Lilongwe University of Agriculture and

Natural Resources

Basic Sciences Department

Trigonometry and Introduction to Calculus -

MAT 31201
Module

Francisco Chamera

July 27, 2022

Module Overview

This module has two parts namely trigonometry and Calculus. The main aim
for this module is to extensively cover trigonometry and provide a comprehensive
introduction to a branch of mathematics called calculus. For trigonometry you
will learn functions, identities, graphs and equations. For calculus you will learn
the main areas of calculus, namely, differentiation and integration. You will
learn techniques and applications of both areas.
The first unit discusses arcs, sectors and trigonometric functions. The idea
here is to introduce you to formulas for arc length and area of a sector. You will
also learn the six trigonometric functions and how they relate to each other. The
second unit covers trigonometric identities and formulas. Here we discuss
the method of verifying identities. We also look at various formulas and how they
are derived. In unit 3 we discuss graphs, inverses and equations. Here you
learn how to sketch trigonometric graphs, how to calculate inverses and, finally,
how to solve trigonometric equations.
The fourth unit discusses the limit of a function and continuity of functions.
The focus is on calculating the limit of a function and identifying continuous func-
tion at a given number. The fifth unit gives the definition and techniques of
differentiation. Unit 6 looks at differentiation of transcendental functions.
In Unit 7, we look at applications of differentiation to other areas like rates
of change and the shapes of graphs. In unit 8, we introduce integration. Both
indefinite and definite integrals are discussed. Unit 9 covers techniques of inte-
gration. The substitution rule, integration by parts and integration of rational
functions by partial fractions are discussed. Finally, unit 10, looks at one applica-
tion of integration which is finding areas enclosed by curves.

ii
Contents

Module Overview ii

I Trigonometry 1

1 Arcs, Sectors and Trigonometric Functions 3

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Angular Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Arc Length and Area of a Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Positive and Negative Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.2 Co-terminal Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.3 The Four Quadrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.4 Reference Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.5 Standard Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Trigonometric Identities and Formulas 24

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Proving Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Addition and Co-function Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

iii
 2.6 Products, Sums and the Expression a sin θ + b cos θ . . . . . . . . . 40

3 Graphs, Inverses and Equations 49

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Trigonometric Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1 The Sine and Cosine Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 The Tangent Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.3.3 Graphs of the Transformed Sine and Cosine Functions . . . 53
3.3.4 Sketching Trigonometric Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.5 Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

II Calculus 71

4 Limits and Continuity of Functions 73

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Definition and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3.2 One Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.3 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Tangent Lines to the Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5 Definition and Techniques of Differentiation 97

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Differentiation from First Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3.1 The Derivative Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 Formulae and Techniques of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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 5.4.1 The Derivative of a Constant Function . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.2 The Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.3 The Constant Multiple Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4.4 The Sum and Difference Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4.5 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.6 The Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.4.7 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.6 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.6.1 The Second Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.6.2 The Third Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions 116

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.4 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.5 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

7 Applications of Derivatives 126

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3 Rates of Change and Related Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3.1 Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.3.2 Related Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.3.3 Increments and Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.4.2 Absolute Extrema of a Function on a Closed Interval . . . . 140
7.4.3 Local Extrema: The First Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.4.4 Concavity and Its Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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 7.4.5 Local Extrema: The Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . 147

8 Integration 155
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.3 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.3.1 The Constant Rule of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.3.2 The Power Rule of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.3.3 Properties of Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.3.4 Integrals of Natural Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.3.5 Integrals of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.4 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

9 Integration Techniques 167

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.3 The Substitution Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.3.1 The Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . 171
R g ′ (x)
9.3.2 The Integral dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
g(x)
9.4 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.5 Integration by Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.5.1 Strategy for Decomposing Rational Functions into Partial
Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

10 Application of Integration 191

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.3 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3.1 The Area between a Curve and the x-axis . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3.2 The Area between Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

vi
 Part I

Trigonometry

1
Unit 1

Arcs, Sectors and Trigonometric

Functions

1.1 Introduction
In this unit, you will learn that angles are measured in degrees and radians. You
will also learn formulas for finding the length of the arc and area of a sector. The
unit also covers trigonometric functions. You will learn the six functions and how
they are related.

1.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ convert angles between degrees and radians

ˆ calculate arc length and area of a sector

ˆ find angles which are co-terminal to a given angle

ˆ find the reference angle of a given angle

Key Terms

3
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ arc

ˆ sector

ˆ trigonometric function

ˆ radian measure

ˆ positive and negative angles

ˆ co-terminal angles

ˆ reference angles

ˆ the four quadrants

ˆ standard angles

1.3 Angular Measure

1
Angles are measured in degrees and radians. The degree (◦) is th of a complete
360
revolution. The number 360 is only an arbitrary choice. A radian is defined as
below.
Definition 1.1. One radian is the measure of an angle made by an arc of length
equal to the radius. (See Figure 1.1).

Increasing the length of an arc to 2r results into an angle of 2 radians. In general,

an angle of n radians is formed by an arc of length nr at the centre of the circle
with radius r. Recall that the circumference of the circle of radius r has length
2πr. Therefore, a complete revolution is 2π radians. So 2π radians = 360◦ giving
π π π π
π radians = 180◦ , radians = 90◦ , radians = 45◦ , radians = 60◦ and
2 4 3 6
radians = 30◦ .
π 180
One degree is radians while one radian is degrees. We use this to convert
180 π
between radians and degrees as in Table 1.1 below.

4
 Figure 1.1: One radian

To change Multiply by
Degrees to radians π/180◦
Radians to degrees 180◦ /π

Table 1.1: Converting between degrees and radians

The angle that measures α radians is written α rad or αr , but normally just as α.
However, if the angle measures β degrees, the degree symbol ◦ must be used as
in β ◦ .

Example 1.2. Convert the following angles to degrees.

7π
1.
4
5π
2.
6

Solution
180◦
We multiply by
π

7π 7π 180◦
1. = × = 315◦ .
4 4 π
5π 5π 180◦
2. = × = 150◦ .
6 6 π
Example 1.3. Convert the following angles to radians.

1. 150◦

5
 2. 540◦

Solution
π
We multiply by .
180◦

π 5π
1. 150◦ = 150◦ × ◦
= rad.
180 6
π
2. 540◦ = 540◦ × = 3π rad.
180◦

Table 1.2 gives radian measure for some standard angles.

Degrees 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 270◦

π π π π 3π
Radians
6 4 3 2 2
Table 1.2: Degrees and Radian Measures

1.4 Arc Length and Area of a Sector

In Figure 1.2, the arc AB of length s subtends an angle θ at the centre of the circle
of radius r. We need to find the formula for calculating s given r and θ.

Figure 1.2: sector

By the definition of a radian, an arc of length nr subtends an angle of n radians at

the centre of the circle. Hence the length of an arc s on a circle of radius r which

6
subtends an angle of θ radians is

s = rθ. (1.1)

This formula is derived from the definition of a radian. Therefore it is valid only
when θ is given in radians.

Example 1.4. In a circle of radius 14 cm, find;

3π
1. the length of the arc which subtends an angle of radians at the centre.
7
2. the angle subtended by an arc of length 6 cm.

Solution

3π
1. By Equation 1.1, s = rθ = 14 × = 6π cm.
7
s 6
2. From s = rθ, we have θ = = = 0.43 rad.
r 14
Example 1.5. Find the length of the arc which subtends an angle 45◦ at the centre
in a circle of radius 8 cm.

Solution
π
r = 8 and θ = 45◦ = .
4
π
Hence s = rθ = 8 × = 2π cm (≈ 6.3 cm).
4
Note that the area of the sector AOB in Figure 1.2 is proportional to the angle θ
at the centre. Recall that the area of the circle with radius r is πr2 and is obviously
proportional to the central angle 2π. Now
area of sectorAOB θ
=
area of circle 2π
A θ
2
=
πr 2π
θ
A= × πr2
2π
1
= r2 θ.
2

Again this formula is valid only if θ is given in radians.

7
Example 1.6. 1. Find the area of the sector with radius 4 cm and central angle
2.5 radians.

2. If the area of the sector is 6.4 cm2 and its angle is 0.8 rad, find its radius.

3. Find the area of the sector bounded by radii of 15 cm and arc of length 20
cm.

Solution

1 1
1. A = r2 θ = × 42 × 2.5 = 20 cm2 .
2 2
1 1
2. A = r2 θ ⇒ 6.4 = r2 × 0.8 ⇒ 6.4 = 0.4r2 ⇒ r2 = 16 giving r = 4 cm.
2 2
s 20 4
3. r = 15, s = 20 and θ =
= = .
r 15 3
1 2 1 4 1 4
Hence A = r θ = × 152 × = × 225 × = 150 cm2 .
2 2 3 2 3

Recall that the perimeter of a closed geometric figure is a continuous line which
forms the boundary of the figure. Clearly the perimeter of the sector in Figure 1.2
is
P = r + r + s = 2r + rθ.

Example 1.7. A sector of a circle has radius r and angle θ. Find the value of θ
if the perimeter of the sector equals half the circumference of the circle.

Solution
1
2r + rθ = (2πr) ⇒ 2r + rθ = πr ⇒ 2 + θ = π giving θ = π − 2 (≈ 1.142) radians.
2
Example 1.8. A sector of angle θ in a circle of radius r cm has an area of 5 cm2
and its perimeter is 9 cm. Find the values of r and θ.

1
A = r2 θ = 5 (1.2)
2
P = 2r + rθ = 9 (1.3)

9 − 2r
By Equation 1.3, rθ = 9 − 2r ⇒ θ = .
r
8
  
1 9 − 2r
Substituting in Equation 1.2 we have r2 = 5 ⇒ 9r − 2r2 = 10
2 r
5
⇒ 2r2 − 9r + 10 = 0 giving r = 2 and r = .
2
9−2×2 9−4 5
When r = 2, θ = = = .
2 2 2
5
5 9−2× 2 9−5 2 8
When r = , θ = 5 = 5 =4× = .
2 2 2
5 5
5 5 8
Hence r = 2 when θ = and r = when θ = .
2 2 5

Activity 1.9.
10π 3π 7π 7π
1. Convert the following radians to degrees: , , and
6 16 4 9
2. Convert the following angles to radian measure as a multiple of π: 450◦ , 78◦ ,
750◦ , 150◦ and 540◦ .
3. The area of a sector of a circle is 15 cm2 and the length of its arc is 3 cm.
Calculate the radius of the sector and its angle.
π π
4. Find cos , tan 2, sec and csc 7.
3 4
5. The area of a sector of a circle is 9cm2 . If its radius is 6cm find the angle of
the sector and the length of its arc.
6. If the area of a sector is 6.4cm2 and its angle is 0.8 rad, find its radius.
7. A chord in a circle of radius 8 cm is subtended by an angle of 40◦ at the
centre. Find
(a) the length of the chord.
(b) the area of the minor segment.
8. Figure 1.3, shows part of a circle centre O of radius 6cm.
(a) If α = 0.8 radians, find the length of the arc BC and the area of the
sector BOC.
(b) Find the value of the angle α (in radians) for which the arc length BC
is equal to the sum of the arc length CA and the diameter.

9. A sector of a circle radius r has a total perimeter of 12cm. If its area is

Acm2 , show that A = 6r − r2 .

9
 Figure 1.3: semicircle

1.5 Trigonometric Functions

The six trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and
cotangent. Using the right angled triangle in Figure 1.4, we define these functions
as follows;

opposite hypotenuse
sin θ = csc θ =
hypotenuse opposite
adjacent hypotenuse
cos θ = sec θ =
hypotenuse adjacent
opposite adjacent
tan θ = cot θ = .
adjacent opposite

π
Note that here θ is an acute angle, i.e., 0 < θ < (or 0◦ < θ < 90◦ ). Next we
2
look at an approach which define trigonometric functions for any angles.
Figure 1.5 is the unit circle (circle of radius 1) drawn on an x − y plane. The
centre for this circle is actually the origin. The point P on the circumference
of this circle is obtained by rotating OP from the positive x-axis in the counter
clockwise direction. θ is the angle between OP and the x-axis. It is said to be in
standard position. Note that θ is arbitrary (represents any angle).
y x
Definition 1.10. By the unit circle in Figure 1.5, sin θ = = y, cos θ = = x,
1 1
y 1 1 x
tan θ = , csc θ = , sec θ = and cot θ = .
x y x y

By Definition 1.10, coordinates of the point P in Figure 1.5 are (x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ).
Since trigonometric functions are defined by the unit circle, they are also called
circular functions. Definition 1.10 shows that the six trigonometric functions are

10
Figure 1.4: Right angled Triangle

Figure 1.5: Unit Circle

11
 sin θ 1 1 cos θ
related as follows; tan θ = , csc θ = , sec θ = and cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ
1
.
tan θ
Triangle P RO in Figure 1.5 is right angled at R. Therefore, by the Pythagoras
theorem, x2 + y 2 = 1. Since x = cos θ and y = sin θ, we have,
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1.
This is true for any angle (remember θ is an arbitrary angle). Here cos2 θ = (cos θ)2
(we find cosine of an angle then square the result) but cos2 θ ̸= cos θ2 .
Again from the unit circle above, the maximum value of x is 1 and the minimum
value is −1, i.e., −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. Similarly we have −1 ≤ y ≤ 1. Since x = cos θ and
y = sin θ, we have
−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1
and
−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1.

1.5.1 Positive and Negative Angles

The angle θ in Figure 1.5, is considered positive since it is formed by rotating the
line OP from the positive x-axis in a counter clockwise direction. If OP is rotated
in a clockwise direction, the resulting angle is negative (see Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Positive and negative angles

Note that by Figure 1.6, cos(−θ) = x = cos θ, sin(−θ) = −y = − sin θ and

tan(−θ) = − tan θ. Therefore cosine function is an even function while sine and

12
tangent are odd functions. Consequently secant function is even but cosecant and
cotangent are odd functions.

Example 1.11.

sin(−24◦ ) = −0.4067 = − sin 24◦ ,

cos(−24◦ ) = 0.9135 = cos 24◦ ,
tan(−24◦ ) = −0.4452 = − tan 24◦ .

1.5.2 Co-terminal Angles

Recall that the angle θ in the unit circle in Figure 1.5 is formed by rotating the line
OP from the positive x-axis in a counter clockwise direction. Suppose θ = 25◦ .
Starting at the same positive x-axis, if we can make one revolution before coming
to OP we have an angle of 385◦ . If we can make two revolutions we have an angle
of 745◦ . If we take a different direction but still stop at the same OP , we have
the angle −335◦ . The angles 25◦ , 385◦ , −335◦ and 745◦ are co-terminal. Since
the number of revolutions is infinite, there are infinitely many angles which are
co-terminal to any given angle.

Definition 1.12. Given the angle in standard position with measure θ, then the
measures of the angles that are co-terminal with θ are given by

θ + 360◦ k

where k is an integer.

By Definition 1.12, co-terminal angles are angles which differ by an integer multiple
of 360◦ (or 2π if the angles are measured in radians).

Example 1.13. If θ = 70◦ , find two positive and two negative angles which are
co-terminal to θ.

Solution
To find positive co-terminal angles we add to θ any positive integer multiple of 360◦ ,
for example 360◦ itself and 720◦ . This gives 360◦ + 70◦ = 430◦ and 720◦ + 70◦ =
790◦ .
To find negative co-terminal angles, we add any negative integer multiple of 360◦
to 70◦ , for example −360◦ and −720◦ . This gives −360◦ + 70◦ = −290◦ and
−720◦ + 70◦ = −650◦ .

13
 5π
Example 1.14. Find any two negative angles which are co-terminal to .
2
Solution
5π 3π 5π 7π
− 4π = − and − 6π = − .
2 2 2 2
5π 3π 7π
Hence the angles which are co-terminal to include − and − .
2 2 2

1.5.3 The Four Quadrants

We partition the complete revolution into four quadrants. The first quadrant has
angles between 0◦ and 90◦ . The second quadrant has angles between 90◦ and 180◦ .
The third and fourth quadrants have angles between 180◦ and 270◦ , and 270◦ and
360◦ respectively (see Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: The Four Quadrants

A quadrantal angle is an angle whose final rotational point lies on the x-axis or
y-axis. The angles 0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦ , 270◦ , 360◦ and their co-terminal angles are quad-
rantal angles.
The sign of a trigonometric function of an angle θ depends on the quadrant of θ.
In the first quadrant all the three basic trig functions, sin θ, cos θ and tan θ, are
positive. In the second quadrant, sin θ is positive but cos θ and tan θ are negative.
In the third quadrant, tan θ is positive while sin θ and cos θ are negative. In the
fourth quadrant, cos θ is positive but sin θ and tan θ are negative (see Figure 1.8).

14
 Figure 1.8: What function is positive in which quadrant

1.5.4 Reference Angles

Every angle in the first quadrant corresponds to exactly one angle in each of the
other three quadrants. The first quadrant angle in this case is called the reference
angle of the angle in the other quadrant.
Definition 1.15. Let θ be a non-quadrantal angle in standard position. The ref-
erence angle for θ is the (first quadrant) acute angle β that the terminal side of θ
makes with the x-axis.

Figure 1.9 illustrates the reference angle in each quadrant. By Figure 1.9, if θ is in
the first quadrant, then its reference angle is β = θ. If θ is in the second quadrant,
then β = 180◦ − θ, if θ is in the third quadrant, then β = θ − 180◦ and β = 360◦ − θ
if θ is in the fourth quadrant.
Table 1.3 gives a summary of the discussion on reference angles.

Quadrant of θ Formula for β

Degrees Radians
I θ θ
◦
II 180 − θ π−θ
◦
III θ − 180 θ−π
IV 360◦ − θ 2π − θ

Table 1.3: Formulas for Reference Angles

15
 Figure 1.9: Reference Angles

Example 1.16. Find the reference angle β for each angle θ below:
3π
(a) θ = 312◦ (b) θ = 245◦ (c) θ = −240◦ (d) θ = (e) θ = 3.5
4

Solution

(a) The angle θ = 312◦ is in the fourth quadrant.

Therefore β = 360◦ − θ = 360◦ − 312◦ = 48◦ .

(b) The angle θ = 245◦ is in the third quadrant.

Therefore β = θ − 180◦ = 245◦ − 180◦ = 65◦ .

(c) The angle between 0◦ and 360◦ which is co-terminal to −240◦ is

−240◦ + 360◦ = 120◦

which is in the second quadrant. Hence β = 180◦ − 120◦ = 60◦ .

3π
(d) The angle θ = is in the second quadrant.
4
3π π
Therefore β = π − θ = π − = .
4 4
3π
(e) Since π < 3.5 < , the angle θ = 3.5 is in the third quadrant.
2
Therefore β = θ − π = 3.5 − π.

16
Working in reverse we can find angles in all the remaining three quadrants whose
reference angle is the given first quadrant angle. For example, the angle β = 30◦ is
the reference angle to 180◦ − 30◦ = 150◦ in the second quadrant, 180◦ + 30◦ = 210◦
in the third quadrant and 360◦ − 30◦ = 330◦ in the fourth quadrant. The sine
function values for these angles are related as follows;

sin 150◦ = 0.5 = sin 30◦ ,

sin 210 = −0.5 = − sin 30◦ ,
sin 330◦ = −0.5 = − sin 30◦ .

The cosine function values are related as follows;

cos 150◦ = −0.866 = − cos 30◦ ,

cos 210◦ = −0.866 = − cos 30◦ ,
cos 330◦ = 0.866 = cos 30◦ .

The tangent function values are related as follows;

tan 150◦ = −0.5774 = − tan 30◦ ,

tan 210◦ = 0.5774 = tan 30◦ ,
tan 330◦ = −0.5774 = − tan 30◦ .

The above discussion shows how reference angles can be used to find values of the
trigonometric functions. If θ is a non-quadrantal angle in standard position, then
to find the value of a trigonometric function at θ, find its value for the reference
angle β and prefix the appropriate sign. The appropriate sign is determined by
considering which function is positive or negative in the quadrant of the angle θ.

Example 1.17. Find cos 300◦ given that cos 60◦ = 0.5.

Solution
θ = 300◦ is in the fourth quadrant and has reference angle β = 60◦ . Recall that
cosine is positive in the fourth quadrant. Hence

cos 300◦ = cos 60◦ = 0.5.

17
1.5.5 Standard Angles

We consider trigonometric function values of angles which appear quite often.

These are 45◦ 30◦ , 60◦ and quadrantal angles (0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦ , 270◦ and 360◦ ). To
begin with, we look at the 45◦ angle in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: The 45◦ Angle

The triangle
√ in Figure 1.10 is right angled at Q. Hence, by Pythagoras theorem,
P R = 2. Now

√
opposite 1 2
sin 45◦ = =√ = ,
hypotenuse 2 2
√
adjacent 1 2
cos 45◦ = =√ = ,
hypotenuse 2 2
opposite 1
tan 45◦ = = = 1.
adjacent 1

In Figure 1.11 we look at the angles 30◦ and 60◦ .

