[Link].

– I SEMESTER
SPORTS SPECIALIZATION
Sports Theory I : Track and Field
UNIT–I

1.1 History of selected Track and Field events :

1.1.1 Sprints.
1.1.2 Relay Races.
1.1.3 Race Walking.
1.1.4 Long Jump.
1.1.5 High Jump.
1.1.6 Shot Put.
1.1.7 Discus Throw.
1.2 Organizational set-up of Track and Field Athletics at various levels :
1.2.1 District Level.
1.2.2 State Level.
1.2.3 National Level.
1.3 The technique of sprint events :
1.3.1 The Start.
1.3.2 Acceleration.
1.3.3 Sprinting (Legs, Arms and trunk action).
1.3.4 Finish.
1.4 The technique of Long Jump :
1.4.1 Approach (Run-up).
1.4.2 Take off.
1.4.3 The Flight.
1.4.4 Hang Technique.
1.4.5 Hitch- Kick Technique.
1.4.6 Landing.

UNIT–II

2.1 Marking for Track and Field Events :

2.1.1 Track Events.
2.1.2 Field Events.
2.1.3 Jumps.
2.1.4 Throws.
2.2 Competition rules for selected Track and Field events :
2.2.1 Sprints.
2.2.2 Relay Races.
2.2.3 Race Walking.
2.2.4 Long Jump.
 2.2.5 High Jump.
2.2.6 Shot Put.
2.2.7 Discus Throw.

2.3 The High Jump :

2.3.1 Straddle technique :
[Link] The Approach (Run-up).
[Link] Take off.
[Link] Bar Clearance.
[Link] Landing.
2.3.2 Fosbury Flop technique :
[Link] The Approach (Run-up).
[Link] Take off.
[Link] Bar Clearance.
[Link] Landing.
2.4 Relay Races :
2.4.1 4100M.
2.4.2 4400M.

UNIT–III

3.1 Shot Put :

3.1.1 O’ Brien Technique :
[Link] Initial Stance.
[Link] The Glide.
[Link] Release (Delivery).
[Link] Reverse (Recovery).
3.1.2 Rotational Technique :
[Link] Initial Stance.
[Link] The Turn.
[Link] Release/Delivery.
[Link] Reverse/Recovery.
3.2 Technique of Race Walking.
3.3 Discus Throwing :
3.3.1 Initial Stance.
3.3.2 Preliminary Swings.
3.3.3 Transition.
3.3.4 The Turn.
3.3.5 Delivery/Release.
3.3.6 Recovery/ Reverse.
 Ancient History of Track and Field

The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field events are among
the oldest of all sporting competitions, as running, jumping and throwing are natural and
universal forms of human physical expression. The first recorded examples of organized track
and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games. At the first Games in 776
BC in Olympia, Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace. From then the
Olympic Games were held every four years until they were banned in about AD 393. For the
next 1,500 years or so athletic competitions were held at a local tribal level. The scope of the
Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions, but the introduction of
the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized
today—it comprised a five-event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw,
stadion footrace and wrestling.
Track and field events were also present at the Pan-Hellenic Games in Greece around this period,
and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC. After the period of Classical antiquity (in
which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new track and field events began
developing in parts of Northern Europe in the middle ages. The stone put and weight throw
competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the
modern shot put and hammer throw events. One of the last track and field events to develop was
the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions in the Northern European Lowlands in the
18th century.
The first national championships were those of England in 1866, organized by the Amateur
Athletic Club. These preceded the formation of the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880. The
first Olympic Games of the modern era were staged in Athens in 1896. Thereafter, the game
have been held in various countries at intervals of four years, except in time of war, and gave
much impetus to the development of athletics worldwide. The international governing body, the
international Amateur Athletic Federation, which rectifies world records and approves rules, was
formed in 1912 initially with 17 members.
Track and Field: Athletics is a collection of sports events that involve running, throwing and
jumping. It is also known as 'track and field' or 'track and field athletics.'

The word 'athletics' is derived from the Greek word "athlos" that means "contest." In some
languages like German and Russian, it is referred as "light athletics" to distinguish them from
"heavy athletics," such as weight lifting, wrestling, etc.

DO YOU KNOW
Athletics was the original event at the first Olympics (ancient) 776 BC

 Athletics was the original event at the first Olympics (ancient) 776 BC
 Athletics was included in the first modern Olympic Games in the year 1896 and has been
part of the program ever since, providing the backbone of the Olympics.
 Todays athletic events are organized around a 400 metre running track, on which most of
the running events take place.
 Field events like vaulting, jumping, and throwing takes place in the field in the centre of
the running track.

Athletics is an individual sport in which athletes compete against each other for
personal satisfaction and the thrill of winning. However first and foremost in athletics must be
fun. If one is not enjoying his athletics he will not be getting best out of this sport.
Athletics is really a family of sports. Its two main branches are Track (Running ) and
Field (jumping and Throwing ). There are a couple of combined events too. Within each
branch there are many different events. Athletics comprises of Track and Field events. In the
track events competitions are conducted of races of different distances. Track events are
grouped in various categories i.e. sprints, up to and including 400 meters, middle distances
800- 3000 meters and long distances 5000 meters and more. In field events competitions are
conducted in jumps and throws. The third category of events is combined events, which
include track events as well as field events. The various events of track and field are:
Athletics comprises of Track and Field events. In the track events competitions are conducted of
races of different distances. Track events are grouped in various categories i.e. sprints, upto and
including 400 meters, middle distances 800- 3000 meters and long distances 5000 meters and
more. In field events competitions are conducted in jumps and throws. The third category of
events is combined events, which include track events as well as field events. The various events
of track and field are:
Track Events: The track includes all the lanes (paths) with line markings on both sides, having
minimum width of 1.22 m. The width of the marking line should be 5 cms except where
otherwise specified.
The track (running) events are the races to be finished within minimum possible time and include
sprints, relays, hurdles, distance running and steeplechase.
1. Short Distance Race:
1. 100m
2. 200m
3. 400m
4. 100 m hurdles (women)
 5. 110 m hurdles
6. 4 x 400 m Relay
7. 4 x 400 Relay
2. Middle distance races:
1. 800m
2. 1500m

3. Long Distance races:

1. 3000m
2. 5000m
3. 10,000m
4. 3000m steeple chase
5. Marathon
6. 20 kms walking and also
7. Decathlon
8. Heptathlon
9. Cross country race
Combined events- (for men)
First day: Second day:
100-meter dash 110-meter high hurdles
Long jump Discus
Shot put Pole vault
High jump Javelin
400-meter dash 1500-meter run

Combined Events Competitions

Men (Decathlon)
1. The Youth Boys’ and the Men’s Decathlon consists of ten events which shall be
held on two consecutive days in the following order: First day: 100m; Long Jump; Shot Put;
High Jump; 400m. Second day: 110mHurdles; Discus Throw; Pole Vault; Javelin Throw;
1500m.
Women (Heptathlon)
2. The Heptathlon consists of seven events, which shall be held on two consecutive
days in the following order: First day: 100m Hurdles; High Jump; Shot Put; 200m. Second
day: Long Jump; Javelin Throw; 800m.
 Short Distance: 100, 200 and 400 Meters

Sprinting
Sprinting is running at or near maximum speed as long as is possible for distance between and
including 100 and 400 meters. Sprinters are born rather than made. Sprinting is an explosive
event and sprints are the fundamental and basic motor skills. Sprinting needs a good running
practice on a running surface. Sprinting should be made a part of minor games, relays, hurdles,
long and triple jumps. Some part of the foot must be in contact with the track in the blocks. The
athletes and the athletic events are timed and places are pre-decided or predetermined. All the
race up to 400m are ‘sprints’. The start should be very fast, keeping in mind the reaction time
and speed. The sprinter should maintain top speed throughout up to finish line. The athletes
should concentrate on running straight through the finish line to win the race.

Support Phase: Front Support and Drive

Objective: To minimise deceleration at touchdown and to maximise forward drive.

Technical Aspects:
 Landing is on the ball of the foot. (1)
 Knee bend of the support leg is minimal during amortization; the swing leg is doubled up.
(2)
 Hip, knee and ankle joints of the support leg are strong extended at take off.
 Thing of the swing leg rises quickly towards a horizontal position. (3)
Flight Phase: Recovery and Front Swinging

Objective: To maximize forward drive and to prepare for an effective foot plant at touchdown.
Technical Aspects:
 Knee of the swing leg moves forwards and upwards (to continue the drive and increase
stride length). (1)
 Knee of the support leg flexes markedly in the recovery phase (to achieve a short
pendulum). (2)
 Arm swing is active but relaxed.
 Next support leg sweeps backwards (to minimise the braking action at touchdown). (3)

Phases of Starting

Sprint Position
Lie on the ground facing up. Roll yourself over on to the front, push up yourself on hand and
feet as if to run.

