
1 m = 100 cm
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
2.54 m3 = (2.54 × 1 000 000) cm3 = 2 540 000 cm3
2 540 000 cm3
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