Triangle ABC in Figure 1.11 is equilateral with each side and angle measuring 2
and 60◦ respectively. We drop perpendicular bisector from A meeting BC at D.
Then triangles ADB and ADC are both right angled at D. We use either triangle

18
 Figure 1.11: The 30◦ and 60◦ Angles

to get the following results for the 60◦ angle;

√
◦ opposite 3
sin 60 = = ,
hypotenuse 2
adjacent 1
cos 60◦ = = ,
hypotenuse 2
opposite √
tan 60◦ = = 3.
adjacent

For the 30◦ angle we have;

opposite 1
sin 30◦ = = ,
hypotenuse 2
√
adjacent 3
cos 30◦ = = ,
hypotenuse 2
opposite 1
tan 30◦ = = √ .
adjacent 3

Trigonometric function values for quadrantal angles are easily determined from
the unit circle in Figure 1.5. For example,

sin 180◦ = y-co-ordinate at 180◦ = 0,

cos 180◦ = x-co-ordinate at 180◦ = 1,
and tan 180◦ = 0.

19
 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60
√
◦
90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1 0 −1 0
√2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0 −1 0 1
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 U 0 U 0
3
Table 1.4: Trig Function Values for Standard Angles

These results are summarised in Table 1.4. U stands for undefined.

Note, from Table 1.4 that,
√
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 3
1. cos 30 = sin 60 = sin(90 − 30 ) = .
2
2. sin 30◦ = cos 60◦ = cos(90◦ − 30◦ ) = 1/2.

In general, we have,

1. cos θ = sin(90◦ − θ).

2. sin θ = cos(90◦ − θ).

For example, sin 25◦ = 0.4226 = cos 65◦ .

The above formulas are called co-function formulas for cosine and sine respec-
tively. Proofs for these and other co-function formulas are provided in Section
2.

Example 1.18. Find the exact values of sin 315◦ and cos 240◦ .

Solution
The angles 315◦ and 240◦ are in the fourth and third quadrants respectively. Their
reference angles are 45◦ and 60◦ respectively. Recall that sine function is negative in
the fourth quadrant and that cosine function is also negative in the third quadrant.
√
sin 315◦ = − sin(360 − 315)◦ = − sin 45◦ = −1/ 2

and
cos 240◦ = − cos(240 − 180)◦ = − cos 60◦ = −1/2.

20
 3π 11π
Example 1.19. Find the exact values of sin and tan .
4 6

Solution
3π 11π
The angles and are in the second and fourth quadrants respectively. Their
4 6
3π π 11π π
reference angles are π − = and 2π − = respectively.
4 4 6 6
√
3π π 2
sin = sin =
4 4 2
and
11π  π π 1
tan = tan − = − tan = − √ .
6 6 6 3

Activity 1.20.

1. State whether each statement is true or false.

(a) The angles −305◦ and 55◦ are co-terminal.

(b) cot θ × tan θ ̸= 1.
(c) The angle 764◦ lies in the fourth quadrant.
(d) If sin A = sin B, then A = B.
13π
(e) The angle lies in the second quadrant.
3
7π π
(f) The angles and are not co-terminal.
3 3
2. In which quadrant(s) is the angle θ if each of the following is satisfied?

(a) cos θ > 0 but csc θ < 0

(b) cot θ < 0, csc θ > 0, sin θ > 0
(c) sin θ > 0 but sec θ < 0
(d) cot θ > 0, csc θ < 0, cos θ < 0

3. Find the exact value of sin 120◦ , sin(−300◦ ), sin 240◦ , cos 60◦ , sin 420◦ and
31π
sec [Use Table 1.4].
3
7π
4. Let θ = − .
3
21
 (a) Convert θ to degrees.
(b) Find two positive angles, in radians, which are co-terminal to θ.
5. Find two negative angles which are co-terminal to the angle −55◦ .
6. If the given angle is in standard position, find two positive coterminal angles
5π
and two negative coterminal angles; 121◦ , 145◦ , 243◦ , 310◦ 620◦ , 567◦ , ,
4
π 2π 5π
− ,− and .
4 3 6
7. Find the reference angle β if θ has the given measure; 240◦ , 340◦ , −165◦ ,
3π π 4π 23π 7π
275◦ , −400◦ , − , − , , 6, − , 5, and 2.3.
4 6 3 6 4

Unit Summary
In this unit you have learnt the angular measure, arcs, sectors and trigonometric
functions. You have learnt how to convert angles between radians and degrees.
You have also learnt the six trigonometric functions, co-terminal angles, reference
angles and standard angles.

Activity 1.21 (Unit Test).

1. If cos(x + 20◦ ) = sin x, find x.

2. Convert θ = 0.2π to degrees.
4π π 11π 7π 3π
3. Convert each of these radian angles to degrees; − , ,− , ,− ,
9 10 12 15 11
5π
7.4, − and 6.3.
11
4. Convert each angle to radians as a multiple of π; 225◦ , 520◦ , 315◦ , −405◦ ,
−75◦ , 240◦ , and −210◦ .
5. Find the area of the sector whose radius is 35 cm and perimeter 147 cm.
6. The area of a sector of a circle with a central angle of 4 rad is 8 m2 . Find
the radius of the circle

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.9

22
 10π 3π
1. = 300◦ , = 33.75◦
6 16
5π
2. 450◦ = , 540◦ = 3π
2
3
3. r = 10 and θ =
10
5. θ = 0.5

6. r = 4

Suggested Solutions to Activity 1.20

1. (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) False (e) False (f) True

2. (a) Fourth (b) second (c) second (d) third

5π 11π
4. (a) −420◦ (b) and
3 3
5. −415◦ and −775◦

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. x = 35◦

2. 36◦

6. 2 m

23
Unit 2

Trigonometric Identities and

Formulas

2.1 Introduction
In this unit, you will learn how to prove trigonometric identities. You will learn
relevant proof techniques including things you need to avoid when proving identi-
ties. You will also learn various trigonometric formulas, how they are derived and
how they are used to solve various problems.

2.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ prove trigonometric identities

ˆ derive trigonometric formulas
ˆ use formulas to solve problems

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

24
 ˆ trigonometric identities

ˆ addition formula

ˆ double angle formula

ˆ half angle formula

ˆ co-function formula

ˆ product to sum formula

ˆ sum to product formula

2.3 Proving Identities

An identity is a tautology, an equation or statement that is always true. For
1
instance, the equation sin θ = is an identity (of course it is a simple iden-
csc θ
tity). Proving an identity means showing that both sides are actually having the
same ‘thing’. When proving an identity we do not take both sides at the same
time. Instead, we use logical steps to show that one side of the equation can be
transformed to the other side of the equation.
Identities are proved using other well known identities or those already proved. In
Section 1.5 we derived a number of identities from the unit circle. To show their
importance we list them below.

1. The reciprocal identities are

1 1 1
sec θ = , csc θ = and cot θ = .
cos θ sin θ tan θ

2. The tangent and cotangent identities are

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = and cot θ = .
cos θ sin θ
25
 3. For the identity cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 (or sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ and cos2 θ =
1 − sin2 θ), if we divide both sides by sin2 θ we obtain

cos2 θ sin2 θ 1
2 + 2 = 2 ⇒ cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ.
sin θ sin θ sin θ
Diving both sides of the equation cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 by cos2 θ gives

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.

Hence the Pythagorean identities are

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ and 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.

Steps in proving identities;

1. Take one side and transform it to the expression on the other side. Start
with the more complicated side of the identity, and transform it into the
simpler side. If there is no direct way of connecting the two, transform both
sides of an identity to a common expression.

2. Try algebraic operations such as multiplying, factoring, combining fractions,

and splitting fractions.

3. If other steps fail, express each function in terms of sine and cosine functions,
and then perform appropriate algebraic operations.

4. At each step, keep the other side of the identity in mind. This often reveals
what you should do to get there.

Example 2.1. Prove the identity tan θ + cot θ = sec θ csc θ.

Solution
We take the expression on the Left Hand Side (L.H.S), simplify it and get the
expression on the Right Hand Side (R.H.S).
sin θ cos θ
L.H.S = tan θ + cot θ = +
cos θ sin θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ 1
= =
 cos θsinθ  cos θ sin θ
1 1
=
cos θ sin θ
= sec θ csc θ = R.H.S.

26
 cos4 θ − sin4 θ csc θ cot θ
Example 2.2. Prove the identity 2 = − .
cos2 θ − sin θ sin θ tan θ

Solution
Notice that, by the difference of two squares,

cos4 θ − sin4 θ = (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)(cos2 θ − sin2 θ).

Now
(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
L.H.S =
cos2 θ − sin2 θ
= cos2 θ + sin2 θ
= 1.

1 cos θ sin θ
R.H.S = ÷ sin θ − ÷
sin θ sin θ cos θ
1 1 cos θ cos θ
= × − ×
sin θ sin θ sin θ sin θ
2
1 cos θ 1 − cos2 θ
= − =
sin2 θ sin2 θ sin2 θ
2
sin θ
= = 1.
sin2 θ

Hence L.H.S = R.H.S

Example 2.3. Show that (1 − cos2 θ)(1 + cot2 θ) = 1.

Solution

L.H.S = (1 − cos2 θ)(1 + cot2 θ) = (1 − cos2 θ) csc2 θ

 
2 1
= (1 − cos θ)
sin2 θ
sin2 θ
= = 1 = R.H.S.
sin2 θ
cos θ cot θ
Example 2.4. Show that − 1 = csc θ.
1 − sin θ

27
Solution

 
cos θ
cos θ
cos θ cot θ sin θ
L.H.S = −1= −1
1 − sin θ 1 − sin θ
cos2 θ 1
= × −1
sin θ 1 − sin θ
1 − sin2 θ
= −1
sin θ(1 − sin θ)
(1 + sin θ)(1 − sin θ)
= −1
sin θ(1 − sin θ)
1 + sin θ
= −1
sin θ
1 + sin θ − sin θ
=
sin θ
1
= = csc θ = R.H.S.
sin θ

Example 2.5. Prove the identity (sec θ + tan θ)(1 − sin θ) = cos θ.

Solution

 
1 sin θ
L.H.S = (sec θ + tan θ)(1 − sin θ) = + (1 − sin θ)
cos θ cos θ
1 + sin θ
= (1 − sin θ)
cos θ
1 − sin2 θ
=
cos θ
cos2 θ
=
cos θ
= cos θ = R.H.S.

cot θ sec2 θ
Example 2.6. Show that = tan θ.
1 + cot2 θ

Solution

28
 cot θ sec2 θ cot θ sec2 θ
L.H.S = =
1 + cot2 θ  csc θ
2

cos θ 1 1
= × ÷
sin θ 2
cos θ sin2 θ
 
1
= × sin2 θ
sin θ cos θ
sin θ
= = tan θ = R.H.S.
cos θ
We can use different approaches to prove one identity and still get correct results
provided logic steps are followed to the latter.
tan θ + tan β
Example 2.7. Prove the identity = tan θ tan β.
cot θ + cot β

Solution (Method One)

   
sin θ sin β cos θ cos β
L.H.S = + ÷ +
cos θ cos β sin θ sin β
   
sin θ cos β + sin β cos θ sin β cos θ + sin θ cos β
= ÷
cos θ cos β sin θ sin β
sin θ cos β + sin β cos θ sin θ sin β
= ×
cos θ cos β sin β cos θ + sin θ cos β
sin θ sin β
=
cos θ cos β
  
sin θ sin β
= = tan θ tan β = R.H.S.
cos θ cos β

Solution (Method Two)

 
tan θ + tan β 1 1
L.H.S = = (tan θ + tan β) ÷ +
cot θ + cot β tan θ tan β
 
tan β + tan θ
= (tan θ + tan β) ÷
tan θ tan β
 
tan θ tan β
= (tan θ + tan β) ×
tan θ + tan β
= tan θ tan β = R.H.S.

29
Activity 2.8.

1. Simplify each of the following

(a) cot x sin x sec x.

cos2 x
sin x +
(b) sin x .
csc x
sin x sec x
(c) .
cot x
2. Prove each identity below.

cot y
(a) + 1 = csc2 y
tan y
cos θ − cos3 θ
(b) = cot θ.
sin3 θ
tan2 x
(c) = sin2 x
1 + tan2 x
(d) tan2 θ − sin2 θ = tan2 θ sin2 θ.
1 1
(e) +
1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
= 2 csc2 θ.
cos θ sin θ + 1
(f) + = 2 sec θ
sin θ + 1 cos θ
cos x
(g) − tan x = sec x
1 − sin x
csc β cot β
(h) − =1
sin β tan β
1 1
(i) − =1
cos x cot2 x
2

(j) sec4 x − sec2 x = tan4 x + tan2 x

(k) sin x cot x = cos x
1 − (sin x − cos x)2
(l) = 2 cos x
sin x
(m) cos2 θ(sec2 θ − 1) = sin2 θ

30
2.4 Addition and Co-function Formulas
We now look at identities that involve a trigonometric function of the sum or differ-
ence of two variables. Examples are sin(θ +β), sin(θ −β), cos(θ +β) and cos(θ −β).
You may be tempted to think, for example, that cos(θ + β) = cos θ + cos β. Un-
fortunately, this is totally wrong. Please keep in mind that the trigonometric
functions cannot be ‘distributed’ through parentheses. We derive the correct for-
mulas starting with the formulas for cos(θ + β) and cos(θ − β).
Addition and Subtraction Formulas for Cosine
Figure 2.1 is a unit circle. The lines OP and OQ are both rotated from the positive
x-axis in a counter clockwise direction forming the angles β and (θ + β) with the
x-axis respectively. OR is rotated from the same positive x-axis but in a clockwise
direction forming angle −θ with the positive x-axis. Here we assume that
0 < θ < β < 2π (but the result we are about to derive is true for any angles).

Figure 2.1: cos(θ + β)

Notice that angles AOQ and ROP are both equal to θ + β. Consequently

chord AQ = chord RP .

Furthermore, A = (1, 0), P = (cos β, sin β), R = (cos(−θ), sin(−θ)) = (cos θ, − sin θ)
and Q = (cos(θ + β), sin(θ + β)).

31
Using the distance formula we have
AQ = (cos(θ + β) − 1)2 + (sin(θ + β))2
= cos2 (θ + β) − 2 cos(θ + β) + 1 + sin2 (θ + β)
= cos2 (θ + β) + sin2 (θ + β) + 1 − 2 cos(θ + β)
= 2 − 2 cos(θ + β)
and

RP = (cos θ − cos β)2 + (sin β + sin θ)2

= cos2 θ + cos2 β − 2 cos θ cos β + sin2 β + sin2 θ + 2 sin β sin θ
= cos2 θ + sin2 θ + cos2 β + sin2 β − 2 cos θ cos β + 2 sin β sin θ
= 2 − 2 cos θ cos β + 2 sin β sin θ.

Since AQ = RP , we have
2 − 2 cos(θ + β) = 2 − 2 cos θ cos β + 2 sin β sin θ
giving
cos(θ + β) = cos θ cos β − sin θ sin β. (2.1)

Equation 2.1 is the addition formula for the cosine function. If we use −θ instead
of θ we have
cos(θ − β) = cos θ cos β + sin θ sin β. (2.2)
Equation 2.2 is called subtraction formula for the cosine function. Combining
Equations 2.1 and 2.2 gives
cos(θ ± β) = cos θ cos β ∓ sin θ sin β. (2.3)

Co-function Formulas
To obtain addition and subtraction formulas for the sine function, we first derive
co-function formulas directly from the subtraction formula for cosine. The co-
function formulas for sine and cosine are stated, without proof, in Section 1.5 on
standard angles. We give the proofs below.
By Equation 2.2,
π  π π
cos − β = cos cos β + sin sin β
2 2 2
= (0) cos β + (1) sin β
= sin β.

32
The identity π 
cos − β = sin β (2.4)
2
is called the co-function identity for cosine where β is any real number or
π
angle in radian measure. If β is in degree measure, replace with 90◦ .
2
π
Now, if we put β = − θ in Equation 2.4 we get
2
π π  π 
cos − − θ = sin −θ
2 2 2
which gives π 
cos θ = sin −θ .
2
The identity π 
sin − θ = cos θ (2.5)
2
is called co-function identity for sine. θ is any real number or angle in radian
π
measure. If θ is in degree measure, replace with 90◦ .
2
The co-function formula for the tangent is
π 
tan − θ = cot θ (2.6)
2
and its proof is obtained by using the tangent identity, co-function formulas 2.4
and 2.5, and the cotangent identity;
π 
π  sin −θ cos θ
tan −θ =  2π = = cot θ.
2 cos −θ sin θ
2
The following co-function identities can be proved in a similar manner:
π 
cot − θ = tan θ, (2.7)
2
π 
sec − θ = csc θ (2.8)
2
and π 
csc − θ = sec θ. (2.9)
2
Addition and Subtraction Formulas for Sine

33
By Equation 2.4,
π 
sin(θ + β) = cos − (θ + β)
2 π  
= cos −θ −β
π2  π 
= cos − θ cos β + sin − θ sin β
2 2
= sin θ cos β + cos θ sin β.

Hence the addition formula for the sine function is

sin(θ + β) = sin θ cos β + cos θ sin β. (2.10)
If we put β = −β we get the subtraction formula for sine;
sin(θ − β) = sin θ cos β − cos θ sin β. (2.11)
Combining Equations 2.10 and 2.11 gives the formula
sin(θ ± β) = sin θ cos β ± cos θ sin β. (2.12)

Addition and Subtraction Formulas for Tangent

We now derive the addition formula for the tangent function using the tangent
identity and Equations 2.1 and 2.10.

sin(θ + β)
tan(θ + β) =
cos(θ + β)
sin θ cos β + sin β cos θ
= .
cos θ cos β − sin θ sin β
Dividing both numerator and denominator by cos θ cos β gives;

sin θ cos β sin β cos θ

+
cos θ cos β cos θ cos β
tan(θ + β) =
cos θ cos β sin θ sin β
−
cos θ cos β cos θ cos β
sin θ sin β
+
cos θ cos β
=   
sin θ sin β
1−
cos θ cos β
tan θ + tan β
= .
1 − tan θ tan β

34
Hence the equation
tan θ + tan β
tan(θ + β) = (2.13)
1 − tan θ tan β
is the addition formula for the tangent function. Similarly, the subtraction formula
for the tangent function is
tan θ − tan β
tan(θ − β) = . (2.14)
1 + tan θ tan β

Combining Equations 2.13 and 2.14 gives

tan θ ± tan β
tan(θ ± β) = . (2.15)
1 ∓ tan θ tan β
Example 2.9. Find the exact values of:

1. sin 75◦

2. cos 120◦ .

3. tan 15◦ .

Solution

1.

sin 75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦ )

= sin 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 30◦ cos 45◦
√ ! √ !   √ !
2 3 1 2
= +
2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √
6 2 6+ 2
= + = .
4 4 4

2.

cos 120◦ = cos(90 + 30)◦

= cos 90◦ cos 30◦ − sin 90◦ sin 30◦
√
3 1
=0× −1×
2 2
1
=− .
2
35
 3.

tan 15◦ = tan(60 − 45)◦

tan 60◦ − tan 45◦
=
1√+ tan 60◦ tan 45◦
3−1
= √ .
1+ 3

Example 2.10. Prove the following identities.

1. sin(θ + π2 ) = cos θ

2. cos(θ + π) = − cos θ
sin θ − cos θ
3. tan(θ − π4 ) =
sin θ + cos θ

Solution
We use addition formulae for sine, cosine and tangent.

1. sin(θ + π2 ) = sin θ cos π2 + cos θ sin π2 = sin θ × 0 + cos θ × 1 = cos θ.

2. cos(θ + π) = cos θ cos π − sin θ sin π = cos θ × (−1) − sin θ × 0 = − cos θ.

3.
 π tan θ − tan π4 tan θ − 1 sin θ
cos θ
−1
tan θ − = π = = sin θ
4 1 + tan θ tan 4 1 + tan θ 1 + cos θ
sin θ − cos θ cos θ + sin θ sin θ − cos θ
= ÷ = .
cos θ cos θ cos θ + sin θ

2.5 Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas

We now look at formulas for trigonometric functions of twice an angle and half
an angle, called double angle and half angle formulas respectively. First we
consider double angle formulas.
Double Angle Formulas
We use addition formulae to derive double angle formulae.
In the addition formula for sine (in Equation 2.10) put

36
θ = β;

sin(θ + β) = sin θ cos β + sin β cos θ,

sin(θ + θ) = sin θ cos θ + sin θ cos θ,
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ.

The double angle formula for the sine function is

sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ. (2.16)

Similarly we set θ = β in Equation 2.1 to obtain the double angle formula for
cosine;

cos(θ + β) = cos θ cos β − sin θ sin β,

cos(β + β) = cos(2β) = cos2 β − sin2 β.

Now since cos2 β + sin2 β = 1, it follows that

cos(2β) = cos2 β − (1 − cos2 β) = 2 cos2 β − 1

and
cos(2β) = 1 − sin2 β − sin2 β = 1 − 2 sin2 β.