Starting Blocks:
For a good start, firm support is necessary for proper leg drive to accelerate. Starting blocks are
usually accepted method of providing firm support without any damage to the track. But block
should be rigid and easy adjustable and angle of front block and rear block should be 45 0 to 600.

Block Placement and Adjustment

The blocks are firmly fixed behind the starting line. Block should be 11’’ to 12’’ away from the
starting line, as is consistent with a steady mechanically efficient and balanced set position.

Objective: To set the starting blocks to suit the sprinter’s size and ability.
Technical Aspects:
 Front block is place 11/2 foot lengths behind the starting line.
 Rear block is placed 11/2 foot lengths behind the front block.
 Front block is usually set flatter.
 Rear block is usually set steeper.

Starting Block Setting

Entry into Block

On command of “on your mark” the runner takes his position by walking normally forward up to
the block and places his hand little in front of the starting line. Then backs to plant the feet firmly
against the block. Toe touching the ground and then bringing both hands easily and be in relaxed
position.

Sprinting: Sprinting is to accelerating the body to cover maximum distance in minimum time.
Running at sub maximal and maximal speed is called as sprinting.

 Start of the race

 Running
 Finish

In sprint the rule is athlete should use a crouch start by using starting block. In fact in event such
as 100 meters, the sprinter reaches maximum velocity by 39 to 60 meters mark. They try to
maintain but in spite of their effort the de-acceleration take place. In O the body is in state of rest
the velocity is 0 m/sec. It is followed by graceful increase velocity is called acceleration. A time
since they cannot increase and it maintain this called maximum velocity. They continue to run
this for some duration. They again change it velocity is known a de-acceleration or retardation.
Types of Sprint Starts
There are three types of sprint starts:
Bunch or Bullet start - The toes of the rear foot are approximately level with the heel
of the front foot and both feet are placed well back from the starting line.

Medium start - the knee of the rear leg is placed opposite a point in the front half of
the front foot.

Elongated start - the knee of the rear leg is level with or slightly behind the heel of
the front foot.

Crouch Start (Sprint Starts)

Crouch start: The three accepted position are known as the bunch start, the medium start and
the elongated start.
 a. Bunch start- where the feet are close together, about one foot length apart. Generally
gives quick initial movements but inhibits acceleration.
b. Medium start- where the feet are further apart, about the length of the lower leg, i.e the
knee of the rear leg is placed level with the toe of the front foot. This is the initial position
to begin teaching from, generally it is the most efficient position to start from with minor
variations to suit the individual.
c. Elongated start- where the feet are even further apart. Generally gives slower movements
but gives longer strides which may be necessary particularly for hurdlers enabling them
to get to the correct take off position for the first hurdle.
Place foot which feels more comfortable in front by trying standing starts with each foot forward
in turn.
Now kneel with both knees on the start line. Move the leg you want to the rear until the knee is
as far the toe of the front foot-either level with or behind the toes. This distance can be measure
for block placement by measuring forearm from line to front block-place front foot on block and
adjust rear block according to foot placement.
Raise front knee, and shoulder width apart close behind the starting line with thumb and
forefinger of each hand close to the line.
The shoulders should be high in crouch start, so the arms are straight, elbows flexed, each hand
is in a high “bridge” and the hands no further than shoulder width apart. Check the rear foreleg is
at right angles to the start line.
On the command “set” you simply roll your shoulders forward just ahead of or over your hands
and then raise your hips till they are slightly higher than your shoulders. Do not rush. The angle
of front knee is at least 90 degrees, and the rear knee 120 degrees. You must expect a good deal
of weight on your fingers which will soon grow stronger. Your head should sit comfortable, eyes
looking about 25 cm in front of the starting line.
The Crouch start is divided into four phase: “ON YOUR MARKS’ position, “SET’ position,
DRIVE and Acceleration

On your Marks

In the “on your marks” position the sprinter has set the block and assumed the initial position.

 Blocks correctly positioned in the lane (200m/400m at a tangent to the curve).

 Correct distances from the start line to the front and rear blocks.
 Foot blocks at the correct angles.
 Blocks firmly located in the track.
 Feet correctly located in the blocks.
 Fingers behind the line and form a high bridge.
  Hands evenly positioned slightly wider than shoulder width.
 Shoulders back and vertically above or slightly forward of the hands.
 Arms straight but not locked at the elbows.
 Head and neck in line with the spine.
 Eyes focused on the track (1 to 2 metres ahead).
 Gentle breathing.
 Face and neck muscles relaxed .
 Distribution of weight.
 Alignment of blocks, lower legs and feet
 Width of hands aparts.

Set

In the “set” position the sprinter has moved to an optimal starting position.
 Hold the breath.
 Hips rise slowly to a position above the shoulders.
 Head and neck in line with the spine.
 Eyes focused on the track one or two metres ahead.
 Shoulders vertically above or slightly forward of the hands.
 Front leg knee angle approx. 90 degrees.
 Rear leg knee angle approx. 120 degrees.
 Feet pushed hard back into the blocks.
 Comarative heights of hips and shoulders
 Angle at knee of front leg more than 90 degrees less than 120 degrees.
 Steadiness and ability to hold weight of body on hands and front foot

Fire /Drive
In the drive phase the sprinter leaves the blocks and takes the first strides.
 The legs extend forcefully against the blocks and hands are lifted upward in a natural
running action. Body is kept low.

 Response to the gun.

 Power in first few steps.
 Vigour of arm action.
 Body low for first few strides.
 Head stoops looking on meter ahead

Acceleration

In the acceleration phase the sprinter increases speed and makes the transition to the running
action. To increase velocity and to make an efficient transition to the sprinting action. In sprint
the rule is that the athlete should use crouch start by using starting block. In fact in event type
100 meters the sprinter reaches maximum velocity by 30 to 60 meters mark. They try to maintain
but split of their effort the de acceleration take place. In 0 the body is state of rest the velocity is
0 m/sec. It is followed by graceful increase velocity is called acceleration time.

Maintenance
They continue to run like this for some duration is called maintenance.

De-acceleration
After the maintenance they again chance the velocity is known as de-acceleration or retardation.
Finish
When running maximum velocity you will notice the inclination decreases, there is few degree
of inclination. When they go for finish the technique is used is DIP. Some called forward
longing. In this the athlete will move both the arms in backward direction due to this torso move
in forward direction. The best advice to beginners is simply to retain form and run through the
tape.

The finish of sprint is equally important to win the race, A minor difference places the runner
from first to second and third place. Athletes mostly adopt the following method to finish the
race: Usually three methods are used.
1. Run through
2. Shoulder shrug
3. Dip
Run through Speed is maintained through the finish line by running 2-3 strides
beyond the finish line. Most of the beginners use this technique during finish of the sprint.
The athlete is advised not to perform any finishing technique and he crosses the finish line
without breaking speed and in a natural sprinting action.
Shoulder Shrug The shoulder nearer to the finish line moves downward towards the
finish line. In this technique when the athlete comes nearer to the finishing line, he performs
shrugging action. The body twisted in such a way that the torso makes 900 angle with finish
line. This can be achieved by shrugging the opposite shoulder in respect to the forward leg.
Dip/ Lunge The arms move backward together and the torso is dipped towards the
finish line. Most of the athlete use lunge style while finishing the race. Generally, experienced
athletes use this method. In this method athlete lunges ahead with his head and chest. This
activity is fastened with the help of backward arm swing. While performing lunge finish an
athlete must maintain his body balance.
 LONG JUMP

The long-jump technique is viewed as an effective sequence of movements from

approach (run-up), last two strides, take off, flight/Action in air and landing. The rules allow a
variety of techniques for movements in mid air. This is an outstanding feature of the long jump
and distinguishes it’s from most other events.

In practice and in the literature the long jump technique is highlighted by this part of the
jump, which became known as float style, hang style and running-in-the-air style (also called
hitch-kick). This should not, however, lead us to overestimate the flight phase in the long jump.

Essential factors for a good jump are the fast run-up with a change of rhythm and cadence
during the last three strides and the quick, powerful and well coordinated take off permitting the
jumper to maintain body balance while in the air.

The distance jumped is determined by the trajectory of the body’s CG, which is a
resultant of the take-off velocity, the take-off angle, and the height of projection. Once the
jumper has lost contact with the ground, his body’s CG will follow a predetermined flight curve
which cannot be altered by any action while airborne.

During the flight, the jumper should only be concerned with retaining body balance and
preparing for an optimum landing. Just before landing, he will concentrate on keeping the loss of
momentum on landing as small as possible.

By loss on landing we mean the difference. Between the theoretically possible length of
the jump (determined by the take-off velocity, take-off angle and height of projection) and the
distance actually achieved. No gain is possible on landing, since, for mechanical reasons, the
distance which is theoretically possible cannot be exceeded by bringing the legs further forward.

During the initial phases, the conditions for flight and landing are created: thus, they are the most
important in the long jump technique. In the air and on landing the forces developed during the
run-up and take-off must become effective; consequently, the importance of the two main
sections is clearly decided in favour of the first.
When analyzing jumping technique, one should always bear in mind that single movement are
only parts of the complete movement and that they must therefore be considered in their relation
to one another. Hence, it is hardly possible to achieve a considerable improvement in the landing
action without correction the complete jump, including the last part of the run-up.
The long jump can be broken down into four components:
1. Approach run (Run-up)
2. Last two strides
3. Takeoff
4. Action in the air and
5. Landing

1. The Approach Run (Run-up)

The approach run is 30-45 meter long, followed by take off with single leg, the flight and
landing. The approach run is performed in an accelerated manner. In last 3-4 strides, the jumper
settles for the jump. The last stride is shortened by 15- 20 cm.
The approach-run is of vital importance for the long jump. The greater the run-up
velocity, which a jumper can transfer at take-off without great loss of momentum, the better the
result, will be. The speed achieved over the first 40 to 50 m, which is decisive in the long jump.
The rhythm in the approach run must allow the athlete to reach the take-off board at top
speed and in the best position to bring the take-off foot square on the board with great precision.
These are the main aspects of a good approach run.
 Length and velocity of the run-up. It should be the aim of every long jumper to take
off at the greatest possible speed.
 H. Gundlachas found that fast sprinters reach their maximum speed at some 50 m.
Yet the section in which near to maximum speed in reached begins at about 35 m.
 If a long jumper was to take off at maximum speed, the length of his approach would
have to be some 50-60 mt. Such a long run would cost too much energy to permit an
effective take-off.
 A length of run-up permitting the jumper to reach near maximum speed would appear
sufficient. This is confirmed by the following examples; in recent competitions
world-class jumpers used an approach-run of some 40 to 45 m, involving some 22 to
24 strides.
 An average of 17 to 20 strides was recorded for women. This corresponds to a run-up
of 30 to 35 m. boys and girls, youth and beginners use shorter approach runs.
 Beginning of the approach and acceleration.
The jumper begins his approach from a standing start. The first strides are similar to
these of a sprinter in the starting section, only not as “hard” as sprinting strides, since
the jumper must be cautious to maintain the spring in his muscles. With increasing
speed the jumper gradually straightens up and the run becomes more upright. He
continues with a smooth stride pattern; it is important that he runs on the ball of the
feet.
The acceleration is assisted by synchronized relaxed arm movement.
 Precision of the approach run
It is essential for every jumper to find out his own form of approach adapted to his
personal qualities. The exuberant jumper will start to increase his stride frequency
sooner than the more calm and steady athlete, who will increase his speed almost
evenly over the whole distance.
Every long jumper must work out his approach rhythm, i.e. In each approach
increase; his pace at the same rate, and takes care to keep the degree of muscles
contraction uniform.
If he satisfies these demands, his lengthening of strides will become standardized and
precision in the stride pattern will be ensured. He will thus be able to perform the
 take-off under similar conditions. Also the approach-run should always begin from
the same position. The more experience in movement the jumper has, the quicker he
can establish his approach rhythm through practice. Under the stress of major
competitions inexperienced jumpers tend to change their starting and acceleration
pattern in the approach by applying more muscular strength. The result is often not
the desired gain in speed but failure due to inaccuracy in the approach.
 Checkmarks
Check marks are valuable aids for training and controlling the run-up during work-
outs and competitions. They help to achieve precision in the approach and can
therefore be recommended to all jumpers. They should be placed in such a manner
that they can be hit by the take off foot. One check-mark at a distance which is the
midpoint of the run up is usually sufficient.
Hitting the mark should not be at the expense of concentration on the achievement of
a high run-up speed. These orientation marks will facilitate the development of
special distance awareness by a combination of the correct assessment of the distance
to the board and of the effort required to reach it.
Experienced jumpers who have acquired this sense of distance through many years of
training and have a well-established pattern of strides in the approach can do without
such marks.
 Rhythm-changes during the last strides,
During the last strides the jumper is preparing for the transition from the run up to the
jump itself.
Contrary to the old notion that in this section a certain coasting or “freewheeling”
takes place, the jumper either accelerates or maintains the previously attained
sprinting speed.
The physical preparation for the actual take-off included some adjustments. In this
phase the jumper will assume a more upright position, since the forward lean used in
sprints would prevent a good take-off lift. Throughout the approach, but particularly
during the last strides, the knees are picked up high in front in preparation for the
energetic forward drive of the free leg. A visible change in the rhythm of strides is
noticeable in some jumpers; this need, however, not be taught consciously. Most
 crucial of all is the fast and powerful execution of the last stride. Frequently the next-
to last stride is slightly lengthened in order to obtain a favourable low initial position
and there by a longer path of acceleration of the body’s CG. The changes in the stride
pattern are less marked in fast jumpers than in slower moving athletes. The reason is
that it is easier to lower the body’s CG at a low speed without producing drawbacks
for the jumper. Fast sprinters tend to change the last stride slightly in order to win
time for the complete extension of the free leg which is so important for an ideal take-
off angle. This somewhat longer stride should not, however, become a marked
“blocking” step, as this would offset the advantages of a fast run up. The significance
of the loss of time resulting from excessive “blocking” is specified by DIATCHKOV
by the following values:
Forward velocity lost in relation to jumping height [42]
60 cm = 14.4 percent
42 cm = 9.5 percent
36 cm = 6.6 percent
Hence the last stride must, in the first place, bring the flight phase rapidly to an end so
that the curve of the jumper’s CG has no descending branch but moves only upwards
after lowering in the penultimate stride. Even while changing rhythm the long jumper
must strive to move on the ball of the foot.
2. The take-off

The objective in the takeoff is to “load up” the takeoff leg to create a vertical impulse
through the jumper’s centre of gravity.
During take-off, the take off leg extends vigorously accompanied by the swing of non take
off leg and the opposite side arm. The trunk is kept upright and eyes are focused on the distal
end of the pit.

This is the most important and at the same time the most difficult single phase in the long
jump. The whole action takes only 0.12-0.13 seconds. During this short time all take-off
movements.
1- Contact with the ground
2- The foot placement
3- The absorption of the impact (at the knee, hip and ankle joints).
4- Body position
5- The active extension at take-off.
The effective take-off is not only the result of a quick extension of the take-off, but also a
result of the hip extension, of a powerful upward swinging of the free leg and the arms
and of the lifting of the shoulders. All these movements should be well blended into one
powerful action.
As outlined in the fundamentals of the jump, the take-off speed depends to a great extent
on the height of the vertical sort of the body’s CG and the duration of this shift. Applied
to the long jump, this means that the take-off must always be an explosive action in
which the path of propulsion of the body’s CG should achieve the optimum length.
Important factors are hence not only the lowering of the CG in the penultimate
stride, but also the lifting of all parts of the body during take-off. Also high propulsion of
the body’s CG will lead to a longer flight curve.
1. Contact with the ground
As the jumpers takeoff foot makes contact with the ground and the leg is loaded up
with elastic energy, a vertical impulse or lift is created through the centre of the
gravity. This vertical impulse created from the takeoff leg projects the jumper’s body
up and out in the air. Coaches should encourage jumpers to think about jumping first
and then running up and out off the ground. Focusing only on running up and out of
the ground tend to cause the jumpers to not load up the takeoff leg and bypass a
vertical impulse.
2. Foot placement
 (g-i) the last stride; (j-k) the takeoff;
The takeoff foot is placed flat and directly in front of the jumper’s body to allow
for a maximum vertical lift. If a jumper places the foot well, it will cause braking or
stopping effect at the takeoff. On the other hand, if the jumper places the takeoff foot
high up on the toes there will be little stabilizing on impact, causing the leg to buckle
collapse. As the body moves through the takeoff and up into the air, the jumper continues
to run and out off the ground.
In planting the take-off action is similar to the actual movement in running. But in
view of the fact that in the long jump the horizontal velocity must be transformed into a
vertical movement, which is directed forward and upward, the take-off foot should be set
somewhat further forward. This should, however not produce a “blocking” effect, as this
would lead to a considerable loss in speed. This is followed jumper does not wait until
the foot has touched the ground, but places the leg, with a quick grabbing movement,
back and down; the foot plant must be vigorous but not hard. When hitting the board, the
leg is almost fully extended (1700) at an angle of about 118 to 1200 with the ground
(According to V.M. DIATCHKOV). The Jumper should attempt to land with the flat part
of the foot. This can be achieved by pressing the tip of the foot slightly downward just
before hitting the board.
Planting the foot with the heel first and rolling it up over the ball and toes is not practical
in the long jump, since this would entail a loss in forward momentum and cause tension
in the take-off leg.
 3. The absorption of the impact.
The movements in this phase are usually not given sufficient attention, although the
quality of the take-off largely depends on it.
The main task here is to prepare for an effective forward and upward push.
In this phase the forces resulting from the active planting of the take-off leg are
absorbed by a slight flexing at the ankle, knee and hip joints. This puts a special strain on
the knee joint. The flexing at the knee joint of the take-off leg reaches an angle of 145 to
150 degrees. If this angle is lower or higher, two mistakes may occur at take-off;
 1st Fault :Premature take-off
Reason: The take-off leg is not sufficiently flexed.
Consequence: Increased “blocking” effect; too much strain in the take-off leg.
 2nd Fault: Delayed take-off
Reasons: The take-off leg is flexed too much.
Consequence: The extension of the leg is started too late; this reduces the height of
projection and hence the length of the jump. During the absorption of the impact, the
extensors of the take-off leg are already tensed for the explosive straightening action. At
the end of the absorption phase the jumper’s take-off foot moves on to the ball of the
foot, thus creating the preliminary tension of the foot extensors to conclude the lift off the
board. This occurs when the swinging leg has reached the take-off leg, while the vertical
projection line of the body’s CG has not yet passed the support provided by the take-off
leg, all movements at take-off are, beginning with the change-over to the ball of the foot,
directed forward and upwards.
4. Body position
The jumper’s body is upright to the ground, allowing for optimal position at takeoff.
Jumpers should focus their eyes up and out when leaving the ground. They should not
be looking down into the sand or at takeoff board.
To work on the technique of the last two strides and the takeoff, establish a short
approach run of eight strides. Short run jumping allows the jumpers to isolate and
emphasize the proper technique. In addition, jumpers can take more jumps, since
short run reduce the fatigue during training.
 Jumpers should not overemphasize jumping up high at takeoff. A high angle of
takeoff usually causes jumpers to slow down considerably to achieve the height, thus
losing critical speed needed at the time of takeoff. Jump for distance, not height.
3. The Flight (Action in air)