The double angle formula for cosine is


2 2
cos β − sin β,

cos(2β) = 2 cos2 β − 1, (2.17)

1 − 2 sin2 β.


To derive the double angle formula for tangent, we put θ = β in Equation 2.13 to
obtain
2 tan θ
tan(2θ) = . (2.18)
1 − tan2 θ

Example 2.11.

sin 2θ
Prove the identity tan θ =
cos 2θ + 1

37
Solution
2 sin θ cos θ
R.H.S =
(2 cos2 θ − 1) + 1
sin θ cos θ
=
cos θ cos θ
sin θ
=
cos θ
= tan θ
= L.H.S
Example 2.12.

Write sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.

Solution

sin 3θ = sin(2θ + θ)
= sin 2θ cos θ + cos 2θ sin θ
= (2 sin θ cos θ) cos θ + (1 − 2 sin2 θ) sin θ
= 2 sin θ cos2 θ + sin θ − 2 sin3 θ
= 2 sin θ(1 − sin2 θ) + sin θ − 2 sin3 θ
= 2 sin θ − 2 sin3 θ + sin θ − 2 sin3 θ
= 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ.

Half Angle Formulas

We use double angle formula for cosine to derive half angle formulas for both sine
and cosine functions.
θ
To obtain half angle formula for the cosine function, we set β = in the equation
2
2
cos(2β) = 2 cos β − 1
 
θ
and solve for cos as follows;
2
 
2 θ
cos θ = 2 cos − 1,
2
 
2 θ
cos θ + 1 = 2 cos ,
2
 
cos θ + 1 2 θ
= cos
2 2

38
giving r
 
θ cos θ + 1
cos =± (2.19)
2 2
θ
where the sign is determined by the quadrant of .
2
In the equation
cos(2β) = 1 − 2 sin2 β,
 
θ θ
setting β = and solve for sin gives the half angle formula for the sine
2 2
function; r
 
θ 1 − cos θ
sin =± (2.20)
2 2
θ
where the sign is determined by the quadrant of .
2
For the tangent we have,
 
θ
  sin r
θ 2 1 − cos θ
tan =   =±
2 θ 1 + cos θ
cos
2
θ
where, again, the sign is determined by the quadrant of .
2
r r
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
Multiplying by gives
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
r r s s 2
2
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ sin θ sin θ
× = 2
= = .
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ (1 + cos θ) 1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ

The half angle formula for the tangent function is

r
  
θ  1 − cos θ ,
tan = 1 + cos θ (2.21)
2 sin θ
.


1 + cos θ
Example 2.13. Show that 2 sin2 x = tan x sin 2x.

Solution
sin x
R.H.S = × 2 sin x cos x = 2 sin2 x = L.H.S.
cos x
39
Example 2.14. Prove the identity cot x − tan x = 2 cot 2x.

Solution
cos x sin x cos2 x − sin2 x
L.H.S = cot x − tan x = − = .
sin x cos x sin x cos x

sin x 2
1 1 − tan2 x 1 − cos 2x
R.H.S = 2 cot 2x = 2 × =2× =2× sin x
tan 2x 2 tan x 2 cos x
cos2 x−sin2 x
cos2 x cos2 x − sin2 x cos x cos2 x − sin2 x
= sin x
= × = .
cos x
cos2 x sin x sin x cos x

Hence L.H.S = R.H.S.

Example 2.15. Prove that sin x = 2 sin x2 cos x2 .

Solution
sin x = sin x2 + x2 = sin 2( x2 ) and the result follows from the double angle

formula for the sine function.

2.6 Products, Sums and the Expression a sin θ +

b cos θ
In this sub section, we look at formulas which give the products of trigonometric
functions as the sums and formulas which give sums as products. Finally we shall
look at how to write the expression a sin θ + b cos θ as a single sine function or
cosine function. The formulas here involve only sine and cosine functions.
Product to Sum Formulae
We take a product of two trigonometric functions and rewrite it as a sum. Addition
and subtraction formulae are used in deriving the formulae here.
Now by 2.1 and 2.2,

cos(θ + β) = cos θ cos β − sin θ sin β and

cos(θ − β) = cos θ cos β + sin θ sin β.

Adding these equations gives

cos(θ + β) + cos(θ − β) = 2 cos θ cos β.

40
Rearranging we have
1
cos θ cos β = [cos(θ + β) + cos(θ − β)]. (2.22)
2

The following product to sum identities can be derived in a similar manner;

1
sin θ sin β = [cos(θ − β) − cos(θ + β)], (2.23)
2
1
sin θ cos β = [sin(θ + β) + sin(θ − β)] (2.24)
2
and
1
cos θ sin β = [sin(θ + β) − sin(θ − β)]. (2.25)
2
Sum to Product Formulae
When we introduced addition formulas, we observed that, for example,

cos(θ + β) ̸= cos θ + cos β.

We gave the formula for cos(θ + β) but the formula for cos θ + cos β was not given.
We now give the formulas which writes the sum, such as cos θ + cos β, as the
product of trigonometric functions.
Consider cos θ + cos β. Let θ = A + B and β = A − B. Solving for A and B gives
θ+β θ−β
A= and B = .
2 2
Now

cos θ + cos β = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)

= cos A cos B − sin A sin B + cos A cos B + sin A sin B
= 2 cos A cos B
   
θ+β θ−β
= 2 cos cos .
2 2

Hence    
θ+β θ−β
cos θ + cos β = 2 cos cos . (2.26)
2 2

In the similar manner we can derive the following formulas;

   
θ+β θ−β
cos θ − cos β = −2 sin sin , (2.27)
2 2

41
    
θ+β θ−β
sin θ + sin β = 2 sin cos (2.28)
2 2
and    
θ+β θ−β
sin θ − sin β = 2 cos sin . (2.29)
2 2
Example 2.16.

1. Find the exact value of sin(52.5◦ ) cos(7.5◦ ).

2. Write the expression 4 cos 3θ cos 5θ as a sum of two trigonometric functions.

Solution

1.
1
sin(52.5◦ ) cos(7.5◦ ) = [sin(52.5 + 7.5)◦ + sin(52.5 − 7.5)◦ ]
2
1
= [sin 60◦ + sin 45◦ ]
2
√ √ ! √ √
1 3 2 3+ 2
= + = .
2 2 2 4

2.
 
1
4 cos 3θ cos 5θ = 4 [cos(3θ + 5θ) + cos(3θ − 5θ)]
2
= 2 cos(8θ) + 2 cos(−2θ)
= 2 cos(8θ) + 2 cos(2θ).

Example 2.17.

Use sum to product formulae and other well known identities to prove the following

cos 4θ − cos 2θ
1. = − tan 3θ.
sin 4θ − sin 2θ
sin 3θ + sin 7θ
2. = csc2 θ − 2.
2 sin2 θ sin 5θ

Solution

42
 1.
−2 sin[(4θ + 2θ)/2] sin[(4θ − 2θ)/2]
L.H.S =
2 cos[(4θ + 2θ)/2] sin[(4θ − 2θ)/2]
−2 sin 3θ sin θ
=
2 cos 3θ sin θ
sin 3θ
=−
cos 3θ
= − tan 3θ = R.H.S

2.
2 sin[(3θ + 7θ)/2] cos[(3θ − 7θ)/2]
L.H.S =
2 sin2 θ sin 5θ
2 sin 5θ cos 2θ cos 2θ
= 2 =
2 sin θ sin 5θ sin2 θ
2
1 − 2 sin θ 1 2 sin2 θ
= = −
sin2 θ sin2 θ sin2 θ
2
= csc θ − 2 = R.H.S

The Expression a sin θ + b cos θ

We simplify the expression a sin θ + b cos θ, where a and b are positive numbers,
into a single trigonometric function. We hope to get

a sin θ + b cos θ = R sin(θ + α) (2.30)

since both sin θ and cos θ have period 2π just like R sin(θ + α). We need to find
the values of R and α which satisfy equation 2.30.
Now
a sin θ + b cos θ = R sin(θ + α) = R cos α cos θ + R sin α cos θ.
Equating coefficients of sin θ we get a = R cos α....(i).
Equating coefficients of cos θ we get b = R sin α....(ii).
Squaring and adding Equations (i) and (ii) we get

a2 + b2 = R2 cos2 α + R2 sin2 α = R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α) = R2

√
giving R = a2 + b2 .
Dividing (ii) by (i) gives

sin α b b b
= ⇒ tan α = giving α = tan−1 .
cos α a a a
43
Hence
√
 
−1 b
a sin θ + b cos θ = R sin(θ + α) = a2 + b2 sin θ + tan . (2.31)
a

In the similar manner, we have

√
 
−1 b
a sin θ − b cos θ = R sin(θ − α) = a2 + b2 sin θ − tan . (2.32)
a

Expressing a sin θ + b cos θ as a single cosine function gives the following (please
verify using method similar to the one above);

a sin θ + b cos θ = R cos(θ − α) (2.33)

and
a sin θ − b cos θ = R cos(θ + α) (2.34)
√ a
where R = a2 + b2 (as before) but α = tan−1 .
b
Example 2.18.

Express each of the following in the form R sin(θ + α).

√
1. 3 cos θ + sin θ

2. 12 sin(3θ) − 5 cos(3θ)

Solution

√ √ p √ √
1. a = 1 and b = 3. R √ = a2 + b2 = 12 + 3 = 4 = 2.
b 3 √ π
α = tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 3 = .
√ a 1 3
Hence 3 cos θ + sin θ = 2 sin(θ + π3 ).
√
2. 12 sin(3θ) − 5 cos(3θ) = 122 + 52 sin(3θ + β) = 13 sin(3θ + β).
From tan β = −5/12, β = −22.62◦ .
Hence 12 sin(3θ) − 5 cos(3θ) = 13 sin(3θ − 22.62◦ ).

Example 2.19.

44
Express in the form R cos(θ + α) the expression cos θ + sin θ.
Solution
√ √
a = b = 1 and R = 12 + 12 = 2.
π
α = tan−1 1 = .
4
√  π
Hence cos θ + sin θ = 2 cos θ − .
4

Activity 2.20.

1. Find the exact value of sin(θ/2) and cos(θ/2) given that cos θ = −1/8 and
that π < θ < 3π/2.

2. Find tan θ/2 if sin θ = 2/5 and θ is in the second quadrant.

3. Write each product as a sum.

(a) cos(3x) sin x

(b) cos(5x) cos(2x)
(c) sin 7x sin 3x
(d) cos 6x cos(−4x)
(e) sin(−4x) cos 8x

4. Find the exact value of

(a) sin 22.5◦ and tan 22.5◦

(b) sin 75◦ + sin 15◦
(c) cos 165◦ − cos 75◦
π 
(d) 2 cos2 − 1.
8
(e) cos 105◦ + cos 15◦
sin 2θ
5. State a value of θ where is undefined.
1 + cos 2θ
4
6. If sin θ = − , where θ is in quadrant III, find cos 2θ, tan θ and sin 2θ.
5
7. Rewrite each sum as a product.

(a) cos θ + cos 3θ

45
 (b) sin 4x − sin 8x
(c) cos 5x − cos 3x
(d) sin 7θ + sin 3θ
4 α
8. If tan α = − , where α is in quadrant IV, find the exact value of tan .
3 2
9. Prove each identity below.
sin θ + sin 3θ
(a) = tan 2θ
cos θ + cos 3θ
sin 5θ − sin 3θ
(b) = tan θ
cos 5θ + cos 3θ
sin 5θ + sin 3θ
(c) = tan 4θ cot θ
sin 5θ − sin 3θ
1 + sin 2x + cos 2x
(d) = cot x
1 + sin 2x − cos 2x
(e) tan x + cot x = 2 csc 2x

10. Write each expression in the form R sin(θ + α).

√
(a) 2 cos θ + 3 sin θ
√
(b) cos θ − 3 sin θ

11. Write each expression in the form R cos(θ + α).

(a) 2 cos θ − 3 sin θ

(b) cos θ − sin θ

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt how to prove trigonometric identities. You have learnt
that identities are proved by taking one side and show that it is equal to the other
side. You have also learnt various trigonometric formulas including additional,
double angle, half angle and sum to product formulas. You have learnt, not only
how to derive these formulas, but also how to use them.

Activity 2.21 (Unit Test).

46
 1 2
1. Given sin x = and sin y = − , angle x is in quadrant II and angle y is in
5 3
quadrant III, find the exact value of sin(x + y).

2. Simplify 2 cos(3x) cos(2x) − cos(x)

1 1
3. Given that sin x = − and cos y = − and the co-terminal sides of x and y
6 3
are in quadrant III. Find the exact value of cos(x + y).

4. Use the product-to-sum formula to write the product sin(x + y) cos(x − y)

as a sum.
11π π
5. Use the product-to-sum formula to evaluate cos cos .
12 12
6. Use sum to product formula to express cos 8x + cos 2x as the product.

7. Prove each identity below.

(a) tan2 x cot2 x − cos2 x = sin x

(b) cos 2x = cos4 x − sin4 x
1 − tan2 x
(c) cos 2x =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
(d) sin 2x =
1 + tan2 x
sin 3θ − sin θ
(e) = tan θ.
cos 3θ + cos θ
sin 4θ + sin 6θ
(f) = cot θ
cos 4θ − cos 6θ

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.8

1. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) tan2 x

Suggested Solutions to Activity 2.20

9 7
1. sin(θ/2) = and cos(θ/2) =
16 16
1 1 1
3. (a) (sin 4x − sin 2x) (b) (cos 7x + cos 3x) (c) (cos 4x − cos 10x)
2 2 2
47
 r √ √ √
2− 2 6 3
4. (a) sin 22.5◦ = (b) (d)
2 2 2
5. θ = π

7. (a) 2 cos 2θ cos θ (b) −2 cos 6x sin(−2x)

√ π
10. (a) 7 sin(θ + 49◦ ) (b) 2 sin(θ − )
3

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

√ √
24 − 5
1.
15
2. cos(5x)
√ √
35 − 8
3.
18
1
4. (sin 2x + sin 2y)
2
√
−2 − 3
5.
4

48
Unit 3

Graphs, Inverses and Equations

3.1 Introduction
In this unit, you will learn how to sketch trigonometric graphs. The general sine
and cosine curves will be covered. You will also learn how to find the inverse of
a given trigonometric function. Finally you will learn how to solve trigonometric
equations.

3.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ sketch trigonometric graphs

ˆ find the inverse of a trigonometric function
ˆ solve trigonometric equations

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ trigonometric graphs

49
 ˆ cosine curve

ˆ sine curve

ˆ tangent curve

ˆ period

ˆ phase shift

ˆ amplitude

ˆ vertical shift

ˆ inverse trigonometric function

ˆ trigonometric equation

3.3 Trigonometric Graphs

In this section we discuss the graphs of trigonometric functions such as f (θ) = sin θ,
f (θ) = cos θ, f (θ) = tan θ and some related functions.

3.3.1 The Sine and Cosine Curves

To draw the graph of the  sine function
 f (θ) = sin θ, for −2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π, first we
3π  π
note that f (−2π) = 0, f − = 1, f (−π) = 0, f − = −1, f (0) = 0,
 2 2
π  3π
f = 1, f (π) = 0, f = −1 and f (2π) = 0. Table 3.1 is the table of
2 2
values for the sine curve. The sine curve is given in Figure 3.1.

3π π π 3π
θ −2π − −π − 0 π 2π
2 2 2 2
f (θ) = sin θ 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0

Table 3.1: Table of values for the sine curve

50
 Figure 3.1: The sine curve

3π π π 3π
θ −2π − −π − 0 π 2π
2 2 2 2
f (θ) = cos θ 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 0 1

Table 3.2: Table of values for the cosine curve

Figure 3.2: The cosine curve

51
The table of values for the cosine curve is given in Table 3.2. We have the cosine
curve in Figure 3.2.
Notice that the cosine curve is identical to the sine curve. In fact the cosine curve
π
is obtained by moving the sine curve by to the left. Similarly, the sine curve is
2
π
obtained by moving the cosine curve by to the right. This difference is called
2
the phase difference between the functions sin θ and cos θ. As a consequence of
this difference, we have the following results;
π 
cos − θ = sin θ (3.1)
2
and π 
sin − θ = cos θ. (3.2)
2
In Figure 3.3 we have drawn the two curves on the same axes.

Figure 3.3: The cosine and sine curves

The sine and cosine functions have several distinct characteristics:

ˆ They are periodic functions with a period of 2π. Hence for any angle θ we
have
sin(θ + 2nπ) = sin θ (3.3)
and
cos(θ + 2nπ) = cos θ (3.4)
where n is an integer.

ˆ The domain of each function is (−∞, ∞) and the range is [−1, 1], i.e., each
of sin θ and cos θ has a minimum value of −1 and a maximum value of 1.

52
 ˆ The graph of y = sin x is symmetric about the origin, because it is an odd
function.

ˆ The graph of y = cos x is symmetric about the y-axis, because it is an even

function.

3.3.2 The Tangent Curve

sin θ
Recall that tan θ = . The tangent function is undefined when cos θ = 0,
cos θ
π 3π
i.e., when θ = , and their co-terminals. Therefore, the tangent function has
2 2
a vertical asymptote (vertical lines which correspond to the zeros of the cosine
π 3π
function) whenever θ = or or their co-terminals.
2 2
Similarly, the tangent and sine functions each have zeros at integer multiples of
π since tan θ = 0 when sin θ = 0. The tangent function has a period of π and
each period in a tangent curve is separated by an asymptote. The tangent curve
is given in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: The tangent curve

3.3.3 Graphs of the Transformed Sine and Cosine Func-

tions
Consider the functions f (θ) = d + a sin(bθ + c) and f (θ) = d + a cos(bθ + c). We
look at the effects of each of the numbers a, b, c and d on the graphs of f (θ) = sin θ
and f (θ) = cos θ.

53
Example 3.1.

Sketch the graphs of f (θ) = 2 sin θ and f (θ) = −2 sin θ for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
Solution
The table of values for f (θ) = −2 sin θ is given in Table 3.3.
π 3π
θ 0 π 2π
2 2
f (θ) = −2 sin θ 0 −2 0 2 0

Table 3.3: Table of values for the graph of the function f (θ) = −2 sin θ

The graph of f (θ) = −2 sin θ is given in Figure 3.5. Notice that the maximum
value for f (θ) = −2 sin θ is 2 and the minimum value is −2. The graph of the
function f (θ) = 2 sin θ is left as an exercise.

Figure 3.5: The graph of f (θ) = −2 sin θ

The graph of y = a cos θ (or a sin θ) ranges between a and −a instead of between 1
and −1. If |a| > 1, the graph of y = a cos θ (y = a sin θ) is a result of stretching the
graph of y = cos θ (y = sin θ) by a factor of |a|. If |a| < 1, the graph of y = a cos θ
is a result of compressing the graph of y = cos θ (y = sin θ) by a factor of 1/|a|.
The preceding discussion implies that the number a in y = a cos θ (or y = a sin θ)
changes the vertical length of the graph of y = cos θ (y = sin θ). The number |a|,
the absolute value of a, is called the amplitude of y = a cos θ (y = a sin θ) and
represents half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of the
function.

54
The period of a function is the distance required for the function to complete
one full cycle, after which the graph of the function begins repeating itself. Recall
that each of the functions f (θ) = sin θ and f (θ) = cos θ has a period of 2π. The
number b (b ̸= 1) in y = cos bθ (y = sin bθ) changes the period of the function
y = cos θ (y = sin θ). The period of y = cos bθ (y = sin bθ) is given by

P = 2π/b.

If b > 1, the period of the function y = cos bθ (y = sin bθ) is less than 2π and the
graph of y = cos bθ (y = sin bθ) represents a horizontal shrinking (compression)
of the graph of y = cos θ (y = sin θ). If 0 < b < 1, the period of the function
y = cos bθ (y = sin bθ) is greater than 2π and the graph is a horizontal stretching
of the graph of y = cos θ (y = sin θ). If b < 0 we use identities sin(−θ) = − sin θ
and cos(−θ) = cos θ to rewrite the function.

Example 3.2.

Find the amplitude and period for the graph of y = −3 sin 2θ.
Solution
a = −3 and b = 2.
Amplitude = | − 3| = 3.
2π
Period = P = = π.
2
Example 3.3.

θ
Find the amplitude and period for the graph of y = 2 sin .
2
Solution
1
a = 2 and b = .
2
Amplitude = |2| = 2.
2π
Period = P = 1 = 4π.
(2)
−c
In y = cos(bθ + c), if we put bθ + c = 0 and solve for θ, we get θ = called
b
phase shift (also called horizontal shift). Both b and c affect the phase shift
(or displacement) of y = cos(bθ + c). The graph of y = cos(bθ + c) is a result of
shifting the graph of y = cos θ to the left if the phase shift is negative or to the
right if it is positive.

55
Example 3.4.

 π
Find the amplitude, period and phase shift of y = 3 sin 2θ + .
2
Solution
π
a = 3, b = 2 and c = .
2
Amplitude = 3.
Period = π
(π/2) π
Phase shift = − =− .
2 4

Example 3.5.