The objective for the fourth and the last component is to rotate the body into an efficient landing
position that maximize jump distance.
Once contact with the ground is broken, the jumper can do nothing to alter the flight path of the
centre of the gravity. However, the jumper moves the arms and legs about the centre of
gravity to counteract forward rotation and assume an optimal position for landing.

During the flight the jumper may use the hang technique. During hang technique, after
the take off, the body of the jumper makes an arc in which the hips are ahead of the arms
and legs. The legs move in the forward and upward direction in landing. The moment the
feet touches the sand in the pit the legs are flexed, and the arms move in downward and
backward direction. As a result the body moves in the forward direction.

Once the jumper has lost contact with the ground, he can no longer change the
flight curve of the body’s CG. His movement in the air can only have the purpose of
keeping his balance and preparing for a good landing with the smallest possible loss on
landing. Whether the jumper uses the float, the hitch-kick or the hang style, is immaterial.
Today the hitch-kick is the most commonly employed mid-air action. Because it
ensures an efficient take-off and an early preparation for the landing. By the circling
movements of the arms and legs during the flight, an apparent backward rotation is
produced, which is important in a good preparation for the landing. In the hang style the
following mistake may creep in during training: the jumper anticipates the hang
movement, so that at take-off the swinging leg remains passive or is not fully brought
into action. The hang style is therefore not recommended for beginners. The float style, in
which all the separate masses of the body approximate to the body’s CG, creates
mechanically the most unfavorable conditions for the landing. In this style, even the
smallest forward rotation will detract from the result. After the take-off, the jumper
performs a striding movement, in which his hip is brought forward. At the same time, he
assumes the backward lean, which is characteristic of the first part of the flight. This
backward lean should not be mistaken for a strong frontal arching (hollow-back position).
Excessive bending backwards does not bring the body into a more advantageous position
for the landing. Because it forces the legs back too much (for balance).So that the
conditions for lifting the legs for the landing remain unchanged.
When the jumper reaches the highest point of the flight curve, his trunk must have
come upright again and the legs a little forward.
From the highest point onwards, the jumper starts the preparation for the actual
landing. The aim is, first, to bring his legs up to the horizontal-beyond the flight curve of
his body’s CG. In order to compensate, the trunk must bend forward. When the jumper’s
CG has dropped to about its initial level at take-off, his trunk begins to rise again slightly.
As a reaction, the legs come down to a point where the feet are on the same level with the
flight path of the body’s CG. At the same time, the hips are shifted forward. With these
landing preparations, the feet will meet the sand close to the point of landing which is
theoretically possible. ; ending in the “sitting” position is better than allowing the body to
fold up like a jack-knife just before or during ground contact. But the jumper can only
arrive in a “sitting” position. If he has lifted his legs to the horizontal in the last part of
the flight, if a jumper, due to inadequate movements in the first part of the flight, cannot
arrive at this position, he will have to land in a crouched position to avoid a still greater
loss on landing.
After the feet have touched the sand in the pit, the jumper must strive for a good finish of
the landing, i.e. he must prevent his body from falling back. In order to do so he bends his
legs and shifts his knees and pelvis energetically forward above the landing point.
This booklet, therefore, is aimed at the long Jump coach, both prospective and active, and
at the long jumper who is not fortunate enough to know someone to approach for advice.
It is hoped that the language is simple and shows that the Long Jump is not a difficult
event to learn, and most certainly, that it is an easy one to enjoy.
There are three main types of action in the air, the Sail, the Hang and the Hitch
Kick. Strictly speaking the Hitch Kick can be further sub-divided into a 11/2 stride hitch
Kick and a 21/2 stride Hitch Kick, and even the hang is not free from variations which will
be described later.
The Hitch Kick Style
The hitch-kick technique allows the jumper to counteract the rotation developed at the
takeoff. By cycling the legs and arms through the air, the jumper is able to able to
maintain an upright body position and set up for an efficient landing position. If the
jumper did not counteract forward rotation by cycling the arms and legs, the body would
continue to rotate forward into a facedown position in the sand.
The Hitch kick Style is the most complex technique of long jumping. It
counteracts forward rotation by creating secondary axis of rotation that work in
opposition to the forward rotation. The cycling motion of the arms and legs keep the body
upright and balanced throughout the jump. The 11/2 stride hitch kick is better suited to
high school athletes. Upon Take-Off, the legs continue cycling forward as in sprinting.
The arms cycle overhead in balance with the legs. The arms are extended while moving
backward, and then are shortened as they move in front of the body. On landing, the take-
off leg comes forward first, followed by the drive leg that has cycled 1 1/2 times after take-
off. As with other styles, the head and chest are dropped forward and the arms swept back
as the feet touch the sand. Again the athlete needs to reach for the sand and get their
bottom dirty to have a successful landing. If the athlete is not jumping more than 21 feet,
the hitch kick is not recommended.
The 11/2 Stride Hitch Kick:
It has been stated previously that the aim of the Hitch Kick is to counter rotation. It has
also been stated that once the action has been completed, rotation can return causing the
heels to drop. Those two sentences embody the strength and weakness of the 11/2 Hitch
Kick, particularly for the top class jumper. If a jumper is jumping particularly far, it is
possible for the 11/2stride Hitch Kick to be completed before the sand is struck, causing
 the heels to drop. This can be countered in one of two ways; either by delaying the start
of the Hitch Kick or employing the 2 1/2 strides Hitch Kick. It is necessary at this stage to
describe the 11/2 Hitch Kick and show how it is learned
Other technique for long jumpers in the air the hang and sail. Each of these style
accomplish the same task as the hitch-kick by counteracting forward rotation in the air in
order to achieve an efficient landing position.

Hang Technique
In the hang technique, the jumper extent his or her body in a long, outstretched position
and holds that position momentarily so that he or she appears to be hanging. Then, upon
descending, the jumper snaps the legs to the forward landing position. The hinge is
beneficial in that the long position of the athlete as he or she rises in the air retards the
tendency to tumble forward and loose extension.

The Sail Style

Using the sail technique, the athlete immediately lifts the legs up into a toe
touching position upon rising up from the takeoff. This makes it easy for the novice to try
to get into a landing position early. However, it does not counter the tendency to rotate
too far forward. This can cause the feet to lose god extension upon landing.
This style is not used at all by good class jumpers, as it is most inefficient. The
sail is used by beginners who run to the board, take off, and either bring their knees up to
their chest in a tucked position or immediately after take-off shoot their legs forward into
the sand. The heels drop, and many valuable incest are lost from the jump. Novices
 should be warned from this technique as soon as possible, although even with this
method of jumping a fast run-up and height off the board will bring some reward.
4. Landing

For an efficient landing, the jumper extends and sweeps the arms down towards the group. This
action of the arms raises the leg up towards the torso and closer to the jumper’s centre of
gravity. Thus, the action of the arm causes an equal and opposite reaction with the leg.
As the jumper makes contact with the sand, the knees bends and flex to cushion the impact. In
addition, the arms are brought forward to assist the jumper’s forward momentum and
avoid falling back.
Remember the best jump come from a well- executed approach run and takeoff. Thus, if a
jumper is having a problem with undesirable rotation in the air and in inefficient landing,
always look to the approach run and takeoff as the source of the problem.
Have workout and competition videotaped so that they may be reviewed. Videotaped jumps are
an important teaching toll for coaches and jumpers. In addition, watch video of world-
class jumpers and technique.
Skill of High Jump
1. Straddle style
2. Fosbury style
3. Scissor style
4. Eastern Cut-off style
5. Western Roll Style

1. Staddle Style
It is a good method of jumping high. In this method the take off foot is nearest to the bar.
The jumper goes over facing the bar and land on the other foor. The technique is
variation of the western roll. The whole technique of jump can be divided into four
stages.
Approach run (run-up)
Speed is very important in the approach run. The jumper run towards the cross bar at
a fast speed so that higher will be the jump. In straddle style the angle of approach lies
between 350 to 400 to the cross bar. The Jumper uses 7-11 strides in approach run (run-up) in
a rhythmical manner. In last few strides the jumper prepares for take-off.
The take off
Leg contacts ahead of the body and kept straight, while the other leg remains flexed. A
backward lean is attained. The arms move in backward directions or in natural manner.
During the take off the extension of take off leg (stronger leg) is accompanied by the swing of
non take off leg in forward and upward direction. The arms also move upward
simultaneously. Due to the coordinated movements of body segments, the jumper's body
moves in the vertical direction.
Bar clearance
After the take off, in the flight phase the trunk moves around the cross bar followed by
the turning of the take off leg upward. As a result, the jumper's body rotates around the cross
bar.
Landing
For the left leg take off jumper, the jumper will land on right side of the body. The
landing should be smooth, in straddle style the landing is done on shoulder or back. At the
time of landing jumper should roll forward to avoid injury.

2. Fosbery Flop

This method is widely used in the world. It is most advantageous style because centrifugal force
is utilised in this style. In this style body curve or arc is used to clear the bar with the back and
landing on shoulder.
Approach run

A jumper should start his approach run from the opposite side of his take off foot. Usually 7 to 9
strides are taken as the approach run. The approach running is done in semi circlar approach. In
fosbury style the angle of approach lies between 300 to 400.

Take off

At the time of take off the jumper gives a powerful upward thrust to get a good upward body lift.
After that the free leg is lifted up high with bend position to enable a jumper to place his back in
an arched position over the cross bar.

Clearing the bar

The knees are semi fixed. This results in the hips and thigh being held up. After the hips clear the
bar, the legs are straightened so that helps in lifted the legs away from the bar.
Landing
The landing is done on the back of the shoulders in the landing area. After that the jumper takes a
backward roll.
 Relays
Events: 4x100 and 4x400 Meters Relay

There are two events, namely 4x100 meter and 4x400 meter Relays. The sprint start is
used to start the races. Non visual exchange is used in 4x100 meter relay while the visual
exchange is used in 4x400 meter relays.
Type of Exchange
1. Non-Visual Technique
2. Visual Technique

Non Visual Exchange: It is usually used in 4×100 metre relay races. In relay race there are two
techniques of exchange in use. Downward and upward exchange. In 4×100 metre relay race the
upward sweep in used. Here, the athlete who is outgoing runner, stands on the left side of lane.
The outgoing runner takes crouch start when the out coming runner crosses the checkmark. After
that outgoing runner starts to run and the out coming runner say up the outgoing running quickly
extended his left arm backwards. Making the “v” of the hand formed by the thumb and the
fingers pointing downwards.

The Non-visual exchange is divided into three phases: Preparation, Acceleration and Exchange

 In the preparation phase, the incoming runner maintains maximum speed and the
outgoing runner assumes a starting position.
 In the acceleration phase the runners synchronise their speed by maintaining maximum
speed (incoming runner) and maximising acceleration (outgoing runner)
 In the exchange phase the baton is passed, with an appropriate technique, as quick as
possible.
Alternate Exchanges:

Objective: To maximise the speed of the baton over 400 meters by minimising the distance run
on each lane.
Technical Aspects:
 First or ‘leadoff’ runner carries the baton in the right hand and approaches the second
runner from the inside of the lane (‘inside exchange)
 Second runner receives the baton in the left hand and approaches the third runner from
the outside of the lane (‘outside exchange)
 Third runner receives the baton in the right hand and approaches the fourth or ‘anchor’
runner from the inside of the lane (‘inside exchange)

Zone and Check Marks

Objective: To make a legal and efficient exchange
Technical Aspects:
 Baton must be exchange within the 20 m exchange zone.
 Outside runner may wait within the 10 m acceleration zone.
 Check mark is placed on the ground before the acceleration zone to indicate when the
outgoing runner should start.
 Check mark will usually be 15-20 foot-lengths from the start of the acceleration zone on
the side of the lane upon which the incoming runner will approach.
Alternate Exchanges:

 Objective: To maintain maximum speed (incoming runner).

 To assume a starting position and
 Start at the optimum moment (outgoing runner).
Technical Aspects:
 Incoming runner approaches at maximum speed.
 Outgoing runner is positioned on the balls of the feet, knees bent, leaning forward.
 Outgoing runner looks at the check mark and stats when incoming runner reaches it.

Acceleration phase:

Objective:
 To maintain maximum speed and give the correct command for exchange (Incoming
runner).
 To accelerate in a controlled manner (Outgoing runner).
Technical Aspects:
 Acceleration of the outgoing runner must be consistent.
 Incoming runner gives a verbal command for the outgoing runner to receive the baton as
the exchange distance is approached.
 Outgoing runner extends the receiving arm backwards (according to the exchange
technique used) and the incoming runner reaches forwards.
Exchange phase:

Objective: To pass the baton safely and quickly

Technical Aspects:
 Incoming runner focus on outgoing runner’s hand
 Incoming runner pushes the baton into the outgoing runner’s hand
 Outgoing runner grips the baton into as soon as contact is felt.
 Both runners stay on their side of the lane during the exchange.
 Incoming runner must stay in the lane until all exchanges are completed.
Exchange Techniques:
 Upsweep baton exchange technique
 Downsweep baton exchange Technique

The upsweep technique

(a) Upsweep/palm down method of exchange. (b) Close-up of correct hand

positions.
In this technique, the baton passer brings the baton up towards the hand of the awaiting
runner. The waiting runner holds the hand back with thumb and fore finger making a V position
and facing down. The passer must thrust the baton as far as possible into this V. Again, the
motion of the baton passer is upwards towards the awaiting runner's hand. This method may be
used during outside, inside and alternate inside exchanges. Which method to be used depends on
the coach or team but it is a good idea to remain consistent on all baton exchanges. The upsweep
motion is also in conjunction with the runner's natural arm sprint motion of down to up so it is a
good way for beginners to learn to hand off.

The downsweep technique

 (a) Downsweep/palm up method of exchange. (b) Close-up of the exchange
In this method, the baton passer brings the baton down toward the awaiting runner's hand.
The waiting runner holds their hand back with palms facing up and must grab the baton by the
upper third of the shaft. Make sure to form a platform with the awaiting hand so it is easy for the
passer to get the baton into the target area in your hand. The downsweep along with the upsweep
are the most commonly used methods. The passer needs to make sure of a downward, forward
pushing motion into the receiver's hand. In a 100 m race, it is the responsibility of the passer to
get the baton successfully into the receivers hand who is not looking back during the exchange.

Elementary outside and inside baton exchanges

Outside exchange: This requires the baton receiver to shift the baton from the receiving
(right in this case) hand to the opposite hand (left). On an outside exchange, the incoming runner
runs on the outside half of the lane when making the exchange and the receiver waits on the
inside half of the lane and looks back over the right shoulder. Keep the left foot forward.
Receiver should receive the baton with the right hand and immediately shift it to the left hand
and run from the inside part of the lane to the outside part of the lane. (This puts the runner in an
outside position to make the next hand off. Note: the 4th runner does not need to run to the
outside of the lane because he or she is not making an exchange.) The incoming runner holds the
baton in his left hand. He approaches to the receiving member from outside to pass the baton into
his right hand. This type of exchange is used preferably for beginners because they are better at
grasping the baton with the right hand.

a) The incoming runner uses the right hand to pass the baton to the outgoing runner’s
left hand.
 b) After receiving the baton, the outgoing runner switches the baton to the right hand,
getting ready for the next exchange.

Inside exchange:

The inside exchange requires the incoming runner to run on the inside half of the lane
while the awaiting runner waits on the outside half looking over the left shoulder. Right foot is
forward. This exchange is made by the awaiting runner holding out his or her left hand out to
receive the baton. It is important to immediately shift the baton to the right hand and run to the
inside part of the lane to be in proper position for the next exchange. The incoming runner hold
the baton in his right hand he approaches the runner waiting from the baton from the inside and
passes it to the outgoing runners hand.
 c) This runner’s position allows for a good target of exchange for the incoming runner

4 x 100 relay: This is one of two main types of relays and the objective in the 100 yard
relay is for the passer to pass the baton when the next runner has already achieved top
speed. There is a 20 meter changeover zone in which to do this so the timing must be
perfect. Keep in mind that in a 4 x 100 relay, the receiver of the baton does not look at the
incoming runner once they have begun to run. He or she just reaches top speed and
reaches back with the left hand. To get a good baton exchange takes a lot of practice.
Visual Exchange
 a) Visual Exchange

(b) In the visual exchange, the receiving runner extends the left hand chest high to retrieve
the baton from the incoming runner.