A water wave is created in a wave tank. It has an amplitude of 3 and a period of

4π
. Write the equation of this wave as a sine function.
5
Solution
The required equation takes the form y = a sin bx.
2π 4π 5
Now a = ±3 and = giving b = .
b 5 2
5
Hence the equation is y = ±3 sin x.
2
The number d in y = d + a cos(bθ + c) is called the vertical shift. It shifts d steps
the graph of y = a cos(bθ + c). If d > 0, the shift is d steps upwards and if d < 0,
it is d steps downwards. The graph of y = d + a cos(bθ + c) oscillates about the
horizontal line y = d instead of about the x-axis.

Example 3.6.

Find the amplitude, period, phase shift and vertical shift for y = −2 + 5 cos(2x +
2π).
Solution
a = 5, b = 2, c = 2π and d = −2.
2π 2π
Amplitude = 5 and Period = = = π.
b 2
c 2π
Phase shift = − = − = −π and Vertical shift = −2.
b 2
56
3.3.4 Sketching Trigonometric Graphs
It is sufficient to sketch one period of a particular graph. The reason is that after
one period, the graph just repeats itself.
c
To find coordinates first we set x = − , the phase shift as the x coordinate for
b
the starting point. To determine x-coordinates for the other key points, we divide
the period by 4 and add the result to successive x values beginning with the phase
shift. Therefore,an interval containing one cycle is
 
−c −c 2π
x∈ , + .
b b b
Example 3.7.
 π
Sketch the graph of y = 2 + 3 sin 2x + .
2
Solution
π
a = 3, b = 2, c = and d = 2.
2
−π/2 π 2π P π
Amplitude = 3, Phase shift = = − , Period = P = = π and = .
2 4 2 4 4
π π π π 3π
x-coordinate for the starting point is − . x-coordinates on key points are − , 0, , ,
4 4 4 2 4
Please verify that corresponding y coordinates are 2, 5, 2, −1 and 2 respectively.
The table of values is given in Table 3.4.
π π π 3π
x − 0
4 4 2 4
y 2 5 2 −1 2
 π
Table 3.4: Table of values for the function y = 2 + 3 sin 2x +
2

 π
Figure 3.6 is the graph of y = 2 + 3 sin 2x + .
2
Example 3.8.

1  π
Sketch the graph of y = sin x − .
2 3
Solution
1 π
a = , b = 1 and c = − .
2 3
57
  π
Figure 3.6: The graph of y = 2 + 3 sin 2x +
2

1 π P π
Amplitude = , phase shift = , Period = P = 2π and = .
2 3 4 2
1  π
Table 3.5 is the table of values for the function y = sin x − . The graph is
2 3
given in Figure 3.7.

π 5π 8π 11π 14π
x
3 6 6 6 6
1  π 1 1
y = sin x − 0 0 − 0
2 3 2 2
 π
Table 3.5: Table of values for the function y = 2 + 3 sin 2x +
2

Activity 3.9.

1. Find the amplitude, period, phase shift and vertical shift and sketch the
graph of each function [at least one period from phase shift];

(a) y = −3 sin(2x)
(b) y = 4 + 3 sin(2x − π)
(c) y = −2 cos(3x)
(d) y = 2 + 3 sin(2x)

58
 1  π
Figure 3.7: The graph of y = sin x −
2 3

(e) y = 3 + 4 cos(3x − 2π)

(f) y = sin(3x − π/2)
(g) y = 3 cos(4x − π/3)
 
1 π
(h) y = −2 + cos x+
2 4
 π
(i) y = −5 + 2 sin 2x −
  4
1 π
(j) 3 − 2 sin x+
2 2
 
1 π
(k) 4 + 4 sin x−
3 3
 
1 π
(l) 4 − 5 cos x+
3 6
 π
(m) 5 cos 3x −
2

3.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Recall that for a function to have an inverse, we require that it should be one to
one. Also recall that a function is one to one if, whenever a ̸= b in the domain,
f (a) ̸= f (b) in the co-domain. This is equivalent to saying f (a) = f (b) in the
co-domain implies a = b in the domain. In other words, a function is one to one
if and only if no two elements in the domain are mapped to the same element in
the co-domain.

59
Consider the angles whose sine is 1/2. They include 30◦ , 150◦ , 390◦ and −210◦ .
Hence, in general, the sine function is not one-to-one. However, restricting the
domain of the sine function to [−90◦ , 90◦ ] gives a one-to-one and hence invertible
function. We use this new function with domain [−90◦ , 90◦ ] and range [−1, 1] to
define the inverse sine function.
Definition 3.10. The inverse sine function, denoted sin−1 , is defined by

y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y

for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and −90◦ ≤ y ≤ 90◦ .

1 1
Note that here sin−1 x ̸= . Recall that = csc x, a different function all
sin x sin x
together.
By Definition 3.10, it is essential to look for an angle of sin−1 in the range
[−90◦ , 90◦ ]. For example, even though sin 150◦ = 1/2, sin−1 1/2 ̸= 150◦ since
150◦ is outside the stated range. In fact sin−1 1/2 = 30◦ .
The inverse sine function is well defined on scientific calculators. If the calculator
is set in degree mode, entering shift → sin → 0.5 → =, should result into the
calculator displaying 30◦ .
Example 3.11.

Evaluate sin−1 0.75.

Solution
Using calculator in degree mode (shift → sin → 0.75 → =), sin−1 0.75 = 48.59◦ .
Now that we have defined inverse sine function, we know that properties which hold
for inverse functions are also true for this function. For example, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
we have
sin sin−1 x = x.

Similarly
sin−1 (sin y) = y
if −90◦ ≤ y ≤ 90◦ .
Example 3.12.

1. sin sin−1 0.5 = 0.5 since −1 ≤ 0.5 ≤ 1.

2. sin−1 (sin 45◦ ) = 45◦ since −90◦ ≤ 45◦ ≤ 90◦ .

60
Example 3.13.
√
3
Evaluate sin−1 .
2
Solution
√ √ √
3 3 3
Let sin−1 = y. Then sin y = and −90◦ ≤ y ≤ 90◦ . Since sin 60◦ = ,
2 √ 2 2
3
y = 60◦ . Hence sin−1 = 60◦ .
2
The inverse sine function is also called the arcsine function, and arcsin x may
be used in place of sin−1 x . If y = arcsin x, then sin y = x.
Now we define the inverse cosine function. Here we restrict the domain of the
cosine function to [0◦ , 180◦ ] but the range remains [−1, 1].
Definition 3.14. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined by

y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y

for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 180◦ .

The inverse cosine function is also called the arccosine function and the notation
arccos x is used in place of cos−1 x. If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, we have

cos cos−1 x = x.

Similarly, if 0 ≤ y ≤ 180◦ we have

cos−1 (cos y) = y.

Example 3.15.

1. cos (cos−1 − 0.5) = −0.5 since −1 ≤ −0.5 ≤ 1.

2. cos−1 [sin(−30◦ )] = cos−1 (−0.5) = 120◦ since −90◦ ≤ −30◦ ≤ 90◦ .

We now define the inverse tangent function. To get the inverse of the tangent
function, we restrict the domain of the same to an open interval (−90◦ , 90◦ ). The
range remains the entire set of real numbers (recall that the domain of a function
is the range of its inverse).
Definition 3.16. The inverse tangent function, or arctan function, denoted
by tan−1 or arctan, is defined by

61
 y = tan−1 x = arctan x if and only if x = tany

for any real number x and for −90◦ < y < 90◦ .

From the properties of an inverse function we have

tan tan−1 = x

for every x. Also

tan−1 (tan y) = y
if −90◦ ≤ y ≤ 90◦ .

Example 3.17.

1. tan (tan−1 1) = 1

2. tan−1 (tan 45◦ ) = 45◦ since −90◦ < 45◦ < 90◦ .

Example 3.18.

Show that sin−1 x + cos−1 x = 90◦ for x ∈ [−1, 1].

Solution
Let y = cos−1 x. Then cos y = x and y ∈ [0, 180◦ ].
By Equation 2.5, sin(90◦ − y) = cos y. Since cos y = x, we have

sin(90◦ − y) = cos y = x giving 90◦ − y = sin−1 x.

Now sin−1 + cos−1 x = (90◦ − y) + y = 90◦ .

Activity 3.19.

1. Evaluate each expression without using a calculator.

(a) tan−1 (−1)

√
(b) arctan 3
(c) cos(sin−1 0.5)
√ !
3π 2
(d) sin + arccos
2 2

62
 √ !
2
(e) sin 2 sin−1
2
hπ i
(f) tan + tan−1 (−1)
4 √
(g) cos [sin(tan−1 3)]
−1

1 1 π
2. Without using a calculator, show that tan−1 + tan−1 = .
3 2 4

3.5 Trigonometric Equations

A basic trigonometric equation takes one of the forms sin x = k, cos x = k or
tan x = k where k is a constant. We will look at the method of solving a basic
trigonometric equation. All other seemingly complicated equations can be reduced
to one or more forms of the basic trigonometric equation. A basic trigonometric
equation has at most two solutions for 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ .
To solve an equation such as sin x = k, cos x = k or tan x = k,

1. Identify the quadrants in which x lies.

2. Find the first quadrant angle y for which sin y = |k|, cos y = |k| or tan y = |k|
(remember in the first quadrant sine, cosine and tangent are all positive).
3. Use the value of angle y to determine the corresponding values of x in the
quadrants identified in 1. (Each x is an angle whose reference angle is y).
Example 3.20.

Solve each equation below for 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ .

1
1. cos x = .
2
2. sin x = −0.45.

Solution

1. Cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrants. These are the quadrants
in which the solutions lie.
1
The first quadrant angle is cos−1 = 60◦ .
2
The fourth quadrant angle is 360◦ − 60◦ = 300◦ .
Hence x = 60◦ or 300◦ .

63
 2. Sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants.
Now sin y = 0.45 gives y = sin−1 0.45 = 26.7◦ .
Hence x = 180◦ + 26.7◦ = 206.7◦ or x = 360◦ − 26.7◦ = 333.3◦ .

Example 3.21.

Solve each equation below for 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ (or 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π in radian measure).

1. 2 cos2 x + cos x = 0.
2. cos x + 2 sec x = −3.
3. 4 sin2 x tan x − tan x = 0
4. tan2 x + tan x − 6 = 0

Solution

1. 2 cos2 x+cos x = 0 ⇒ cos x(2 cos x+1) = 0 giving cos x = 0 or 2 cos x+1 = 0.
For cos x = 0 we have x = 90◦ and 270◦ .
2 cos x + 1 = 0 ⇒ cos x = −1/2 and x is in the second and third quadrants.
The first quadrant angle is y = cos−1 1/2 = 60◦ . Therefore x = 180◦ − 60◦ =
120◦ and x = 180◦ + 60◦ = 240◦ .
Hence x = 90◦ , 120◦ , 240◦ and 270◦ .
2
2. cos x + 2 sec x = −3 ⇒ cos x + + 3 = 0 ⇒ cos2 x + 3 cos x + 2 = 0 ⇒
cos x
(cos x + 2)(cos x + 1) = 0 giving cos x = −2 and cos x = −1.
cos x = −2 has no solution since −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for any angle x.
For cos x = −1 we have x = 180◦ (and this is the only solution to the given
equation).
3. 4 sin2 x tan x − tan x = 0 ⇒ tan x 4 sin2 x − 1 = 0 giving tan x = 0 and

sin2 x = 1/4. For tan x = 0, x = 0 and x = π.

p
sin2 x = 1/4 ⇒ sin x = ± 1/4 = ±1/2 giving sin x = 1/2 and sin x = −1/2.
For sin x = 1/2, x is in the first and second quadrants. The first quadrant
π π 5π
angle is and the second quadrant angle is π − = .
6 6 6
For sin x = −1/2, x is in the third and fourth quadrants. The third quadrant
π 7π π 11π
angle is + π = and the fourth quadrant angle is 2π − = .
6 6 6 6
64
 π 5π 7π 11π
Hence the solutions are x = 0, , , π, and .
6 6 6 6
In degree measure the solutions are 0◦ , 30◦ , 150◦ , 180◦ , 210◦ and 330◦ .

4. tan2 x + tan x − 6 = 0 ⇒ (tan x − 2)(tan x + 3) = 0 giving tan x = 2 and

tan x = −3.
For tan x = 2, x is in the first and third quadrants. The first quadrant angle
is tan−1 2 = 63.4◦ and the third quadrant angle is 63.4◦ + 180◦ = 243.4◦ .
For tan x = −3, x is in the second and fourth quadrant. The first quadrant
(reference) angle is tan−1 3 = 71.6◦ . The second quadrant angle is
180◦ − 71.6◦ = 108.4◦ and the fourth quadrant angle is 360◦ − 71.6◦ = 288.4◦ .
Hence the solutions are x = 63.4◦ , 108.4◦ , 243.4◦ and 288.4◦ .

Since each trigonometric function is periodic, each basic equation has infinitely
many solutions. We may not list all solutions, instead we construct the general
solution by adding integer multiples of the period to a particular solution.
Both sine and cosine functions have period 2π. Therefore the general solution for
sin x = k or cos x = k is

x = θ + 2nπ (or x = θ + 360◦ n if θ is given in degrees)

where n is an integer. Tangent function has period π, so the general solution for
the equation tan x = k is

x + nπ (or θ + 180◦ n if θ is given in degrees)

where n is an integer.

Example 3.22.

Find the general solutions to each trigonometric equation below.

1. tan x = −1.5

2. 2 sin2 x − sin x − 1 = 0

3. 2 tan2 x − sec2 x − 5 = 0

Solution

65
1. Tangent is negative in the second and fourth quadrants.
The corresponding first quadrant angle is tan−1 1.5 = 56.3◦ .
So x = 180◦ − 56.3◦ = 123.7◦ or x = 360◦ − 56.3◦ = 303.7◦ .
Hence the general solutions are 123.7◦ + 180◦ n and 303.7◦ + 180◦ n.
2. 2 sin2 x − sin x − 1 = 0 ⇒ 2 sin2 x − 2 sin x + sin x − 1 = 0
⇒ (2 sin x + 1)(sin x − 1) = 0 giving sin x = −1/2 and sin x = 1.
π
For sin x = 1, x = .
2
For sin x = −1/2, x is in the third and fourth quadrants. The first quadrant
π π 7π
(reference) angle is sin−1 1/2 = . Therefore x = π + = and
6 6 6
π 11π
x = 2π − = .
6 6
π 7π 11π
Hence solutions to the given equation are , and . The general
2 6 6
solutions are
π 7π 11π
+ 2nπ, + 2nπ and + 2nπ
2 6 6
where n is any integer. In degree measure we have
90◦ + 360◦ n, 210◦ + 360◦ n and 330◦ + 360◦ n.
3. Using the Pythagorean identity tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x, we substitute for sec2 x
in the given equation.
2 tan2 x − sec2 x − 5 = 0 ⇒ 2 tan2 x − (tan√ 2
x + 1) − 5 = 0 ⇒√2 tan2 −6 = 0
⇒ 2 tan2 x√= 6 ⇒ tan2 x = 3 ⇒ tan x = ± 3 giving tan x = 3 and
tan x = − 3.
√
For tan x = 3, x is in the first and third quadrants. The first quadrant
π π 4π
angle is and the third quadrant angle is + π = .
3 3 3
√
For tan x = − 3, x is in the second and fourth quadrants. The second
π 2π π 5π
quadrant angle is π − = and the fourth quadrant angle is 2π − = .
3 3 3 3
π 2π 4π 5π
Hence x = , , and .
3 3 3 3
For the general solutions recall that tangent function has period π. Since
5π 2π 4π π π 2π
= + π and = + π, we need to use only and to construct
3 3 3 3 3 3
the general solutions.
Hence the general solutions are

66
 π 2π
x= + πn and + πn
3 3

where n is any integer.

Activity 3.23.

1. Solve each equation for 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ .

(a) tan x = 6
(b) sin2 x + sin x = 6
(c) sin x + cos x cot x = csc x
(d) sin x = 5 cos x
(e) tan2 x + tan x − 12 = 0
(f) 15 sin2 x − 26 sin x + 8 = 0
(g) 2 sin2 x − cos 2x = 0
(h) 5 sin2 x + 13 sin x − 6 = 0
(i) sin 2x + 2 cos x = 0
(j) sin(x/2) = 1/2

2. Solve each equation over the given interval;

(a) sec x = −2; 270◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦

(b) 2 cos2 x = cos x; π ≤ x < 2π
(c) (2 cos x + 1)(tan x − 1) = 0; 2π < x < 3π
π
(d) sin2 x = sin x; 0 ≤ x ≤
2
3. Find all the general solutions of the following equations;

(a) 2 tan x − sec2 x = 0

(b) 2 sin2 x − cos x − 1 = 0
(c) csc2 x − csc x = 2
(d) 2 cos2 x + cos x = 1
(e) 4 csc2 θ − 7 = 4 cot θ
(f) tan θ = 3 sin θ

67
 (g) 2 cos(2x) + 1 = 0
3θ
(h) 5 sin +4=0
4
 
2 θ ◦
(i) sec − 50 = 1.2
3
(j) 3 sin θ + 5 cot θ = csc θ

Unit Summary
In this unit you have learnt graphs, inverses and equations. You have learnt how
to sketch graphs of trigonometric functions. You have also learnt that in general,
trigonometric functions are not invertible but we get inverses after restricting the
ranges of functions. Finally you have learnt how to solve trigonometric equations.
Both particular solutions and general solutions have been discussed.

Activity 3.24 (Unit Test).

1. Sketch, at least one period from phase shift, the graph of each equation
below.
1
(a) y = 2 sin x
2
 π
(b) y = 3 sin 2x +
2
(c) y = 6 − cos(3x − π)
 
1 π
(d) y = −3 + sin x+
2 4
(e) y = −2 − cos(3x − π)
(f) y = 1 + sin(2x − π)
 π
(g) y = 3 + 4 cos x −
4
2. Find the exact value of the expression whenever it is defined.
 π
−1
(a) sin sin
4
 
−1 2π
(b) sin sin
3

68
  
−1 1
(c) sin sin
2
(d) cos−1 (cos 3.14)
 
−1 3π
(e) sin tan
4
 
−1 5π
(f) cos cos
6
 
−1 4 −1 3
(g) tan sin + tan
5 4
 
15
(h) cos 2 sin−1
17
 
−1 4 −1 8
(i) tan tan + cos
3 17
3. Find the general solution for each equation below.

(a) 2 cos2 x − cos x = 0

(b) 3 cos2 x + 8 sin x = 7
(c) 5 sin(2x − 5) = −3.045
1
(d) sin2 = sin 2x
2
(e) sin 2x = sin x
(f) cos 2x = 4 cos x − 2

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.9

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Amplitude 3 3 2 3 4 1
π 2π π
Phase Shift 0 0 0
2 3 6
2π 2π 2π
Period π π π
3 3 3
Vertical Shift 0 4 0 2 3 0

Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.19

69
 √ √
π ◦ 3 2
1. (a) − (b) 90 (c) (d)
4 2 2

Suggested Solutions to Activity 3.23

1. (a) x = 80.5◦ and x = 260.5◦ (b) No Solution (c) No solution (h) x = 23.6◦
and x = 156.4◦ (i) 90◦ and 270◦
11π 3π
2. (a) 240◦ (b) and
6 2

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

π π 1 π
2. (a) (b) (c) (d) 3.14 (e)
4 6 2 2
π π 3π 5π
3. (a) + 2nπ, + 2nπ, + 2nπ, + 2nπ
3 2 2 2
(b) 0.7297 + 2nπ, 2.4119 + 2nπ
(c) 111.259 + 2nπ and 163.742 + 2nπ
π 5π
(d) 2nπ, + 2nπ, π + 2nπ, + 2nπ
4 4

70
Part II

Calculus

71
Unit 4

Limits and Continuity of

Functions

4.1 Introduction
In this unit, we will discuss the limit of a function. We will look at the definition of
a limit before discussing limit laws. We will also consider one sided limits, limits at
infinity and infinite limits. The difference between continuous and discontinuous
functions will be discussed. Finally, we will look at tangent lines to the curve.

4.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ define the limit of a function.

ˆ find the limit of a given function, if it exists.
ˆ identify continuous and discontinuous functions.
ˆ find the slope and equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given
point.

Key Terms

73
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ limit

ˆ direct substitution property

ˆ one-sided limits

ˆ limits at infinity

ˆ infinite limits

ˆ asymptote

ˆ continuous function

ˆ tangent line to the curve

4.3 Definition and Notation

Definition 4.1. Suppose f (x) is defined when x is near the number a, i.e., f is
defined on some open interval that contains a except possibly at a itself. Then the
limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L, written

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if the values of f (x) are arbitrarily close to L as x is sufficiently close to a (on

either side of a) but not equal to a.

1
Suppose f (x) = (3x − 1) and consider a = 4. We are interested in values of f (x)
2
when x is close to 4 from both sides but not necessarily equal to 4.
Some values are given in Figure 4.1. As x becomes closer to 4 from either side,
f (x) becomes closer to 5.5.
 
1
Hence lim (3x − 1) = 5.5.
x→4 2

Alternative notation for

lim f (x) = L
x→a

74
 1
Figure 4.1: Table of Values for f (x) = (3x − 1)
2

is f (x) → L as
x → a.

4.3.1 Limit Laws

Suppose that c, L and M are constants and that lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M .
x→a x→a
Then

1. lim c = c
x→a

2. lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x) = cL.

x→a x→a
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of
the function.

3. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M .

x→a x→a x→a
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.

4. lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M .

x→a x→a x→a
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.
h ih i
5. lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) = LM .
x→a x→a x→a
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.

f (x) lim f (x) L

6. lim = x→a = , provided lim g(x) = M ̸= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) M x→a
x→a

75
 The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, pro-
vided the limit of the denominator is not zero.

7. lim [f (x)]n = [limx→a f (x)]n = Ln

x→a
p
n
q √
n
8. lim f (x) = n lim f (x) = L where n is a positive integer.
x→a x→a

Example 4.2.

Suppose that lim f (x) = 5 and lim g(x) = −2, find

x→4 x→4

1. lim f (x)g(x)
x→4

2. lim (f (x) + 3g(x))

x→4

g(x)
3. lim
x→4 f (x) − 1

Solution

We use limit laws.

h i h i
1. lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) × lim g(x) = 5 × −2 = −10.
x→4 x→4 x→4

2. lim (f (x) + 3g(x)) = lim f (x) + 3 lim g(x) = 5 + 3(−2) = 5 − 6 = −1.

x→4 x→4 x→4

g(x) lim g(x) −2 2 1

x→4
3. lim = = =− =− .
x→4 f (x) − 1 lim f (x) − 1 5−1 4 2
x→4

Apart from limit laws, we can use Theorem 4.3 in evaluating limit of some func-
tions. Sometimes we can use both limit laws and Theorem 4.3.
Theorem 4.3 (Direct substitution property). If f is a polynomial or a rational
function and a is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Suppose a and n are real numbers. By Theorem 4.3, the following properties of
limits are immediate:

1. lim x = a
x→a

76
 2. lim xn = an
x→a
√ √
3. lim n
x= n
a
x→a

Example 4.4.

Evaluate the following limits:

1. lim (12x2 − 7x + 14)

x→5

2x + 7
2. lim
x→−2 x3 − 3

x−1
3. lim
x→3 x − 3

Solution

1. We first use limit laws and then substitute 5 for x.

lim (12x2 − 7x + 14) = lim 12x2 + lim (−7x) + lim 14

x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
2
= 12 lim x − 7 lim x + 14
x→5 x→5
2
= 12(5) − 7(5) + 14
= 12 × 25 − 35 + 14
= 279.

2. Using direct substitution we have

2x + 7 2(−2) + 7 −4 + 7 3
lim 3
= 3
= =− .
x→−2 x − 3 (−2) − 3 −8 − 3 11

3. Substituting directly we have,

x−1 3−1 2
lim = = .
x→3 x − 3 3−3 0

x−1
Hence lim does not exist.
x→3 x − 3

77
Not all limits can be evaluated by direct substitution. For example, directly sub-
x2 − 4 0
stituting 2 for x in evaluating lim gives which is undefined. It looks like
x→2 x − 2 0
the limit does not exist.
However, factorising the numerator and then simplifying, we have
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
lim = lim
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 2)
x→2
= 2 + 2 = 4.

In general, for some functions, preliminary algebra is used to write the function in
a different but equivalent form before substitution is done. That is, we do some
algebraic manipulations to the function until it is in the form in which substitution
will make sense (See Proposition 4.5). Depending on the function given, we can
do any of the following to either the denominator or the numerator;

1. Factorisation,
2. Expansion,
3. Rationalisation.
Proposition 4.5. If f (x) = g(x) when x ̸= a, then

lim f (x) = lim g(x),

x→a x→a

provided the limits exist.

Example 4.6.

Evaluate each limit if it exists.

 2 
2x − 3x + 4 5x − 4
1. lim +
x→0 x x
(h + 4)2 − 16
2. lim
h→0 h
√
4+y−2
3. lim
y→0 y
 2 
r 1
4. lim −
r→1 r−1 r−1

78
Solution

1.

2x2 − 3x + 4 5x − 4 (2x2 − 3x + 4) + (5x − 4)

 
lim + = lim
x→0 x x x→0 x
2
2x + 2x
= lim
x→0 x
= lim 2x + 2
x→0
= 2(0) + 2
= 2.

2.

(h + 4)2 − 16 (h2 + 8h + 16) − 16

lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2
h + 8h
= lim
h→0 h
h(h + 8)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim h + 8
h→0
= 8.

3.
√ √ √
4+y−2 4+y−2 4+y+2
lim = lim ×√
y→0 y y→0 y 4+y+2
√ √
4+y+2 4+y−2 4+y−4
= lim √
y→0 y( 4 + y + 2)
y
= lim √
y→0 y( 4 + y + 2)
1
= lim √
y→0 4+y+2
1
=√
4+0+2
1 1
= = .
2+2 4

79
 4.
r2 r2 − 1
 
1
lim − = lim
r→1 r−1 r−1 r→1 r − 1

(r − 1(r + 1)
= lim
r→1 r−1
= lim(r + 1)
r→1
= 1 + 1 = 2.

4.3.2 One Sided Limits

We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−

and say the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is equal to L if
we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently close
to a and x < a. If we require that x be greater than a, we get the right hand
limit of f (x) as x approaches a equal to L and we write

lim f (x) = L.
x→a+

Theorem 4.7 describes existence of the limit of a function based on the left and
right hand limits.

Theorem 4.7. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim+ f (x) = L and lim− f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

By Theorem 4.7, a two-sided limit exists if and only if both of the one-sided limits
exist and are equal.

Example 4.8.

|x|
1. Show that lim does not exist.
x→0 2x
(√
x − 2 if x > 2
2. If f (x) = determine whether lim f (x) exists or not.
4 − 2x if x < 2 x→2

Solution

80
 1. We need to show that the ( left hand limit and the right hand limit are not
x if x ≥ 0
equal. Recall that |x| = .
−x if x < 0
Now
|x| x 1 1
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ =
x→0 2x x→0 2x x→0 2 2
and  
|x| −x 1 1
lim− = lim− = lim− − =− .
x→0 2x x→0 2x x→0 2 2

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim+ ̸= lim− , lim does not exist.
x→0 2x x→0 2x x→0 2x
√
2. For x > 2, we have f (x) = x − 2.
√ √
Therefore, lim+ f (x) = lim+ x − 2 = 2 − 2 = 0.
x→2 x→2

For x < 2, we have f (x) = 4 − 2x.

Therefore, lim− f (x) = lim− (4 − 2x) = 4 − 2(2) = 0.
x→2 x→2

Since lim− f (x) = lim− f (x) = 0, lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 0.
x→2 + x→2 x→2 x→2

Activity 4.9.

1. Evaluate each limit if it exists.

(a) lim 200

x→−3

(b) lim (x2 + 5x + 1)

x→2
√
4 − 16 + t
(c) lim
t→0 t
x−5
(d) lim 2
x→5 x − 25
√
t3
(e) lim+ √
t→0 t
x
(f) lim √ √
x→0 x+3− 3
x2 − 7x + 12
(g) lim
x→3 x−3

81
 r2 − 3r + 2
(h) lim
r→1 r−1
(9 + h)−1 − 9−1
(i) lim
h→0 h
(
1 + x2 if x < 2
2. If f (x) = , find lim− f (x).
x3 if x ≥ 2 x→2

(
4x2 − 1 if x < 1
3. If f (x) = , find lim+ f (x).
3x + 2 if x ≥ 1 x→1

(
−t if t < 1
4. Suppose that f (t) = 2 , find lim f (t).
t if t ≥ 1 x→1

4.3.3 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits

Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then lim f (x) = L1 means
x→−∞
the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L1 by taking x sufficiently large
negative. lim f (x) = L2 means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily
x→∞
close to L2 by taking x sufficiently large.
Definition 4.10. If f is a function and L1 and L2 are real numbers, then the
statements
lim f (x) = L1
x→−∞

and
lim f (x) = L2
x→∞

denote the limits at infinity. The first statement is read ‘the limit of f (x) as x
approaches −∞ is L1 ’ and the second is read ‘the limit of f (x) as x approaches ∞
is L2 ’.

Recall that ∞ is not a number but represents the idea that something never ends.
Definition 4.11. Let k ∈ R. Then the line y = k is called a horizontal asymp-
tote of the curve y = f (x) if either lim f (x) = k or lim f (x) = k.
x→∞ x→−∞

Theorem 4.12 is used when calculating limits at infinity.

Theorem 4.12. Let r be a rational number. If r > 0, then
1 1
lim r
= lim r = 0.
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

82
By Theorem 4.12, the following statements are true.

1
1. lim = 0.
x→∞ x2

1
2. lim = 0.
x→−∞ x

2 1
3. lim 3
= 2 lim 3 = 2 × 0 = 0.
x→∞ x x→∞ x

Limits at infinity involving rational functions are evaluated by dividing by the

highest power of x that occurs in the denominator in both numerator and denom-
inator. After that, where possible, we can use limit laws and Theorem 4.12.

Example 4.13.

Evaluate the following limits:

3x3 + 4x2 + 6x − 7
1. lim
x→∞ 2x2 − x + 2
 
3
2. lim 4− 2
x→−∞ x

−2x3 + 3
3. lim
x→∞ 3x2 + 1

x+1
4. lim
x→∞ 2x2 + 2x + 1

√
2x2 + 3
5. lim
x→−∞ 2x + 3

Solution

83
1. We divide by x2 , the highest power of x occurring in the denominator.

3x3 4x2 6x 7
3 2
3x + 4x + 6x − 7 2
+ 2 + 2 − 2
lim = lim x x x x
x→∞ 2x2 − x + 2 x→∞ 2x2 x 2
− 2+ 2
x2 x x
6 7
3x + 4 + − 2
= lim x x
x→∞ 1 2
2− + 2
x x
1 1
lim 3x + lim 4 + 6 lim − 7 lim 2
x→∞ x x→∞ x
= x→∞ x→∞
1 1
2 lim 2 − lim + lim 2
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞
lim 3x + lim 4 + 6(0) − 7(0)
= x→∞ x→∞
2(0) − 0 + 2
lim (3x + 4)
x→∞
=
2
3x + 4
= lim .
x→∞ 2

As x → ∞, the numerator (3x + 4) → ∞. The denominator remains 2.

3x3 + 4x2 + 6x − 7 3x + 4
Hence lim 2
= lim = ∞.
x→∞ 2x − x + 2 x→∞ 2

 
3 1
2. lim 4− 2 = lim 4 − 3 lim = 4 − 3(0) = 4.
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x→−∞ x2

3
Hence the line y = 4 is the horizontal asymptote to the curve y = 4 − .
x2
84
3.

−2x3 3
3
−2x + 3 2
+ 2
lim = lim x 2 x
x→∞ 3x2 + 1 x→∞ 3x 1
+ 2
x2 x
3
−2x + 2
= lim x
x→∞ 1
3+ 2
x
3
lim (−2x) + lim
x→∞ x2
= x→∞
1
lim 3 + lim 2
x→∞ x→∞ x
lim (−2x)
= x→∞
lim 3
x→∞
(−2x)
= lim .
x→∞ 3

As x → ∞, the numerator, −2x is large negative and the denominator

remains 3.
−2x3 + 3
Hence lim = −∞.
x→∞ 3x2 + 1

4.
x 1
x+1 2
+ 2
lim = lim x x
x→∞ 2x2 + 2x + 1 x→∞ 2x2 2x 1
+ +
x2 x2 x2
1 1
+ 2
= lim x x
x→∞ 2 1
2+ + 2
x x
1 1
lim + lim 2
x→∞ x x→∞ x
=
2 1
lim 2 + lim + lim 2
x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
0+0
=
2+0+0
= 0.

85
 5.
r
√ 2x2 3
2x2 + 3 2
+ 2
lim = lim x x
x→−∞ 2x + 3 x→−∞ 2x 3
+
rx x
3
2+ 2
x
= lim
x→−∞ 3
2+
r x
3
lim 2 + lim
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2
=
3
lim 2 + lim
x→−∞ x→−∞ x
√
2+0
=
2 + 3(0)
√
2
= .
2
When calculating a limit of a rational function, three cases occur. Its either the
denominator has a higher degree than the numerator, or the degree of the numer-
ator is greater than that of the denominator. In the third case, the numerator and
the denominator have equal degrees. The results obtained in each case are given
in Proposition 4.14.
Proposition 4.14. Let f (x) and g(x) be polynomials.

f (x)
1. If the degree of f (x) is less than the degree of g(x), then lim = 0.
x→±∞ g(x)
f (x)
2. If the degree of f (x) is greater than the degree of g(x) then lim =∞
x→±∞ g(x)
f (x)
or lim = −∞ depending on the coefficients of leading terms.
x→±∞ g(x)

f (x)
3. If the degree of f (x) is equal to the degree of g(x) then lim is the
x→±∞ g(x)
quotient of the leading coefficients.

x6 + x3 2x2 + 3 2x2 + 3
By Proposition 4.14, lim = ∞, lim = lim = 0 and
x→∞ 2x2 + 3 x→∞ x6 + 4x3 x→−∞ x6 + 4x3
x6 + 4x3 1
lim 6 4
= .
x→−∞ 3x + 9x 3

86
If the values of a function f (x) outgrow all positive bounds as x approaches a
finite number a, we say that lim f (x) = ∞. If the values of f become large and
x→a
negative, exceeding all negative bounds as x → a, we say that lim f (x) = −∞. A
x→a
limit which is ∞ or −∞ is called an infinite limit.
Definition 4.15.

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function y = f (x) if

either

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim− f (x) = ±∞.

x→a+ x→a

Example 4.16.

Evaluate the limit and identify the vertical asymptote of the graph of each function.

5x
1. lim+ .
x→4 x−4
7
2. lim+
x→2 2−x
3x
3. lim− .
x→2 2x − 4
Solution

1. If x is close to 4 but larger than 4, the denominator x − 4 is small positive

5x
and 5x is close to 10. So is a large positive number.
x−4
5x
Thus lim+ = ∞ and the line x = 4 is a vertical asymptote.
x→4 x − 4

2. If x is close to 2 but greater than 2, the denominator 2 − x is a small negative

7
number but the numerator remains 7. So is a large negative number.
2−x
7
Hence lim+ = −∞ and the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote of the
x→2 2 − x
7
curve y = .
2−x
3x
3. Similarly, lim− = −∞ and the equation of the vertical asymptote of
x→2 2x − 4
3x
the curve y = is x = 2.
2x − 4

87
Activity 4.17.

Evaluate each limit blow if it exists.

 
1
1. lim +2
x→−∞ x

x4 + x2 + 13
2. lim
x→∞ x3 + 8x + 9

8
3. lim+
x→6 6−x
2x2
4. lim
x→∞ (x + 2)3

8
5. lim+
x→6 x−6
8
6. lim−
x→6 6−x
3x2 + 2x + 1
7. lim
x→−∞ 5 − 2x2 + 3x

x2 + x + 1
8. lim
x→∞ (3x + 2)2

5x
9. lim−
x→3 6 − 2x
3x3 − 1
10. lim
x→−∞ 4x + 3

4.4 Continuous Functions

Definition 4.18. A function f is continuous at a number c if the following
conditions are satisfied:

(i) f is defined on an open interval containing c, i.e., f (c) exists.

(ii) lim f (x) exists.

x→c

88
(iii) lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c

To show that a function f is continuous at a number c, we need to show that

f satisfies all the three conditions in Definition 4.18. To show that a function is
not continuous at a number c, we need to show that it does not satisfy any one
condition out of the three in Definition 4.18.
If a function f is not continuous at c, we say that it is discontinuous at c or that
it has a discontinuity at c
Example 4.19.
(
x2 + 3x + 5 if x < 1
1. Is the function f (x) = continuous at x = 1?
6x + 3 if x ≥ 1
(
2x − 3 if x < 5
2. Is the function f (x) = continuous at x = 5?
4x − 1 if x > 5
(
x + 1 if x < 3
3. Is the function f (x) = continuous at x = 3?
2x + 1 if x ≥ 3

x + 1 if x < 2

4. Is the function f (x) = x2 if x = 2 continuous at x = 2?

2x − 1 if x > 2


Solution

1. (i) f (1) = 6(1) + 3 = 9.

Therefore the first condition is satisfied.
(ii)
lim f (x) = lim+ (6x + 3) = 6(1) + 3 = 9
x→1+ x→1
and
lim f (x) = lim− (x2 + 3x + 5) = 12 + 3(1) + 5 = 9.
x→1− x→1

Since
lim f (x) = lim− f (x) = 9,
x→1+ x→1

lim f (x)
x→1
exists and is equal to 9.
Therefore the second condition is satisfied.

89
 (iii) From the above steps, lim f (x) = f (1) = 9.
x→1
Therefore the third condition is satisfied.
Hence f (x) is continuous at x = 1.
2. (i) The function f is defined if x is greater than or less than 5, but not
when x is equal to 5. Therefore f (5) does not exist.
Hence the function is not continuous at x = 5 since the first condition
fails.
3. (i) f (3) = 2(3) + 1 = 7.
Hence the first condition is satisfied.
(ii)
lim f (x) = lim+ (2x + 1) = 2(3) + 1 = 7
x→3+ x→3

and
lim f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 3 + 1 = 4.
x→3− x→3

Since
lim f (x) ̸= lim− f (x),
x→3+ x→3

lim f (x)
x→3

dos not exist.

Hence f is discontinuous at x = 3 since f fails to satisfy the second
condition.
4. (i) f (2) = 22 = 4.
(ii)
lim f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 2 + 1 = 3
x→2− x→2

and
lim f (x) = lim+ (2x − 1) = 2(2) − 1 = 3.
x→2+ x→2

Since
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 3,
x→2− x→2

lim f (x)
x→2

exists and is equal to 3.

(iii) lim f (x) = 3 but f (2) = 4. Since these are not equal, the third condition
x→2
fails.
Hence the function is discontinuous at x = 3.

90
Example 4.20.

(
ax + 5 if x < 4
For what value of a is the function f (x) = continuous at
x2 − x if x ≥ 4
x = 4?

Solution

Since f (4) = 42 − 4 = 12, the function satisfies the first condition at x = 4.

For the second condition to be satisfied, lim− f (x) = 4a + 5 must equal
x→4
lim+ f (x) = 12.
x→4

7
Setting 4a + 5 = 12 gives a = .
4
7
Hence the value a = makes the function continuous at x = 4.
4

4.5 Tangent Lines to the Curve

A tangent line to a curve is a straight line that touches the curve at only one point
(See Figure 4.2). We will look at how to find the equation of a tangent line to the
curve at a given point. First we define the slope of the tangent line.

Figure 4.2: The tangent line

91
Definition 4.21. The slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point
P (a, f (a)) is given by
f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x−a
provided that the limit exists.

Once the slope of the tangent line is found, we can find the equation using point-
slope form of the equation of straight line discussed in Module 1 of Mat 111.

Example 4.22.

1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 +1 at the point P (1, 2).

2. Find equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 + 4 at the point

P (−1, 5).

3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = 2x2 − 4 at x = 2.

Solution

1. a = 1, f (x) = x3 + 1 and f (a) = f (1) = 2. Notice that

x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1).

Hence the slope is

(x3 + 1) − 2 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
m = lim = lim = lim (x2 +x+1) = 1+1+1 = 3..
x→1 x−1 x→1 (x − 1) x→1

2. a = −1, f (x) = x2 + 4 and f (−1) = 5.

The slope is

(x2 + 4) − 5 x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
m = lim = lim = lim = lim (x−1) = −2.
x→−1 x − (−1) x→−1 x + 1 x→1− (x + 1) x→−1

Using the point (−1, 5) and slope m = −2, the equation becomes

y − 5 = −2(x − (−1)) ⇒ y = −2x − 2 + 5 ⇒ y = −2x + 3.

92
 3. a = 2, f (x) = 2x2 − 4 and f (a) = f (2) = 2(2)2 − 4 = 8 − 4 = 4.
The slope is
(2x2 − 4) − 4 2x2 − 8
m = lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x − 2
2
2(x − 4) 2(x − 2)(x + 2)
= lim = lim
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim 2(x + 2) = 2(2 + 2) = 8.
x→2

Activity 4.23.
 2
x − x − 2
if x ̸= 2
1. Is the function f (x) = x−2 continuous at x = 2?
7 if x = 2

(
x + 1 if x < 2
2. Is the function f (x) = continuous at x = 2?
2x − 1 if x ≥ 2
(
bx if x ≤ 3
3. Suppose f (x) = . Find the value of b such that the function
5 if x > 3
f (x) is continuous at x = 3.
(
a + x if x < 2
4. Find the value of a such that the function f (x) = is
1 + x2 if x ≥ 2
continuous at x = 2.
(
x2 + 2x if x < a
5. Find all values of a such that the function f (x) = is
−1 if x ≥ a
continuous everywhere.
√
6. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = x at x = 9.