It is usually used in 4×400 m relay races. In this exchange the responsibility for the
change lies on the outgoing runner. Visual change are used because of the nature of the distance
run the incoming athlete is very tired at the time of the exchange and his main responsibility is to
hold the baton upward or vertical in the right hand to give the outgoing a clear view in the
crowded zone in this exchange. The outgoing runner who has turned towards the inside of the
lane when the incoming runner has approached his partner (within 2 mtr to 3 mtr) he indicates
him by a signal when to extend his receiving arm backwards. The arm fixed in this position
serves as point of orientation. If the signal comes too early or too late this results in an unsteady
baton and consequently in a loose of time when second athlete he receive the baton in left hand
extended backward. In an action the upper portion the baton is firmly into the grasping hand
between the spread thumb and four locked fingers. After the receiving the baton quickly transfer
baton in right hand.

4 x 400 relay: In this relay, each member of the team must run a 400 meter leg of the race. The
receiver of the baton looks at the incoming runner who is moving at a slower speed than the
incoming runner in a 4x100 race. There is no change over zones in this event because after the
first lap, runners do not have to stay in their lane. The baton receiver must concentrate on taking
the baton out of the incoming runner's hand rather than being "given" the baton. After the baton
pass, the receiving runner accelerates to top speed and runs a 400m lap at full speed.
 SHOT PUT
Commonly two techniques are used in putting the shot. O'Brien technique and
rotational technique.
O'Brien Technique

Techniques of shot put (Right Hand)

The technique consists of holding the shot, The starting position, grip and stance, glide, release
or put and reverse. The technique of the shot put is the same for men and women. In the initial
position the putter stand erect facing away from the direction of the shoot. These ensure a
continues acceleration of the implement along a straight line.

Grip/Holding the shot

Objective: To hold the shot firmly

The putter holds the shot in his right hand where it rests on the base of the fingers. The three
middle fingers only slightly splayed while the thumb and the little finger give the shoot position
of the shot. The shot shouldn’t be firmly gripped nor be allowed to roll into the palm of the hand.
The hand holding the shot will then be placed into the hollow of the collar bone in such a manner
that it does not rest on the shoulder but against the right side of the neck and under the jaw. The
elbow of the right arm is slightly raised and pressed forward. The upper arms points forward and
downward. Elbow is out at a 450 angle to the body.

The Preparation/Starting position

Objective: To prepare for the glide

The putter changes the rear edge of the circle with the back turned to the stop board. The right
leg is on the mid line of the circle. Trunk is bent forward parallel to the ground. Body is balanced
in the single support. Support leg is bent while the free leg is drawn towards the back of the
circle. The left leg is set back slightly in the direction of the shot put.

The Momentum Building/ Glide Phase

Objective: To initiate acceleration and position the body for the final putting action

Body moves from the forefoot on the right heel, unseating the hips. Free leg is driven low
towards the stop board. With the glide the athlete moves across the circle and gives the shot the
first impulse in the direction of the shot put. The most common preliminary action movement are

a) The Athletes Stands Erects: he then allows the trunk to drop over a well flexed right leg and
move the left leg towards the right leg.

B) Same Initial Stance the putter is bending the trunk forward while the left leg swing backward
and upward in a counter balancing movement when the trunk and the swinging leg are almost
parallel to the ground the supporting legs bend and the swinging leg is brought towards it.

As the putter begins the glide across the circles while the right foot pushes of the putting
direction. Thus he gets a position at the centre of the circle bending on the right leg (ball) with
the upper body still square to the opposite side of the throw and with the left leg extended
slightly towards the left side of the centre line. The shot must remain close to the rear edge of the
circle as long as possible. The swing of the left leg acts in flat forward direction. The swing leg is
not allowed to go up beyond the axis of head and in any place of the gliding action. While the
swinging leg start its downward movement, the foot of the supporting leg dragged flat over the
ground under the athlete body in the direction of the midline of the circle.

Glide Phase: Foot Placement

Objective: To initiate acceleration and position the body for the final putting action.

Right foot glides off its heel and lands on the ball of the foot. Right foot is placed in the centre of
the circle. Feet land almost simultaneously, right foot first. Left foot lands on the ball and inside
of the foot. The delivery phase begins when both feet land on the ground after the glide.

The Delivery Phase: Power Position

Objective: To maintain the speed of the shot and begin its main acceleration.

Body weight is carried on the ball of the right foot, right foot, right knee is bent. Heel of the right
foot and the toe of the left foot are placed in line (‘Heel-toe position’). Hip and shoulders are
twisted. Head and left arm locked back. Right elbow is at approx. 900 angle to the trunk.

Immediately after the glide when both legs are on the ground a phase we called the delivery
position is achieved. In this position the body weight is all over the flexed right leg in the centre
of the circle. The leg has landed with its inner edge against the stop board. The leading area of
the foot is only a few centimetres to the left of the midline, so that feet stand almost one behind
the other.

Delivery Phase: Main Acceleration

Objective: To transfer velocity from the thrower to the shot.

Right leg is extended in an explosive twisting movement until the right hip faces the front circle.
Left leg is almost extended and braced, lifting the body (and influencing the angle of release).
Trunk’s twisting movement is blocked by the left arm and shoulder. Right elbow is turned and
raised in the direction of the throw. Body weight is transferred from the right leg to the left.

During the glide upper body is slightly raised and the back is still facing in the direction of the
put. The position of the trunk in relation to the legs is correct when the back the left buttock and
the leg from straight line. This means that for the delivery of the body dip is not fortuitous but
depends on the degree of the flexion at the knee. In this position right side of the must remain
open the right hip somewhat ahead of the putting shoulder.

The Put/ Release

Objective: To transfer velocity from the thrower to the shot

Strike of the putting arm begins after full extension of the legs and trunk. Left arm is bent and
fixed close to the trunk. Acceleration is continued by the pre-stretched wrist (thumbs down,
fingers turning out after the release). Feet are in contact with the ground for the release. Feet are
in contact with the ground for the release. Head is behind the left (bracing) foot until the release.

On the putting action force is imparted to the shot by a fast straightening of the legs the raising
and rotation of the trunk and the drive of the arms. This is the phase in which the greatest
acceleration of the shot is achieved. The angle and the height of the released are determined by
the driving movement of the arms. The final drive with the arm is initiated by the straightening
of the right from the ankle joint and the accompanying upward movement of the trunk. In
continuous of this movement the right side of the body which is still extended now swings
forward and upward in the direction of the put. At the beginning of the leg extension and when
bringing the body upright the shot is still resting against the neck.

The putting time the legs should be changed, both feet are turned into putting direction so that
the leg and feet are then in the right position for delivery phase. A final acceleration can be
imparted to the shot and accelerated wrist movement and flick of the finger.

The Recovery

Objective: To stabilise the thrower and avoid fouling.

After delivery stepping outside the circle is prevented by the recovery. It is based managed by a
sprinting reversal of the foot of the athlete well extended by a fast explosive movement in the
putting action. A flatting phase will be ensuring. In this phase the reverse takes place by
approaching the right leg to the left and allowing left leg to move backward.
 Technique of Disco Put/Rotational in Shot Put

The rotational shot put technique is divided into following phases:

1. Gripping of the shot

2. Placement of the shot
3. Initial position/Preparation Phase
4. Rotational technique/ Momentum Building
5. Delivery/Release
6. Recovery

Gripping of the shot:

The shot is placed at the roots of the fingers and the thumb finger. Give direction to the shot
whereas remaining three fingers provide the force to the short.

Placement of the shot:

The shot place is placed tightly between the jaw bone and cervical bone.
Initial position/Preparation Phase:

Objective: To assume an optimum position and grip, pre-tensing the truck in preparation for the
turn.

Technical Aspects:

 Shot is placed further back on the neck in the Linear Technique.

 Upper body is bent slightly forward with the back to the stop board.
 Legs are spread a little more than shoulder-width.
 Weight is on the balls of the feet.
 Upper body twists against the direction of the turn.
 Turn starts when right shoulder points in the direction of the throw.
 Turn starts to the left.

In initial position the throwers back will be towards the throwing direction. The right feet will be
kept 5 to 8cm behind the rim. The shot will be caught tightly under the chin and elbow should be
in the upward direction the upper body will move to the left side and then to the right side. While
doing so the knees of both legs should be bent.

Momentum Building Phase

Objective: To accelerate the thrower and shot.