7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given point.

(a) y = x3 − x2 + 2x + 1 at (2, 9) [Hint: Factorise x3 − x2 + 2x + 1].

x+2
(b) y = at (2, 4).
3−x
(c) y = x2 at x = 3.
(d) y = x2 + 2x + 3 at x = 1.

93
 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the limit of a function. Both definition and existence
of a limit were discussed. You also learnt continuous functions and tangent lines
to a given curve at a given point.

Activity 4.24 (Unit Test).

(
x2 + 8x + 15 if x ≤ 2
1. If f (x) = , find f (2).
4x + 7 if x > 2
(
x3 − 2 if x≥2
2. If f (x) = 2
, find lim+ f (x).
1 + x + 7 if x<2 x→2

(
−t if t < 1
3. Suppose that f (t) = 2 . Find lim f (t).
t if t ≥ 1 t→1

4. Evaluate each limit.

x2 + x − 20
(a) lim
x→4 x−4
|4x − 12|
(b) lim
x→3− x−3
3
(c) lim
t→∞ 1 + t2
5x
(d) lim+
x→3 2x − 6
4x − 1
(e) lim
x→1/4 1 − 16x2

x2 − 81
(f) lim √
x→9 3 − x
−6x + 2x3 − 7
4
(g) lim
x→∞ 12x4 + x5 + 3x6
√ √
2+x− 2
(h) lim
x→∞ x
(
x if x ≤ 3
5. Find the value of a such that the function f (x) = x is con-
a+ if x > 3
2
tinuous at x = 3.

94
 (
2x2 + 3 if x ≤ 3
6. Suppose the function f (x) = is continuous at x = 3.
3x + b if x > 3
Find the value of b.

7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 − 1 at x = −1.

x+1
8. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = at x = 2.
x−3

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.9

1 1
(1) (a) 200 (b) 15 (c) − (d) (e) 0 (g) −1 (h) −1.
8 10
(2) 5 (3) 5 (4) The limit does not exist.

Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.17

(1) 2 (2) ∞ (3) −∞ (4) 0 (5) ∞

3 1
(7) − (8) (9) ∞ (10) −∞
2 9

Suggested Solutions to Activity 4.23

1. The function is not continuous at x = 2.

2. The function is continuous at x = 2.

5 1
3. b = 4. a = 3 5. a = −1 6. m =
3 6
7. (a) y = 10x − 11
(b) y = 5x − 6
(c) y = 6x − 9
(d) y = 4x + 2

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. f (2) = 35 2. lim+ f (x) = 6 3. lim f (t) does not exist.

x→2 x→1

95
 1
4. (a) 9 (b) 4 (c) 0 (d) ∞ (e) − (h) 0
2
3
5. a = 6. b = 12 7. y = 3x + 1 8. y = 5x − 4
2

96
Unit 5

Definition and Techniques of

Differentiation

5.1 Introduction
In this unit, we will introduce the derivative of an algebraic function. We will
define the differentiation and use the definition to find the derivative of a function.
We will also look at other techniques of finding the derivative of a function besides
the definition. These include the product rule, the power rule, and the chain rule.
Implicit differentiation and higher order derivatives will also be discussed.

5.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ define the derivative of a differentiable function.

ˆ find the derivative of a function from first principles.

ˆ find the derivative using other techniques such as power rule, product rule,
quotient rule and chain rule.
ˆ perform implicit differentiation.

ˆ find second order and third order derivatives.

97
 Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ derivatives

ˆ differentiation from first principles

ˆ power rule

ˆ product rule

ˆ quotient rule

ˆ chain rule

ˆ constant rule

ˆ constant multiple rule

ˆ sum and difference rule

ˆ implicit differentiation

ˆ higher order derivatives

5.3 Differentiation from First Principles

Differentiation is the process of finding the derivative of a function. We define
the derivative of a function in terms of limits.

Definition 5.1. The derivative of a function f at a number a is given by

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

98
Finding the derivative of a function using Definition 5.1 is called differentiation
from first principles.
In Definition 4.21, we defined the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x)
at the point P (a, f (a)) as

f (x) − f (a)
m = lim .
x→a x−a

Now if we put x = a + h, then we have h = x − a and h approaches 0 if and only

if x approaches a. So the definitions 4.21 and 5.1 are equivalent.
Therefore the slope of the tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is the derivative of
f at a.

Example 5.2.

Find the derivative of each of the following functions;

1. f (x) = 2x2 at the number a = 2.

2. f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at the number a = 5

Solution

1. f (x) = 2x2 and a = 2.

f (a + h) = f (2 + h) = 2(2 + h)2 = 2(4 + 4h + h2 ) = 8 + 8h + 2h2 .
f (a) = f (2) = 2(2)2 = 2 × 4 = 8.
Hence

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→0 h
(8 + 8h + 2h2 ) − 8
= lim
h→0 h
2
8h + 2h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 8 + 2h = 8.
h→0

99
 2.
f (5 + h) − f (5)
f ′ (5) = lim
h→0 h
[(5 + h)2 − 8(5 + h) + 9] − [52 − 8(5) + 9]
= lim
h→0 h
2
25 + 10h + h − 40 − 8h + 9 − 25 + 40 − 9
= lim
h→0 h
10h + h2 − 8h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 10 + h − 8 = 2.
h→0

5.3.1 The Derivative Function

In Definition 5.1, if the number a is not specified, then the derivative of a function
f (x) becomes another function, say, g(x).
Definition 5.3. The derivative function of f (x), denoted f ′ (x), is given by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
provided the limit exits.
Example 5.4.

Find the derivative of each of the following functions;

1. f (x) = 2x2 .
2. f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at the number a = 5

Solution

1. f (x + h) = 2(x + h)2 = 2(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) = 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 .

Hence
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 ) − 2x2
= lim
h→0 h
2
4xh + 2h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (4x + 2h)
h→0
= 4x.

100
 2. We will first find f ′ (x) and then substitute 5 for x.
Now f (x + h) = (x + h)2 − 8(x + h) + 9 = x2 + 2xh + h2 − 8x − 8h + 9.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + 2xh + h2 − 8x − 8h + 9) − (x2 − 8x + 9)
2
= lim
h→0 h
x + 2xh + h − 8x − 8h + 9 − x2 + 8x − 9
2 2
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 − 8h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h − 8)
h→0
= 2x − 8.

Hence f ′ (5) = 2(5) − 8 = 10 − 8 = 2.

Apart from f ′ (x), other alternative notations for the derivative of the function
dy df d
y = f (x) with respect to x are; y ′ , , , [f (x)], Df (x) and Dx f (x).
dx dx dx

Activity 5.5.

1. Differentiate from first principles each function:

(a) f (x) = x2 + x − 2
(b) f (x) = 4x3 − 4x + 4
(c) g(x) = 12x2 − 4
(d) h(x) = 9x2 + 12x + 16
(e) f (x) = x2 − 19x − 7
(f) g(x) = 13x3 + 7x2 − 5x + 10

2. Find the derivative (from first principles) of 7x3 − 3 at the number x = 2.

3. Find the derivative of 8x3 − x2 + 4x − 6 at the number x = 1.

4. If f (x) = 3x3 + 17x, find f ′ (4) from first principles.

101
5.4 Formulae and Techniques of Differentiation

5.4.1 The Derivative of a Constant Function

Recall that a constant function takes the form f (x) = a where a is a real number.

Theorem 5.6. Let c be any constant. Then the derivative of c with respect to x
d
is zero, i.e., (c) = 0.
dx
d d
Example 5.7. By Theorem 5.6, (20) = 0 and (−0.35) = 0.
dx dx

5.4.2 The Power Rule

We look at the derivative of a polynomial function xn where n is a real number.
d n
Theorem 5.8. If n is any real number, then (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx
Example 5.9.

By Theorem 5.8, we have

d 7
1. (x ) = 7x7−1 = 7x6 .
dx
d 2/3 2 2
2. (x ) = x2/3−1 = x−1/3 .
dx 3 3
d
3. (x) = 1.
dx

5.4.3 The Constant Multiple Rule

This rule given the derivative of a function which is the product of two functions
of which one of them is a constant.

Theorem 5.10. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then

d d
[cf (x)] = c [f (x)].
dx dx

In Theorem 5.10, by differentiable function we mean a function whose derivative

exists.

102
Example 5.11.

By Theorem 5.10, we have the following:

d d
1. If f (x) = 2x3 , then (f (x)) = 2 (x3 ) = 2(3x3−1 ) = 6x2 .
dx dx
2. If f (x) = 17x−2 , then f ′ (x) = −34x−3 .

5.4.4 The Sum and Difference Rule

Theorem 5.12. Let f and g be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
[f (x) ± g(x)] = [f (x)] ± [g(x)].
dx dx dx
In words, Theorem 5.12, means, the derivative of the sum of two functions, is
the sum of the derivatives of the two functions and the derivative of the difference
between two functions is the difference between the derivatives of the two functions.
Example 5.13.

Find the derivative of each function:

1. f (x) = 8x3 + 4x2 + 6x − 9.

2. f (x) = 17x4 + 9x3 + x2 − 7x.
√
3. f (x) = 7x−7 + 6x6 − 5 3 x − 2

Solution

1. f ′ (x) = 24x2 + 8x + 6.
2. f ′ (x) = 68x3 + 27x2 + 2x − 7.
3. Note that f (x) = 7x−7 + 6x6 − 5x1/3 − 2.
Therefore
 
′ −8 5 1 1/3−1
f (x) = −49x + 36x − 5 x
3
5
= −49x−8 + 36x5 − x−2/3
3 
−8 5 5 1
= −49x + 36x − √ .
3 3 x2

103
5.4.5 The Product Rule
Recall that we can multiply two functions to find their product. The product rule
gives the derivative of a function which is the product of two functions.
Theorem 5.14. Let f and g be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)].
dx dx dx

In words, the product rule is, The derivative of a product of two functions is the
first function times the derivative of the second function plus the second function
times the derivative of the first function.
Example 5.15.

1. Differentiate f (x) = x2 (2x3 − 1).

2. If f (x) = 8x(3x2 + x), find f ′ (1).

3. Find y ′ given that y = (2x + 7)(x2 − 5x + 2).

Solution

1. By the product rule,

d d
f ′ (x) = x2 [2x3 − 1] + (2x3 − 1) [x2 ]
dx dx
2 2 3
= x (6x ) + (2x − 1)(2x)
= 6x4 + 4x4 − 2x
= 10x4 − 2x.

2. By the product rule,

d d
f ′ (x) = 8x [3x2 + x] + (3x2 + x) [8x]
dx dx
2
= 8x(6x + 1) + (3x + x)(8)
= 48x2 + 8x + 24x2 + 8x
= 72x2 + 16x.

Hence f ′ (1) = 72(1)2 + 16(1) = 88.

104
 3.
d 2 d
y ′ = (2x + 7) [x − 5x + 2] + (x2 − 5x + 2) [2x + 7]
dx dx
= (2x + 7)(2x − 5) + (x2 − 5x + 2)2
= (2x + 7)(2x − 5) + 2(x2 − 5x + 2).

5.4.6 The Quotient Rule

The quotient rule gives the derivative of the function which is the result of dividing
two functions.
Theorem 5.16. If f and g are differentiable functions, then
  g(x) d [f (x)] − f (x) d [g(x)]
d f (x) dx dx
= .
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
In words the quotient rule is, the derivative of the quotient is the denominator
times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of
the denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.
Example 5.17.
x
1. Find f ′ (x) for f (x) = .
x2 −1
x2
2. Differentiate y = with respect to x.
2x + 1
x4 (2x + 7)
3. Find y ′ given that y = .
(x2 + 2)
Solution

1.
d d
(x2 − 1) [x] − x [x2 − 1]
f ′ (x) = dx dx
(x2 − 1)2
(x2 − 1) − x(2x)
=
(x2 − 1)2
x − 1 − 2x2
2
=
(x2 − 1)2
−(x2 + 1)
= .
(x2 − 1)2

105
 2.
d 2 d
(2x + 1) [x ] − x2 [2x + 1]
y′ = dx dx
(2x + 1)2
(2x + 1)2x − x2 (2)
=
(2x + 1)2
4x2 + 2x − 2x2
=
(2x + 1)2
2x2 + 2x
= .
(2x + 1)2
d 4 d
(x2 + 2) [x (2x + 7)] − x4 (2x + 7) [x2 + 2]
3. y ′ = dx dx .
(x2 + 2)2
By the product rule,
d 4 d d
[x (2x + 7)] = x4 [2x + 7] + (2x + 7) [x4 ]
dx dx dx
4 3
= x (2) + (2x + 7)(4x )
= 2x4 + 4x3 (2x + 7).

Hence
(x2 + 2)(2x4 + 4x3 (2x + 7)) − x4 (2x + 7)(2x)
y′ =
(x2 + 2)2
(x + 2)[2x + 4x (2x + 7)] − 2x5 (2x + 7)
2 4 3
= .
(x2 + 2)2

5.4.7 The Chain Rule

Recall that the composition of two functions f (x) and g(x) is
f ◦ g = f (g(x)).
The composition is also called the composite function. The Chain rule is used
to find the derivative of a composite function.
dy du
Theorem 5.18. If y = f (u), u = g(x), and the derivatives and both exist,
du dx
then the derivative of the composite function defined by y = f (g(x)) is given by
dy dy du
= × = f ′ (u)g ′ (x)
dx du dx
= f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x).

106
Example 5.19.

dy
If y = u4 and u = x3 + x, find .
dx
Solution

By the chain rule,

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 4u3 × (3x2 + 1)
= 4(x3 + x)3 (3x2 + 1).

Let g(x) be any function. The function [g(x)]n where n is a real number is an
example of a composite function. The derivative of this function is found by
combining both chain rule and power rule.
Theorem 5.20. If g is a differentiable function and n is any real number, then
d d
[g(x)]n = n[g(x)]n−1 × [g(x)].
dx dx
Example 5.21.

1. Find f ′ (x) if f (x) = (x5 − 4x + 8)7 .

dy
2. Find for y = (x2 − 3x + 1)4 .
dx
3. Given that y = (2x + 8)4 (x2 − 6x)6 , find y ′ .

Solution

1.
d 5
f ′ (x) = 7(x5 − 4x + 8)6 [x − 4x + 8]
dx
= 7(x5 − 4x + 8)6 (5x4 − 4).

2.
dy d
= 4(x2 − 3x + 1)3 [x2 − 3x + 1]
dx dx
= 4(x2 − 3x + 1)3 (2x − 3).

107
 3. By the product rule,
d  2 d 
y ′ = (2x + 8)4 (x − 6x)6 + (x2 − 6x)6 (2x + 8)4 .
 
dx dx
We will use the chain rule to find the derivatives of (x2 − 6x)6 and (2x + 8)4 .
Now
   
′ 4 2 d 2
5 2 6 3 d
y = (2x + 8) 6(x − 6x) (x − 6x) + (x − 6x) 4(2x + 8) [2x + 8]
dx dx
= (2x + 8)4 6(x2 − 6x)5 (2x − 6) + (x2 − 6x)6 4(2x + 8)3 (2)
   

= 6(2x + 8)4 (x2 − 6x)5 (2x − 6) + 8(x2 − 6x)6 (2x + 8)3 .

Activity 5.22.

dy
1. Find for each function below.
dx
(a) y = 24343978
(b) y = x6 + 4x4 − x3 + 14x2 − 8
(c) y = 16x5 − 9x4 + 3x3 − 2x2 + 18x − 72
(d) y = x200 − x3/4
(e) y = (x − 4)3 (3x − 1)3
1
(f) y = x3 − x2 +
x
4
x − 16
(g) y =
x−2
(h) y = (3x − 3)(2x + 5)
3x4 − 2x3 + 6x
(i) y =
12x
(j) y = (3x2 + 4x)8 − (2x − 11)3
(k) y = (x1/3 − 2)(x2/3 + 2x1/3 + 4)
√
(l) y = (x + 1) x
 3 6
9x + 3x2 + 2x + 1
(m) y =
4x2 + 5x
9x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
(n) y =
(4x2 + 5x)6

108
 √
3
(o) y = 5x2 + 3x + 4
1
(p) y = √
2x + 3
(q) y = (4x2 + 15x)19 (9x4 + 4x3/2 )21
2. Find g ′ (0) given that g(x) = (4x5 − 3x3 − 2x2 + x + 10)4 .

5.5 Implicit Differentiation

We have so far dealt with functions of the general form y = f (x) in which one
variable y is explicitly
√ expressed in terms of the other variable x. For example
y = 2x + 1 and y = 3 4x2 − 3. Some functions are defined implicitly by a relation
between x and y. For example x3 + y 3 − x2 y = 6xy and y 4 + 3y − x3 = 5x. Implicit
differentiation gives the derivatives of functions with two variables.
To find the derivative of a function such as 2x2 +4y 3 −6x+y 2 = 3xy, we differentiate
each
 variable
 x and y as before, but the result of differentiating y is multiplied by
dy
y ′ or . Finally we solve for y ′ .
dx
Example 5.23.

1. If 2x2 + 4y 3 − 6x + y 2 = 3x2 y, find y ′ .

2. Differentiate with respect to x, y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1.
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y 4 + 3y − 4x3 = 5x + 1 at
the point (1, −2).

Solution

1. We differentiate both sides:

d d
4x + 12y 2 y ′ − 6 + 2yy ′ = 3x2 [y] + y [3x2 ]
dx dx
4x + 12y 2 y ′ − 6 + 2yy ′ 2 ′
= 3x y + 6xy
12y 2 y ′ + 2yy ′ − 3x2 y ′ = 6xy − 4x + 6
(12y 2 + 2y − 3x2 )y ′ = 6xy − 4x + 6
6xy − 4x + 6
y′ = .
12y 2 + 2y − 3x2

Notice that we have used the product rule in finding the derivative of 3x2 y.

109
 2.
d 4 d
(y + 3y − 4x3 ) = (5x + 1)
dx dx
4y 3 y ′ + 3y ′ − 12x2 = 5
(4y 3 + 3)y ′ = 5 + 12x2
12x2 + 5
y′ = .
4y 3 + 3

3. Recall that the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point
(a, f (a)) is equal to f ′ (a), the derivative of f at a.
12x2 + 5
From 2 above, y ′ = .
4y 3 + 3
12(1)2 + 5 17
Hence slope = m = 3
=− .
4(−2) + 3 29

Activity 5.24.

dy
1. Find for each function below.
dx
(a) x3 + y 3 = 3xy
(b) x2 + 2xy 2 = 3y + 4
(c) 1 − xy = x − y
(d) 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225
(e) y 2 = x3
(f) xy 2 − x3 y = 6
√
(g) x + y = 1 + x3 + y 2
(h) 2y 3 + y 2 − 6y 5 = x4 − 2x3 + x5
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y 3 x + x2 y 2 = 6 at the point
(2, 1).

5.6 Higher Derivatives

Differentiating a differentiable function f , gives its derivative f ′ . Let us call f ′ the
first derivative of f . Suppose that f ′ is also differentiable. Then the derivative

110
of f ′ is the second derivative of f . The third derivative of f is the derivative of
the second derivative of f .
Continuing in this manner, we can find the fourth and fifth derivatives of a given
function. The derivatives of a function from the second going up are called higher
derivatives.

5.6.1 The Second Derivative

The second derivative of a function f , denoted (f ′ )′ = f ′′ , is obtained by
 differen-

′ ′′ (2) d dy
tiating f , the derivative of f . Other notations for f include: f , and
dx dx
d2 y
.
dx2
Example 5.25.

1. If y = 3x4 + 5x2 + 6x − 7, find y ′′ .

2. Find f ′′ (2) given that f (x) = 19x3 + 2x2 − 7x + 8.

Solution

1.

y ′ = 12x3 + 10x + 6
y ′′ = 36x2 + 10.

2.

f ′ (x) = 57x2 + 4x − 7.
f ′′ (x) = 114x + 4,
f ′′ (2) = 114(2) + 4 = 232.

5.6.2 The Third Derivative

The third derivative of a function f , denoted (f ′′ )′ = f ′′′ , isobtained after differ-
2
d3 y

(3) d dy
entiating the second derivative and is denoted by; f , and 3 .
dx dx2 dx
Example 5.26.

111
 1. If y = 4x5 + 6x4 − 7x3 + 8x2 + 10x − 17, find y ′′′ .

2. Find f ′′′ (1) given that f (x) = 7x6 + 9x4 − 3x.

Solution

1.

y ′ = 20x4 + 24x3 − 21x2 + 16x + 10

y ′′ = 80x3 + 72x2 − 42x + 16
y ′′′ = 240x2 + 144x − 42.

2.

f ′ (x) = 42x5 + 36x3 − 3

f ′′ (x) = 210x4 + 108x2
f ′′′ (x) = 840x3 + 216x
f ′′′ (1) = 840(1)3 + 216(1) = 1056.

Activity 5.27.

1. Let f (x) = ax2 +bx+c where a, b, c ∈ R. We know that f (2) = 26, f ′ (2) = 23
and f ′′ (2) = 14. Find f (1).

dy d2 y d2 y
 
d
2. Find , 2 and for each function below.
dx dx dx dx2

(a) y = 18x20 − 9x2 + 7x

(b) y = (4x + 12)(6x − 9)
(c) y = 21x5 − 4x2 + 9x − 2
5 √
(d) y = √ + 6 3 x
x

3. Let f (x) = 5x3 − 2x2 + 6x + 1. Find f ′ (2) and f ′′′ (1).

4. Let g(x) = 15x6 − 7x4 + 13x2 − 98. Find g ′′ (1) − g ′′′ (2).

112
 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt techniques of differentiation. These include differen-
tiation from first principles, product rule, quotient rule and chain rule. You have
also learnt implicit differentiation and higher order derivatives.

Activity 5.28 (Unit Test).

1. Differentiate 12x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 1 from first principles.

dy
2. Find for each function below.
dx
(a) y = 2x5 (x2 − 5x + 7)7
(b) y 4 + 5y 2 = x4 − 5x2
(c) 3(x2 + y 2 )2 = 25(x2 − y 3 )
2
(d) y = √3
x2 + 2x + 6
2x2 − 7x + 3
(e) y = √3
x2 + 2x + 6
(f) y = (x + 2)(x2 − x − 1)
(g) y = (x + 2)16 (x2 − x − 1)5
√
(h) y = (1 + x)9

3. For each of the following f , find f ′′ (a) and f ′′′ (b) for the given a and b.

(a) f (x) = 7x6 − 8x5 + 15x, a = 1 and b = 3

x2
(b) f (x) = , a = −2 and b = 2
1 − 2x
(c) f (x) = (2 + 3x)2 , a = 0 and b = 1
(d) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 1, a = 8 and b = −10.

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.5

1. (a) 2x + 1 (b) 12x2 − 4 (c) 24x (d) 18x + 12 (e) 2x − 19

113
 (f) 39x2 + 14x − 5

2. 21 3. 24

Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.22

1. (a) 0 (b) 6x5 +16x3 −3x2 +28x (e) 9(x−4)3 (3x−1)2 +3(3x−1)3 (x−4)2
4x3 (x − 2) − (x4 − 16) 3 2 1
(g) (h) 2(3x − 3) + 3(2x + 5) (i) x − x
(x − 2)2 4 3
(j) 8(3x2 + 4x)7 (6x + 4) − 6(2x − 11)2

2. 4000

Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.24

3y − 3x2 2x + 2y 2 y+1
1. (a) 2
(b) (c)
3y − 3x 3 − 4xy 1−x
2 3 2 4
3x 4x − 6x + 5x
(e) (h) 2
2y 6y + 2y − 30y 4
5
2. −
14

Suggested Solutions to Activity 5.27

1. a = 7, b = −5 and c = 8. So f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = 7x2 − 5x + 8 giving

f (1) = 10.
d2 y d d2 y
 
dy 19 18
2. (a) = 360x −18x+7, 2 = 6840x −18 and = 123120x17 .
dx dx dx dx2
d2 y d d2 y
 
dy
(b) = 6(4x + 12) + 4(6x − 9) = 48x + 36, 2 = 48 and = 0.
dx dx dx dx2
2
 2 
dy d y d dy
(c) = 105x4 − 8x + 9, 2 = 420x3 − 8 and = 1260x2 .
dx dx dx dx2
3. f ′ (2) = 58 and f ′′′ (1) = 30.

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. 36x2 − 12x + 3

114
2. (a) 10x4 (x2 − 5x + 7)7 + 14x5 (x2 − 5x + 7)6 (2x − 5)
50x − 12x3 − 12xy 2
(c)
12x2 y + 12y 3 + 75y 2
4x + 4
(d) − p
3
(x2 + 2x + 6)4
(f) (x2 − x − 1) + (2x − 1)(x + 2)

3. (a) f ′′ (1) = 50 and f ′′′ (3) = 18360 (c) f ′′ (0) = 18 and f ′′′ (1) = 0.

115
Unit 6

Derivatives of Transcendental
Functions

6.1 Introduction
In Unit 2, we discussed derivatives of algebraic functions, i.e., functions which
can be expressed in terms of polynomials. In this unit, you will learn how to
find derivatives of transcendental functions. Recall that transcendental functions
are non-algebraic functions, i.e., functions which can not be expressed in terms of
polynomials. Transcendental functions whose derivatives are discussed in this unit
are trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ differentiate trigonometric functions.

ˆ differentiate natural exponential functions.

ˆ differentiate logarithmic functions.

Key Terms

116
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ differentiation

ˆ trigonometric functions

ˆ natural exponential functions

ˆ logarithmic functions

6.3 Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of basic trigonometric functions are given in Table 6.1. The formulae
are valid only when x is given in radians.

f (x) sin x cos x tan x cot x csc x sec x

d
[f (x)] cos x − sin x sec2 x − csc2 x − csc x cot x sec x tan x
dx
Table 6.1: Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Example 6.1.

Find the derivative of each function with respect to x:

√
1. y = x cot x

2. y = tan x3

3. y = sin 3x

4. y = cos(5x + 4)

5. y = cot(x2 + x)

6. y = sin(sin x)

Solution

117
 1. By the Product Rule,
d √ √ d
y ′ = cot x [ x] + x [cot x]
dx  dx
1 −1/2 √
= (cot x) x + x(− csc2 x)
2
cot x √
= √ − x csc2 x.
2 x

2. By the Chain Rule,

d 3
y ′ = (sec2 x3 ) [x ]
dx
= 3x2 sec2 x3 .

3. By the Chain Rule,

d
y ′ = (cos 3x) [3x]
dx
= 3 cos 3x.

4. By the Chain Rule,

d
y ′ = (− sin(5x + 4) [5x + 4]
dx
= −5 sin(5x + 4).

5.
d 2
y ′ = − csc2 (x2 + x) [x + x]
dx
= −(2x + 1) csc2 (x2 + x).

6.
d
y ′ = cos(sin x) [sin x]
dx
= cos x cos(sin x).

Example 6.2.

Use the Quotient Rule of differentiation to show that

118
 d
1. [tan x] = sec2 x
dx
d
2. [sec x] = sec x tan x
dx
Solution

1.
 
d d sin x
[tan x] =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x [sin x] − sin x [cos x]
= dx dx
cos2 x
cos x(cos x) − sin x(− sin x)
=
cos2 x
cos x + sin2 x
2
1
= 2
= (cos2 x + sin2 x = 1)
cos x cos2 x
= sec2 x.

2.
 
d d 1
[sec x] =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x [1] − 1 [cos x]
= dx dx
2
cos x
0 − (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
sin x
=
cos2 x  
 
1 sin x
=
cos x cos x
= sec x tan x.

Activity 6.3.

1. If y = cos x + sin x, show that y ′′ = −y.

2. Use the Quotient Rule of differentiation to show that

119
 d
(a) [cot x] = − csc2 x
dx
d
(b) [csc x] = − csc x cot x
dx
3. Differentiate each function with respect to x.

(a) f (x) = 5 sin x + 3 cos x − tan πx

(b) f (x) = 4 sec x − 7 sin x
2x + cos x
(c) f (x) =
sin x
√
(d) f (x) = x csc x + x10 tan x
(e) f (x) = 5x cos x − x2 sin x
√
(f) f (x) = sin( x2 + 1)
√
(g) f (x) = cos x − 2 csc x
(h) f (x) = cos2 (3x) − cos4 (2x2 )
(i) f (x) = tan4 x − tan x4

6.4 Exponential Functions

Recall that an exponential function takes the general form

y = af (x)

where a is a constant, a ̸= 1 and a > 0. We will look at the derivative of natural

exponential functions, i.e., exponential functions with base e. Also recall that e is
an irrational number whose value is approximately 2.7182818285.

Theorem 6.4. Let y = ef (x) where f (x) is a differentiable function. Then

y ′ = f ′ (x)ef (x) .

If f (x) = x, then ef (x) = ex and f ′ (x) = 1. By Theorem 6.4,

d x
[e ] = ex ,
dx
i.e., the derivative of ex is ex itself.

Example 6.5.

120
Find the derivative of each function with respect to x.

1. y = e−2x
√
x
2. y = e
3. y = e3x − e−3x
√
1+x2
4. y = e
5. y = 4x3 e(4x+1)

Solution
d
1. y ′ = (e−2x ) (−2x) = −2e−2x .
dx
√ d √ 1 √
2. y ′ = e x [ x] = √ e x .
dx 2 x
3.
d d
y ′ = e3x [3x] − e−3x [−3x]
dx dx
= e3x (3) − e−3x (−3)
= 3e3x + 3e−3x = 3(e3x + e−3x ).

4.
√ d √
1+x2
y′ = e [ 1 + x2 ]
dx
√
21 d
= e 1+x (1 + x2 )−1/2 [1 + x2 ]
2 dx
√ 2x
2
= e 1+x √
2 1 + x2
x √
2
=√ e 1+x .
1+x 2

5. We use the product rule as follows:

d  4x+1  d
y ′ = 4x3 e + e4x+1 [4x3 ]
dx dx
d
= 4x3 e4x+1 [4x + 1] + 12x2 e4x+1
dx
3 4x+1
= 16x e + 12x2 e4x+1
= 4x2 e4x+1 (4x + 3).

121
Activity 6.6.

Differentiate each function with respect to x.

1. y = ex+1 + 1
2. y = ex cos ex
2
3. y = sin ex
4. y = cos xesec x
5. y = esin x−tan x
3 −x2
6. y = ex
7. y = ex − e7
ex
8. y =
cos x + sin x

6.5 Logarithmic Functions

In semester one, we discussed logarithmic functions as functions which have the
form
y = loga f (x)
where a is a positive constant such that a ̸= 1. In this section, we will look at
derivatives of logarithmic functions. Our main result is in Theorem 6.7.
Theorem 6.7. If f (x) is a differentiable function, then
d 1
[loga f (x)] = f ′ (x) ×
dx f (x) ln a
where ln a = loge a, the natural logarithm.

The following result follows immediately from Theorem 6.7:

d 1
[loga x] = .
dx x ln a
Also since ln e = loge e = 1, Theorem 6.7 implies the following:
d 1 1
[ln x] = =
dx x ln e x
122
and
d 1 1 f ′ (x)
[ln f (x)] = f ′ (x) × = f ′ (x) × = .
dx f (x) ln e f (x) f (x)
Example 6.8.

Find y ′ for each function below.

1. y = log2 (2 + sin x)

2. y = ln(x3 + 1)

3. y = ln cos x

4. y = log10 (4x2 − 5x)

Solution

1 d cos x
1. y ′ = × [2 + sin x] = .
(2 + sin x) ln 2 dx (2 + sin x) ln 2
1 d 3 3x2
2. y ′ = × [x + 1] = .
x3 + 1 dx x3 + 1
1 d − sin x
3. y ′ = × [cos x] = = − tan x.
cos x dx cos x
1 d 8x − 5
4. y ′ = × [4x2 − 5x] = .
(4x2 − 5x) ln 10 dx 2
(4x − 5x) ln 10

Activity 6.9.

Find the derivative of each function below with respect to x.

1. y = log7 (x2 − 4x)

2. y = ln(x3 − 4x)

3. y = log10 (sin x + ex cos x)

4. y = ln x3
√
5. y = 5 ln 5x + (ln x)3

123
 x2
 
6. y = ln
3x − 4
7. y = ln(x4 − 5x + 3)

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt differentiation of transcendental functions. These are
trigonometric functions, natural exponential functions and logarithmic functions.

Activity 6.10 (Unit Test).

dy
Find for each function below.
dx
1. y = 5 sin 4x + 3 cos 2x
2. y = tan2 (x2 )
√
3. y = sec 2x2 + 3
 
x+1
4. y = cot
x2 − 3
5. y = ln(cos 3x)
r
cos x
6. y =
x
7. y = cos3 x sin x
8. y = e−2x cos 4x
9. y = x2 e−1/x
10. y = ex ln x2
11. y = 4x2 ln(sin x)
12. y = x2 sin2 (2x2 )

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 6.3

124
 2 sin x − 2x cos x − 1
3. (a) 5 cos x−3 sin x−π sec2 πx (b) 4 sec x tan x−7 cos x (c)
sin2 x
√
x cos x2 + 1
(e) −5x sin x + 5 cos x − 2x sin x − x2 cos x (f) √
x2 + 1
√
(g) − sin x + 2 csc x cot x (i) 4 tan3 x sec2 x − 4x3 sec2 x4

Suggested Solutions to Activity 6.6

2 2
1. y = ex+1 2. y ′ = ex cos ex − e2x sin ex 3. y ′ = 2xex cos ex
3 −x2
5. (cos x − sec2 x)esin x−tan x 6. (3x2 − 2x)ex 7. ex

Suggested Solutions to Activity 6.9

2x − 4 3x2 − 4 cos x + ex cos x − ex sin x

1. y ′ = 2
2. y ′ = 3. y ′ =
(x − 4x) ln 7 x3 − 4x (sin x + ex cos x) ln 10
3
4. y ′ =
x

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

√ √
′ ′ 2x sec 2x2 + 3 tan 2x2 + 3
1. y = 20 cos(4x) − 6 sin(2x) 3. y = √
2x2 + 3
−3 sin 3x
5. y ′ = 7. y ′ = cos4 x − 3 cos2 x sin2 x
cos 3x
 
−2x −2x x 2 1
8. −2e cos(4x) − 4 sin(4x)e 10. e ln x +
x

12. 4x3 sin2 x + 8x3 sin(2x2 ) cos(2x2 )

125
Unit 7

Applications of Derivatives

7.1 Introduction
The derivatives of various functions, discussed in unit 2 and unit 3, can be applied
in a number of areas. In this unit, we will look at applications of derivatives in
selected areas. We will discuss how to use derivatives to find rates of change and
related rates of change in natural science. We will also look at how derivatives
are used to discuss the shape of the graph of a function. That is finding extreme
values and identifying intervals where the graph of a given function is increasing or
decreasing and intervals where the graph is concave upward or concave downward.

7.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ use derivatives to find rates of change and related rates of change.

ˆ use derivatives to find intervals where the graph of a function is increasing

or decreasing.

ˆ use derivatives to find local and absolute extrema of a given function.

ˆ use derivatives to find intervals where the graph of a function is concave

upward or concave downward.

126
 Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ instantaneous rate of change

ˆ average rate of change

ˆ velocity

ˆ acceleration

ˆ related rates of change

ˆ local extrema

ˆ absolute extrema

ˆ increasing and decreasing functions

ˆ increments

ˆ differentials

ˆ concavity

ˆ concavity test

ˆ stationery value

ˆ first derivative test

ˆ inflection point

ˆ second derivative test

ˆ critical numbers

127
7.3 Rates of Change and Related Rates of Change
Many quantities, in natural science and real life in general, change with time. For
example, a chemist may be interested in the rate at which the temperature of a
substance rises when heated. A physicist may want to know the rate at which the
speed of an object changes with time.
Let y = f (x). If x changes from x1 to x2 then the change in x is ∆x = x2 − x1
and the corresponding change in y is ∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ).

Definition 7.1. The average rate of change of y = f (x), with respect to x, in

∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
the interval [x1 , x2 ], is the quotient = .
∆x x2 − x1
Definition 7.2. The rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to x is the derivative

dy f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (x) = lim .
dx ∆x→0 x2 − x1

The rate of change in Definition 7.2 is also called the instantaneous rate of
change of y with respect to x.

Example 7.3.

The area of a circle is given by A = πr2 where r is its radius.

1. Find the rate of change of the area A of a circle with respect to its radius r.

2. Evaluate the rate of change of A at r = 5 and at r = 10.

Solution

1. The rate of change of A with respect to r is

dA d
= [πr2 ] = 2πr.
dr dr

2. At r = 5, the rate is 2(5)π = 10π ≈ 31.42 and at r = 10, the rate is

2(10)π = 20π ≈ 62.83.

Example 7.4.

128
 100
The current I (in amperes) in a certain electrical circuit is given by I = ,
R
where R is resistance (in ohms). Find the rate of change of I with respect to R
when the resistance is 15 ohms.

Solution

The rate of change of current with respect to resistance is

d d
dI R [100] − 100 [R] 100
= dR 2
dR =− 2.
dR R R
dI 100 100 4
If R = 15, then =− 2
=− =− .
dR (15) 225 9
4
Hence the current is decreasing at a rate of amperes per ohms when R = 15.
9

7.3.1 Velocity and Acceleration

Consider an object moving in a straight line. A position function gives the
position for the object as a function of time t. Given the position function s(x)
of a particle moving in a straight line, we can find velocity and acceleration of
the particle by calculating the first derivative and the second derivative of s(x)
respectively.

Definition 7.5. Let s(t) be the position of a particle that is moving on a straight
line. Then

i. The velocity v(t) of the particle is v(t) = s′ (t).

ii. The speed is the absolute value of velocity at time t, i.e., |v(t)|.

iii. Acceleration a(t) is given by a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t).

Example 7.6.

A car moves such that after t seconds its distance (in metres) is given by s(t) =
t3 − 4t2 + 12t − 3.

1. Find the distance travelled after 5 s.

2. What is the velocity after 2 seconds?

129
 3. Find acceleration after 4 seconds.

4. After how many seconds is the velocity of the car equals 47 m/s?

5. Find velocity when acceleration is 10ms−2 .

Solution

1. The distance after 5 seconds is

s(5) = 53 − 4(5)2 + 12(5) − 3 = 125 − 100 + 60 − 3 = 82m.

2. The velocity function is v(t) = s′ (t) = 3t2 − 8t + 12.

The velocity after 2 seconds is

v(2) = 3(2)2 − 8(2) + 12 = 12 − 16 + 12 = 8m/s.

3. Acceleration function is 6t − 8.
Acceleration after 4 seconds is

6(4) − 8 = 16m/s2 .

4. We equate the velocity function to 47m/s2 and solve for t.

3t2 − 8t + 12 = 47
3t2 − 8t + 12 − 47 = 0
3t2 − 8t − 35 = 0
(t − 5)(3t + 7) = 0.
7
This gives t = 5 and t = − . We ignore the negative number and take the
3
positive number (why).
Hence the velocity of the car is 47 m/s after 5 seconds.

5. First we have to find time after which the acceleration is 10 m/s2 .

6t − 8 = 10 ⇒ 6t = 18 ⇒ t = 3.

Hence the acceleration is 10 m/s after 3 seconds.

Now velocity after 3 seconds is

3(3)2 − 8(3) + 12 = 27 − 24 + 12 = 15m/s.

130
Example 7.7.

A particle moves along a line so that its position at any time t is given by the
function s(t) = t2 − 4t + 3, where s is measured in meters and t is measured in
seconds.

1. Find the displacement of the particle during the first 3 seconds.

2. Find the average velocity of the particle during the first 5 seconds.

3. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle when t = 4.

4. Find the acceleration of the particle when t = 5.

Solution

1. The displacement is

s(3) − s(0) = [32 − 4(3) + 3] − [02 − 4(0) + 3] = [9 − 12 + 3] − 3 = −3.

Hence the particle is 3 units left of where it started.

2. Average velocity is

s(5) − s(0) (52 − 4(5) + 3) − (02 − 4(0) + 3) 8−3

= = = 1m/s.
5−0 5 5

3. Velocity function is v(t) = s′ (t) = 2t − 4.

Hence instantaneous velocity when t = 4 is 2(4) − 4 = 4m/s.

4. Acceleration function is a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t) = 2.

Hence acceleration when t = 5 is 2m/s2 .

7.3.2 Related Rates of Change

If two variables, x and y, are related by an equation and both are functions of a
third variable, say t, i.e., x = f (t) and y = g(t), we can find a relation between
their rates of change. We say the rates are related and we can compute one rate
if we know the other.
We follow the following steps;

131
 1. Find an equation that relates the dependent variables, x and y.

2. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t (using Chain Rule
if necessary).

3. Substitute the given information into the related rates equation and solve
for the unknown rate.

Example 7.8.

A ladder 25 cm long is leaning against a vertical wall. The floor is slightly slippery
and the foot of the ladder slips away from the wall at the rate of 0.2 cm/sec. How
fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the top is 20 cm above the
floor?

Solution

Figure 7.1:

1. In Figure 7.1, by Pythagorus Theorem we have,

x2 + y 2 = 252

giving
x2 + y 2 = 625.

2. Differentiating both sides with respect to t we have,

dx dy
2x + 2y = 0. (7.1)
dt dt
132
 dy dx
3. We need to find given that = 0.2 cm/sec and y = 20 cm.
dt dt
Now when y = 20 cm,

x2 + 202 = 252 ⇒ x2 + 400 = 625 ⇒ x2 = 625 − 400 = 225

√
giving x = 225 = 15 cm.