Technical Aspects:

 Body weight is transferred on to the ball of the left foot, knees are bent.
 Left foot, left knee and straight left arm turn to the left simultaneously.
 Right leg swing wide.
 Shoulders must remain level.
 Initial movement is slow and controlled in the direction of the throw

In this position the body weight will be on the feet. After taking one swing the body will start
moving towards left. The body weight will transfer to the left foot. In this position the face will
be towards the throwing position/direction. The toe position of the right foot will move up to 900.
The right foot will be towards the stop board.

Momentum Building Phase: Non-Support

Objective: To accelerate the shot and thrower and to prepare for the delivery

Technical Aspects:

 Left knee and toe must have turned completely to the front before drive off of left foot.
 Driving leg is not completely extended.
 Flat jump, lead by a high right knee (leads forwards not upwards)
 Landing is on the ball of the right foot at the centre of the circle.
 Trunk is bent for landing, the left arm folds across the chest.

Momentum Building Phase: Foot Placement

Objective: To provide support for the correct body positions.

Technical Aspects:

 Feet are more than shoulder-width apart, turn is to the left on the ball of the left foot.
 Right leg swings over the outside to the centre of the circle.
 Right foot lands on the ball of the foot in the centre of the circle, the left foot lands
quickly after the right foot.
 Power position is shorter than in the linear technique (‘Heel-Toe’ position)

Momentum Building Phase: Transition Phase

Objective: To prepare for the power position.

Technical Aspects:

 Landing is on the ball of the right foot.

 Body weight is over the right foot.
 Left knee moves close to the right knee and forwards.
 Body is kept closed (left arm is front of the trunk, head faces the rear of the circle).
 The delivery phase begins when both feet land on the ground.

Final phase/ Delivery Phase:

Power Position
Objective: To maintain the speed of the shot and begin its main acceleration.

Technical Aspects

 Body weight is carried mostly on the ball of the right foot, the right knee is bent.
 Ball of the right foot and heel of the left foot are placed on line: ‘Heel-Toe’ position.
 Hips and shoulders are twisted.
 Head and shoulders are back.
 Right elbow is at a 900 angle to the trunk.

Main Acceleration

Objective: To transfer velocity from the thrower to the shot.

Technical Aspects:

 Right leg is extended and twisted explosively until the right hip faces the front of the
circle.
 Left leg is fixed then lifts creating a ‘jump’ delivery (influencing the angle of release)
 Trunk’s twisting movement is blocked by the left arm and shoulder.
 Right elbow is turned and raised in the direction of throw.

Final Arm Movement:

Objective: To transfer velocity from the thrower to the shot.

Technical Aspects:

 Strike of the putting arm begins after full extension of the legs and truck.
 Left arm is bent and fixed close to the truck.
 Acceleration is continued by pre-stretched wrist (fingers turning out after the release).
 Release is made immediately after loss of ground contact.

In the final phase the right foot will make angle of 1250 in the centre of the circle. The right leg
should be straight. The left foot will be near the stop board. At this time ready to the put.

The Put:

In the putting action force is imparted to the shot by a fact straightening of the leg the raising and
rotation of the trunk and drive of the arm. The angle and height of the release are determined by
the driving movement of the arm. The final drive with the arm with initiated by the straightening
of the right leg from the ankle joint and accompanying upward movement of the trunk. In
continues of the movement the right side of the body which is skill extended now swing forward
and upward and direction of the put.
Recovery Phase:

Objective: To stabilize the thrower and avoid fouling.

Technical Aspects:

 Legs change quickly after the release

 Right leg is bent.
 Upper body is lowered
 Left leg swings backwards
 Eyes look down.
 RACE WALKING

For men 20 and 50 km. walk are the events, while 10 & 20 km walk are the events for
women. The walker should maintain the contact throughout the progression, the knees are
extended alternatively and the arms remain flexed and move across the body.

Technique

Definition of Race Walking: “Race Walking is a progression of steps so taken that the walker
makes contact with the ground, so that no visible (to the human eye) loss of contact occurs.”

Each walking stride comprises a single support phase (which can be divided into front support
and rear support phase) and a double support phase.

The single support phase provides acceleration and includes preparation for planting the foot of
the free leg.

The double support phase is necessary in order to maintain ground contact at all times.

Two basic rules therefore define Race Walking:

1. One foot must be on the ground at all times, the front foot must make contact before the
rear foot leaves the ground.
2. The support leg must be straightened (i.e. not bent at the knee) from the moment of first
contact with the ground until the vertical upright position.

Single support phase: Rear Support

Objective: To provide acceleration and to prepare for the double support phase.

Technical Aspects;

 Support leg is straight

 Support leg remains extended as long as possible.
 Foot of the supports legs points straight ahead and rolls along the outside edge of the sole
up to the tip of the toes.
 Free leg passes the support leg with the knee and the lower leg kept low.
 Front foot is planted on the heel.

Double support phase:

Objective: To take the rear and front support phases.

Technical Aspects:

 Front foot lands smoothly on the heel while the rear foot is in a heel-up position.
  Both knees are extended.
 Arm sing alternately

Single support phase: Front Support:

Objective: To minimise the breaking forces.

Technical Aspects;

 Foot placement of the front leg is active with a backward sweeping motion.
 Deceleration phase is as short as possible.
 Knee of the front leg must be extended.
 Swinging leg passes the support leg with knee and the lower leg kept low.

Our discussion of race walking technique covers the action of race walking from most important
action to lest important. The most efficient motion for each action will be described, and “watch
for” sections will highlight common mistakes in technique.

Posture
The principle of good race walking posture is simple. The body should be straight and relaxed
throughout the entire side. The lower back is flat throughout the stride without forward or
backward lift of the pelvis.

Watch For:

 Bending forward at the waist. This strains the lower back and limits hip movement. May
be due to muscle weakness or an imbalance in the torso muscles.
 Sway back .This limits the hip motion and moves the centre of gravity backward.
Additionally, it is shortness of the lower back or abdominal muscles.
 Excessive forward or backward lean of the whole body. These are potentially injurious
and reduce mechanical efficiency.

To maintain proper posture, a race walker’s head should be in neutral position looking
forward down the road.

Watch for:

Head pointed down. Usually caused by lack of concentration or weak neck muscles, this
may lead to cramps in the neck and shoulders.

Hip motion
Objective: To rotate the hips in a manner which ensures proper foot placement and optimum
stride length

Lateral movement of the hips is visible but should not be exaggerated. Hip flexibility is essential.
The movement of the hips is the primary source of forward locomotion provided by the body. By
rotating the hips forward (in a transverse plane parallel to the ground), the rear leg is pulled off
the ground. The hips act like a motor, accelerating the knees and foot forward. In the later
movements of the swing phase, the knees reaches a position forward of the hip. At ground
contact, the hill is slightly forward of the knee.

Watch for:

 Excessive hip drop. Modern race walking technique stresses hip rotation without much
vertical movement of the hip joint.
 Excessive lateral hip motion. If the hips moves from side to side, the body’s center of
gravity will move with them. This will slow forward movement and waste energy.

Stride length
Correct hip action leads to increased stride length. This will also lead to correct foot placement
along a straight line. Insufficient hip rotation or limited flexibility in the pelvis may lead to foot
placement on either side of a straight line. A race walker should not attempt to increase stride
length by reaching our too far in front of the body using the foot, as this will cause over striding.
A race walker should visualize the hips leading the legs and feet. Increasing the speed of the hips
will directly increase the speed of the legs.

As an individual learns to race walk, the increased use of the hips will cause the feet to land in
almost an exact straight line. Be aware: if a non race walker attempts to mimic this foot
placement without proper hip motion, he or she will place an unneeded stress across the knee.
Ideal foot placement has a race walker’s feet pointing straight ahead. Some people’s foot
placement will naturally point out in because of the way they are build. These walkers should not
try to change their foot placement. By using their hips properly, their foot strikes will occur in a
straight line, but their feet will not be parallel. While this is less efficient, forcing the
straightening of foot placement may cause stress on the legs, feet, and knees. The foot placement
of a walker who is landing with the toes pointed in, and shows that of a walker who is landing
with the toes pointed out.

Knee action
The knee must be straight from moment of heel contact until the support leg is in the vertical
position. The knee is flexed in the recovery swing, since short pendulums swing faster. The point
at which the rear leg starts to bend varies from walker to walker. The optimum point for it to
bend depends on the structure, flexibility, and strength of the athlete.

Watch for:

 The lead knee swinging through high. This is often due to a habit carried over from
running. This wastes energy and may lead to illegal strides.
 Bent knee on heel contact. This is illegal. Causes are over striding in front of the
body, inadequate quadriceps strength, and tight or weak hamstrings.
 The lead knee bending before the leg is vertically upright. This is illegal. It may be
caused by the athlete trying to walk at faster than his or her fitness level can sustain.

Foot action/Placement
Objective: To place feet correctly for achieving optimum stride length

The heel strikes the ground first with the toes elevated, not flat-footed. Once the foot has made
contact, it rolls forward, keeping the toes off the ground until the leg is supporting the body’s
weight. How long the toes are kept off the ground is directly related to the strength of the shin.
Feet are placed in a straight line with the toes pointing straight ahead. Touchdown is on the heel
and is followed by a rolling movement along outside of sole up to the ball of the foot. Push-off is
from the ball of the foot and is followed by a rolling off the tip of the big toe.

There is a push off, with the calf causing the foot to roll to vertical, before leaving the ground.
The foot of the swing leg is brought forward close to, but not brushing, the ground.

Watch for:

Landing flat-footed or with the foot slapping too soon. This has braking effect that waste
energy, shortens the stride, and may cause the knee to bend early. It may be caused by lack of
shin strength or lack of flexibility and lack of mobility in the hips.

Arm action

Objective: To conserve forward momentum and balance.

Upper body should remain relaxed. Shoulder drops to counterbalance the drop of the opposite
hip. The arm action in race walking can vary from athlete to athlete. The elbows of a race walker
are bent at angle between 90 degrees and 45 degrees. The elbow angle must be fixed, but with
the muscles relaxed, throughout the arm swing. The arm each form a short pendulum and will
swing more quickly than if they were held straight. The arms are driven predominantly backward
and forward, not from [Link] hands trace an arc from just behind the hip at the level of the
waistband to the sternum. The hand should not cross the centre line of the body. The arm
movement is low and relaxed. There should not be tension between the shoulder blades nor
hunching of the shoulders at the end of arm swing.
 DISCUS THROW

The technique of the discus throwing can be divided into various parts such as grip Stance/ Initial
position, wind up/ Preliminary swing, starting the throw/Turn in the Circle, Beginning the turn to
the center of the ring, completing the turn to the center of the ring, power position, turn to the
power position, release and reverse
A rotational technique in the discus throw has following characteristic:

1. In the initial position the thrower has his back towards the direction of the throwing area.
2. There follows a long flat jump turn with a flight phase
3. The swinging movement called the release takes place with a spring like push of by both
foot

1. Grip

Objective: To hold the discus firmly for the acceleration and to impart correct rotation on
release.
Discus is held in the last joints of the fingers. Fingers are spread on the rim of the discus. Wrist is
relaxed and straight. Discus rests against the base of the hand. Thumb rests on the discus. The
thrower attains a stance in the rear half of the circle, while toes touching the inner edge of the
rim. The legs remain shoulder width apart and flexed. Put non-throwing hand beneath the discus
for support. Throwing hand (including the thumb) is on top of the discus with fingers evenly
spread. The top knuckle of four fingers (not the thumb) should touch the rim, with fingertips over
the sides. An alternative grip is to place the index and middle fingers together while evenly
spacing the remaining fingers. Due to a slight bending at the wrist the upper phase of the discus
touches the arm.

2. Stance/ Initial position

Objective: To prepare for the turn by winding up and pre-tense the trunk, shoulders and arm.

Face away from the target. The thrower assumes a position at the rear edge of the circle with
back facing the direction of the throwing. The feet are about shoulder width apart with the toes
turn outward. The athlete is in a relax sitting down position. The body weight evenly distributed
over both feet. The right arm is hanging loosely by the right side holding the discus.

3. Wind up/ Preliminary swing

Hold the discus high in front of the left shoulder. Swing the discus back to the right shoulder
level. This action can be repeated once or twice, if necessary, to establish a rhythm. The
purpose of the preliminary swing is to create the longest possible acceleration path of the
implement the width of the preliminary swing which is important for an optimum radius
initial path of the discus depends on the position of the legs and the athlete flexibility at the
hip and the shoulder points. The swinging movements are introduced by bringing the arm
with the implement at hip and shoulder level across the left side of the body. The body
weight is thereby easily moved from right to the left leg. Almost without any interruption
there follows the actual preliminary swing in which the discus is brought far back to the right
behind the right shoulder. The body weight now transferred right side. This swing is
performed in an easy relaxed manner.
4. Starting the throw/Turn in the Circle

Objective: To accelerate the thrower and discus and to prepare for the Non-support.

Rotate clockwise, bringing the discus as far back as you can, holding it in throwing hand
only (if the target is at 12 o’clock, you should end up facing 9 or 10 o’clock). The non-
throwing arm should be pointed in the opposite direction as the throwing arm. Keep the
throwing hand as far from the body as possible throughout the throw. The weight is on the
right foot. The left heel is off the ground. At the beginning of the drive across the circle the
throwers body and the implement are accelerate simultaneously but during the turn the leg
are allowed to move ahead of the trunk and the arm with the discus. Thus creating wind up
between the hip and the shoulder axis as a result of the 2 different acceleration phases.
5. Beginning the turn to the center of the ring/ Non-Support

Objective: To accelerate the thrower and discus and build up pre-tension in the trunk
Begin rotating the shoulders in the direction of the throw as shift your weight to the left foot,
then pick the right foot up and swing it around the left. . The thrower leads the turn the left
leg begin to spin around on the ball of the feet in the throwing direction. During this turning
inward movement the weight of the body is transferred and is supported by both feet. When
the left leg has reached an angle of about 120 degree to the throwing direction the right leg
pushes of the ground. This push off action the weight is transferred to the left leg which
swings in the throwing direction. The foot of the slightly bent right leg moves on an optimal
radius towards the front edge of the circle. While the chest faces in the throwing direction,
the left foot pushes of the front starting the extension of the ankle joint. During push off the
left leg must not be extended at the knees as their extension usually acts in a vertical
direction and produce and excessive lifting centre of the gravity which should move if
possible in a plane. During the turn the shoulder follows a line parallel to the ground. The
back of the throwing hand is turned upward throughout.
Pivot on the ball of the left foot as spin toward the centre of the ring.
6. Completing the turn to the center of the ring/ Foot Placement

Objective: To provide support for the correct body positions.

Technical Aspects:
 Feet are more than shoulder-width apart, turn is to the left on the ball of the left foot.
 Right leg swings over the outside to the centre of the circle.
 Right foot is placed on the ball of the foot in the centre of the circle, the left foot lands
quickly after the right foot.
 Power position covers half on the circle (Heel-Toe position.
Just before the right foot lands in the centre of the ring, push off with the left foot and
continue pivoting toward the front of the ring.
7. Turn to the power position

Objective: To maintain momentum and begin the final acceleration of the discus.

Pivot on the right foot, swinging the left leg to the front of the ring. The left foot should
land outside of the right (if you drew a line from the right foot to the target, the left foot
should be slightly left of the line). After the turn the thrower must be in a well-balanced
position permitting him to apply a full effective force to the discus. The body weight well
over a bent right leg the left leg which is slightly flexed has been set on the ground over the
inner edge of the foot. In the throwing position the foot should be 70 to 80 cm apart. The left
foot meets the grounds about 10cm from the edge of the circle and about 10 to 15cm left the
direction of the throwing.
8. Power position

Objective: To begin the final acceleration.

The left side is planted and firm, with the left arm pointing forward. The weight is supported
on the bent right leg. The weight is shifting from the right side to the left. Shoulder axis is
over the right foot. Feet are in the ’Heel-Toe’ position. The throwing arm is behind you,
outstretched, with the discus at about hip level. The arm holding the discus is still well back
to the right to allow a maximum pull of the implement. The right hip is ahead of the right
shoulder. The trunk is erect and the left side of the body is in a fixed position forming a
straight line from the foot to the shoulder.
9. Release

Objective: To transfer velocity from the thrower to the discus.

Right leg is twisted and extended explosively. Right hip turns towards from of the circle.
Left side of the body is blocked by the extension of the left leg and fixing of the bent left
elbow held close to trunk. Body weight is sifted from the right leg to left. Continue
shifting the weight forward as you pivot your hips. Bring the arm up at approximately a
35 degree angle to release the discus. The discus should leave the hand smoothly off the
index finger with the hand at about shoulder height. The release is the most important
phase of the entire movement of discus throwing. It determines most significant angles.
The angle of release and angle of incidence of the airborne implement as well as the
speed and height of release have a significant contribution. Discus leaves the hand at or
slightly below shoulder height (shoulder are parallel!).

This action is introduced by turning the right side of the body around (foot, knee, hip).
The left side of the body forms a lever which counteracts the pressure of the right leg.
The right arm is still retracted well behind the right side of the body and described a wide
radius in coming forward. The release is accompanied by a springy push off with both
feet from the ground. The discus is released at about shoulder height with the back of the
hand turn upward. A rotating movement is imparted to the implement in its clockwise
spin by a strong tangential pull with index finger.
10. Reverse

Objective: To stabilise the thrower and avoid fouling

Technical Aspects:

 Legs change their position quickly after release.

 Right leg is bent.
 Upper body is lowered
 Left leg swings backwards

After the reverse the discus has left the thrower’s hand he will reverse his foot to preserve
himself from falling at the circle to regain balance. Follow through, rotating to the left to
remain in the ring and avoid fouling.