4. Substituting in Equation 7.1 we have

dy
2(15cm)(0.2cm/sec) + 2(20cm) = 0,
dt
dy
6cm2 /sec + 40 =0
dt
dy −6cm2 /sec
= = −0.15cm/sec.
dt 40cm
(The negative sign indicates that y is decreasing).

Example 7.9.

The radius of a right circular cylinder is increasing at a rate of 2 cm /min and the
height is decreasing at a rate of 3 cm/min. At what rate is the volume changing
when the radius is 8 cm and the height is 12 cm? Is the volume increasing or
decreasing?

Solution

The volume of the cylinder is V = πr2 h where r and h are radius and height
dV
respectively. We need to find .
dt
dr dh
Now = 2 and = −3.
dt dt
Therefore
dV dr dh
= 2πrh + πr2
dt dt dt
= 2π(8)(12)(2) + π(64)(−3)
= 384π − 192π
= 192πcm3 /min.

Since the rate is positive, the volume is increasing.

133
7.3.3 Increments and Differentials
Consider the function y = f (x). If x changes from x1 to x2 , then the amount of
change
∆x = x2 − x1
is called an increment of x. Note that x2 = ∆x + x1 . The increment of y is
given by

∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f (x1 + ∆x) − f (x1 ) (See Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2: Increments

Example 7.10.

Suppose f (x) = 4x2 − 6.

1. If x is given an increment ∆x, find ∆y.

2. Use ∆y to calculate the numerical change in y if x changes from 3 to 3.1.

Solution

1.

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= [4(x + (∆))2 − 6] − [4x2 − 6]
= 4(x2 + 2x(∆x) + (∆x)2 ) − 6 − 4x2 + 6
= 4x2 + 8x(∆x) + 4(∆x)2 − 6 − 4x2 + 6
= 8x(∆x) + 4(∆x)2 .

134
 2. ∆x = 3.1 − 3 = 0.1.
Hence
∆y = 8(3)(0.1) + 4(0.1)2 = 2.4 + 0.04 = 2.44.
Definition 7.11. Let y = f (x) where f is differentiable, and let ∆x be an incre-
ment of x.

i. The differential dx of the independent variable x is dx = ∆x.

ii. The differential dy of the dependent variable y is dy = f ′ (x)∆x = f ′ (x)dx.

The differential dy in Definition 7.11 is used to approximate ∆y, the increment of

y.
Example 7.12.

1. If y = 4x2 − 6, use dy to approximate ∆y if x changes from 3 to 3.1.

2. Compare the values of ∆y and dy if y = f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x + 1 and x
changes from 2 to 2.05.

Solution

1. By Example 7.10, ∆y = 2.44.

Now dy = f ′ (x)dx = 8xdx.
x = 3 and ∆x = dx = 0.1, so dy = 8(3)(0.1) = 2.4.
2. dy = f ′ (x)dx, dx = 2.05 − 2 = 0.05 and x = 2.
dy = (3x2 + 2x − 2)dx
= (3(2)2 + 2(2) − 2)(0.05)
= (12 + 4 − 2)(0.05)
= 14 × 0.05
= 0.7.

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= f (2.05) − f (2)
= [(2.05)3 + (0.05)2 − 2(2.05) + 1] − [23 + 22 − 2(2) + 1]
= [8.62 + 4.20 − 4.10 + 1] − [8 + 4 − 4 + 1]
= 9.72 − 9
= 0.72.

135
 Hence the error involved in using dy to approximate ∆y is roughly

0.72 − 0.7 = 0.02.

Activity 7.13.

1. Gas is escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 2 cm3 /min. How
4
fast is the surface area changing when the radius is 12 cm? [V = πr3 and
3
S = 4πr2 ].

2. Oil spilled from a ruptured tanker spreads out in a circle whose area increases
at a constant rate of 6 cm2 /hr. How fast is the radius of the spill increasing
when the area is 9 cm2 ?

3. A particle moving in a straight line starts from rest and its displacement s m
from a fixed point of the line is given by s(t) = t2 − kt where k is a constant
and t is the time (in seconds) after the start. If it comes to instantaneous
rest after 2 seconds, find

(a) the value of k.

(b) the initial velocity of the particle.

4. The distance (in metres) of a particle moving in a straight line measured

from a fixed point O on the line is given by s = t2 − 3t + 2 where t is the
time in seconds from start. Find

(a) its initial distance from O.

(b) the distance after 4 seconds.
(c) its initial velocity and in which direction.
(d) velocity after 5 seconds.
(e) time when velocity is 10 m/s
(f) its initial acceleration.
(g) acceleration after 8 seconds.

5. Use ∆y to calculate the change in y corresponding to the stated values of x

and ∆x.

(a) y = 2x2 − 4x + 5, x = 2 and ∆x = −0.2

(b) y = x3 − 4, x = −1 and ∆x = 0.1

136
 1
(c) y = , x = 3 and ∆x = 0.03
x2
6. Use differentials to approximate the change in f (x) if x changes from a to b
given.

(a) f (x) = 4x5 − 6x4 + 3x2 − 5, a = 1 and b = 1.03

(b) f (x) = −3x3 + 8x − 7, a = 4 and b = 3.96
(c) f (x) = 8x3 − 4x2 + 6x + 9, a = 6 and b = 6.004

7.4 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph

7.4.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition 7.14. Let a function f be defined on an open interval I and let x1 and
x2 be numbers in the interval. Then

i. f is increasing on I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

ii. f is decreasing on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

iii. f is constant on I if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for every x1 and x2 .

Figure 7.3: Increasing and decreasing functions

In Figure 7.3, f is an increasing function and g is a decreasing function in the

interval [x1 , x2 ].

137
 dy
The curve of an increasing function y = f (x) slopes upwards so that > 0. The
dx
dy
curve of a decreasing function slopes downwards such that < 0. At any point
dx
dy
where = 0, f (x) has a stationary value and f (x) is neither increasing nor
dx
decreasing. This is typical of the interval where the function is constant.
Theorem 7.15 (Increasing/decreasing). Let a function f be defined on an open
interval I.
df
i. If > 0 on an interval I, then f is increasing on I.
dx
df
ii. If < 0 on I, then f is decreasing on I.
dx
Example 7.16.

For what range of values of x is the function y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 23

1. increasing?
2. decreasing?

Solution

dy
= 3x2 − 6x − 9 = 3(x − 3)(x + 1).
dx
We need to solve inequalities

3(x − 3)(x + 1) > 0 ⇒ (x − 3)(x + 1) > 0

and
(x − 3)(x + 1) < 0.

Key numbers are −1 and 3 and intervals of interest are

x < −1, −1 < x < 3 and x > 3.

The test table is Table 7.1.

dy
1. > 0 in the intervals x < −1 and x > 3.
dx
Hence y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 23 is increasing in these intervals.

138
 Interval Test Number (x − 3) (x + 1) (x − 3)(x + 1)
x < −1 −2 − − +
−1 < x < 3 0 − + −
x>3 4 + + +

Table 7.1: Test table for the inequality (x − 3)(x + 1) > 0

2. y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 23 is decreasing in the interval −1 < x < 3.

Example 7.17.

For what range of values of x is the function y = 4x3 − 3x

1. increasing?

2. decreasing?

Solution

y ′ = 12x2 − 3. To find the interval where the function is increasing, we solve the
inequality y ′ > 0. To find the interval where the function is decreasing, we solve
th inequality y ′ < 0.

1.   
2 1 2 1 1
12x − 3 > 0 ⇒ x − > 0 ⇒ x+ x− >0
4 2 2
1 1
giving x < − and x > .
2 2
 
1
Hence the function y = 4x3 − 3x is increasing in the intervals x ∈ −∞,
  2
1
and x ∈ ,∞ .
2
2.   
2 1 2 1 1
12x − 3 < 0 ⇒ x − < 0 ⇒ x+ x− <0
4 2 2
1 1
giving − < x < .
2 2
 
3 1 1
Hence the function y = 4x − 3x is decreasing in the interval x ∈ − , .
2 2

139
7.4.2 Absolute Extrema of a Function on a Closed Interval
Let y = f (x) be a given function. Suppose x1 is in the domain of f . Then f (x1 ) is
the maximum value of f if it is greater than all the other function values. Similarly,
f (x1 ) is the minimum value of f if it is smaller than all the function values.
If the domain of a function f has a countable number of elements, then we can
calculate a function value f (x) for each x in the domain of f and identify as
the maximum the largest function value. The smallest function value will be the
minimum value for the function. However, this is not possible for a function whose
domain is an infinite set.
We will use derivatives to find the maximum or the minimum value of a given
function.

Definition 7.18. Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f . Then f (c)

is the

i. absolute maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ D.

ii. absolute minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ D.

Not every function has a maximum value and/or a minimum value. That is some
functions have maximum value only while others have minimum value but no max-
imum. There are also other functions which have no maximum and no minimum
values.
The maximum and minimum values of f are collectively called extreme values
or extrema of f . Sometimes we are interested in local extrema of f defined in
Definition 7.19.

Definition 7.19. The number f (c) is a

i. local maximum value of f if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing

c such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in (a, b).

ii. local minimum value of f if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing
c such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in (a, b).

The word ‘local’ is used to show that our interest is on a small interval containing
c.

Definition 7.20. A number c in the domain of f is a critical number of f if

either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) does not exist.

140
We state in Theorem 7.21 that a maximum or a minimum value of a function
occurs at a critical number.

Theorem 7.21. If a function has a local extremum at a number c in an open

interval, then either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) does not exist.

To find absolute extrema of a function on a closed interval [a, b] we follow the

following steps:

i. Find all the critical numbers of f .

ii. Calculate f (c) for each critical number c.

iii. Calculate f (a) and f (b).

iv. The absolute maximum of f on [a, b] is the largest of the values obtained
in (ii) and (iii). The absolute minimum of f on [a, b] is the smallest of the
values obtained in (ii) and (iii).

Example 7.22.

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function

f (x) = x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 in the interval [−4, 2].

Solution

f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 8 = (3x − 4)(x + 2).

4
i. Solving f ′ (x) = 0 gives the two critical numbers and −2.
3
ii.
f (−2) = (−2)3 + (−2)2 − 8(−2) − 12 = −8 + 4 + 16 − 12 = 0
and
   3  2  
4 4 4 4
f = + −8 − 12
3 3 3 3
64 16 32
= + − − 12
27 9 3
64 48 288 324
= + − −
27 27 27 27
500
=− ≈ −18.5.
27
141
 iii.
f (2) = 23 + 22 − 8(2) − 12 = 8 + 4 − 16 − 12 = −16
and

f (−4) = (−4)3 (−4)2 − 8(−4) − 12 = −64 + 16 + 32 − 12 = −28.

iv. Therefore the absolute maximum value of f (x) = x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 on [−4, 2]

is f (−2) = 0 and the absolute minimum value is f (−4) = −28.

Example 7.23.

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function

f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 144x in the interval [−7, 10].

Solution

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 144 = (3x + 18)(x − 8).

i. Solving f ′ (x) = 0 gives the two critical numbers −6 and 8.

ii.
f (−6) = (−6)3 − 3(−6)2 − 144(−6) = −216 − 108 + 864 = 540
and
f (8) = 83 − 3(8)2 − 144(8) = 512 − 192 − 1152 = −832.

iii.
f (−7) = (−7)3 − 3(−7)2 − 144(−7) = −343 − 147 + 1008 = 518
and

f (10) = 103 − 3(10)2 − 144(10) = 1000 − 300 − 1440 = −740.

iv. Therefore the absolute maximum value of f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 144x on [−7, 10]
is f (−6) = 540 and the absolute minimum value is f (8) = −832.

7.4.3 Local Extrema: The First Derivative Test

The fact that maximum and minimum values of a function occur at a critical num-
ber, discussed in previous subsection, does not imply that every critical number
gives a maximum or a minimum value. We need to do some test to determine
whether a given critical number gives rise to a maximum or minimum value. An
example of such a test is the first derivative test.

142
Theorem 7.24 (The first derivative test). Suppose c is a critical number of a
function f which is continuous on [a, b].

i. If f ′ (x) changes from positive to negative at c, that is f ′ (x) > 0 for a < x < c
and f ′ (x) < 0 for c < x < b, then f (c) is a local maximum value of f .

ii. If f ′ (x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f (c) is a local minimum
value of f .

iii. If f ′ (x) does not change sign at c, that is f ′ (x) > 0 or f ′ (x) < 0 on both
sides of c, then f (c) is not a local extremum of f .

For better understanding of Theorem 7.24, see Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Maximum and minimum

Example 7.25.

Assuming that the derivative of a function f is given by f ′ (x) = (x − 1)(x + 3),

identify critical numbers where f has local extrema.

Solution

Solving f ′ (x) = 0 gives two critical numbers 1 and −3. In Table 7.2, we consider
the sign of f ′ (x) on each of the intervals (−∞, −3), (−3, 1) and (1, ∞).
In Table 7.2, we see that

i. f has a local maximum value at x = −3 since f ′ (x) changes from positive to

negative.

ii. f has a local minimum value at x = 1 since f ′ (x) changes from negative to
positive.

143
 Interval Test Number f ′ (x) Sign of f ′ (x)
(−∞, −3) −4 5 +
(−3, 1) 0 −3 −
(1, ∞) 2 5 +

Table 7.2: Test table

Example 7.26.

Find the local maxima and minima of f if f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 2.

Solution

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 10x + 3 = (3x − 1)(x − 3).

1
Solving f ′ (x) = 0 gives two critical numbers and 3. In Table 7.3, we consider
 3   
′ 1 1
the sign of f (x) on each of the intervals −∞, , , 3 and (3, ∞).
3 3

Interval Test Number f ′ (x) Sign of f ′ (x)

1
−∞, 0 3 +
 3
1
,3 1 −4 −
3
(3, ∞) 4 11 +

Table 7.3: Test table

From Table 7.3, we observe the following:

1
i. Since f ′ (x) changes from positive to negative at x = , f has a local maxi-
3
mum value at this critical number. This local maximum value is
   3  2  
1 1 1 1 1 5 1 15 81 67
f = −5 +3 +2 = − +1+2 = − + = ≈ 2.48.
3 3 3 3 27 9 27 27 27 27

ii. f has a local minimum value at x = 3 since f ′ (x) changes from negative to
positive . This local minimum value is
f (3) = 33 − 5(3)2 + 3(3) + 2 = 27 − 45 + 9 + 2 = −7.

144
7.4.4 Concavity and Its Test
Definition 7.27. The graph of a function f is

i. concave upward on an interval I if it lies above all its tangent lines on I.

ii. concave downward on an interval I if it lies below all its tangent lines on
I.

Figure 7.5 shows the graph of f which is concave upward and the graph of another
function g which is concave downward.

Figure 7.5: concavity

To find the interval where a function is concave upward or concave downward, we

do not need to sketch the graph. The second derivative of a given function f is
used to determine where the graph of f is concave upward or concave downward.

Theorem 7.28 (Concavity Test). Let f be a differentiable function.

i. If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in the interval I, then the graph of f is concave upward
on I.

ii. If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in I then the graph of f is concave downward.

A point where a curve changes direction of concavity is called inflection point

or point of inflection (See Definition 7.29).

Definition 7.29. A point P on a curve is called a point of inflection if f

is continuous at P and the graph of f changes from concave upward to concave
downward or from concave downward to concave upward.

Example 7.30.

145
If f (x) = x3 + x2 − 5x + 15,

1. determine intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward and intervals

on which the graph is concave downward.

2. Find coordinates of the point(s) of inflection.

Solution

f (x) = x3 + x2 − 5x + 15
f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 5
f ′′ (x) = 6x + 2 = 2(3x + 1).

1. To find intervals where the graph of f is concave upward, we solve the in-
equality f ′′ (x) > 0. Similarly, we solve the inequality f ′′ (x) < 0 to find
intervals where the graph of f is concave downward.
Now
1
2(3x + 1) > 0 ⇒ 3x + 1 > 0 ⇒ x > − .
3
 
1
Hence the graph of f is concave upwards on the interval − , ∞ .
3
1
f ′′ (x) < 0 ⇒ 3x + 1 < 0 ⇒ x < − .
3
 
1
Hence the graph of f is concave downward on the interval −∞, − .
3
2. The point (−1/3, f (−1/3)) = (−1/3, −88/27), at which the concavity changes
from downward to upward is a point of inflection.
Example 7.31.

Let f (x) = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x2 + 3.

1. Determine intervals on which the graph of f is concave upward and intervals

on which the graph is concave downward.

2. Find the points of inflection.

Solution

146
 f ′ (x) = 12x3 + 48x2 + 48x and f ′′ (x) = 36x2 + 96x + 48 = 12(3x2 + 8x + 4).

1. To find interval(s) where f is concave upward, we will solve the inequality

f ′′ (x) > 0 ⇒ 12(3x2 + 8x + 4) > 0 ⇒ (3x + 2)(x + 2) > 0.

Similarly, to find interval(s) where f is concave downward, we will solve the

inequality
(3x + 2)(x + 2) < 0.
 
2 2
Key numbers are −2 and − . Intervals of interest are (−∞, −2), −2, −
  3 3
2
and − , ∞ . Test table is Table 7.4.
3

Interval Test Number (3x + 2) (x + 2) (3x + 2)(x + 2)

(−∞, −2)
  −3 − − +
2
−2, − −1 − + −
 3
2
− ,∞ 0 + + +
3
Table 7.4: Test table for (3x + 2)(x + 2) < 0

 
′′ 2
From Table 7.4, f (x) > 0 in the intervals (−∞, −2) and − , ∞ . These
3
are intervals where the graph of the function f is concave upward.
 
2
Similarly, the graph of f is concave downward in the interval −2, − .
3
2. The points of inflection are

(−2, f (−2)) = (−2, 19)

and     
2 2 2 771
− ,f − = − , .
3 3 3 81

7.4.5 Local Extrema: The Second Derivative Test

Apart from the first derivative test, we can also use the second derivative test to
find local extrema. We state the second derivative test in Theorem 7.32.

147
Theorem 7.32 (The Second Derivative Test). Let a function f be differentiable
on an open interval containing c and further suppose that f ′ (c) = 0.

i. If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f (c) is a local minimum.

ii. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f (c) is a local maximum.

The second derivative test is easy to use than the first derivative test. However, it
gives no information when f ′′ (c) = 0 and when f ′′ (c) does not exist which makes it
less effective. In cases where f ′′ (c) = 0 or f ′′ (c) does not exist, the first derivative
test is used.
We follow these steps when using the second derivative test to find local extrema
of a function f :

i. Find f ′ (x).

ii. Find every number c such that f ′ (c) = 0.

iii. Find f ′′ (c) for each number c obtained in step ii.

iv. If f ′′ (c) < 0, then find f (c) which is the local maximum value of f . If
f ′′ (c) > 0, f (c) is the local minimum value of f . However, if f ′′ (c) = 0 or
f ′′ (c) does not exist, then the test can not be used to find local extrema.

Example 7.33.

If f (x) = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x2 + 3, find the local maximum and minimum values of
f by the second derivative test.

Solution

i. f ′ (x) = 12x3 + 48x2 + 48x = 12x(x2 + 4x + 4) = 12x(x + 2)2 .

ii. f ′ (x) = 0 implies x = 0 or x = −2.

iii.

f ′′ (x) = 36x2 + 96x + 48

f ′′ (0) = 36(0)2 + 96(0) + 48 = 48
f ′′ (−2) = 36(−2)2 + 96(−2) + 48 = 144 − 192 + 48 = 0.

148
 iv. Since f ′′ (0) = 48 which is positive, f has a local minimum value at x = 0.
This minimum value is

f (0) = 3(0)4 + 16(0)3 + 24(0)2 + 3 = 3.

f ′′ (−2) = 0 and the test gives no information on whether there a local

maximum value or minimum value at x = −2.

Example 7.34.

If f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 12, find the local maximum and minimum values of f by the
second derivative test.

Solution

i. f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 4x(x2 − 1).

ii. f ′ (x) = 0 implies x = 0, 1 or −1.

iii.

f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 4,
f ′′ (0) = 12(0)2 − 4 = −4,
f ′′ (1) = 12(1)2 − 4 = 8,
f ′′ (−1) = 12(−1)2 − 4 = 8.

iv. Since f ′′ (0) = −4 which is negative, f has a local maximum value at x = 0.

This maximum value is

f (0) = (0)4 − 2(0)2 − 12 = −12.

Similarly, local minimum value occur at both x = 1 and x = −1 since both

f ′′ (1) and f ′′ (−1) are positive. This minimum value is

f (−1) = f (1) = (1)4 − 2(1)2 − 12 = −13.

Activity 7.35.

1. Find critical numbers for each function below.

(a) f (x) = x1/4 (x − 1)3

149
 (b) f (x) = x3 (x − 2)2/3

2. Find the intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing;

(a) f (x) = 5 − 7x − 4x2

(b) f (x) = 4x3 − 3x4
(c) f (x) = 3x2 + 6x

3. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on the given
interval;

(a) f (x) = 12 + 4x − x2 , [0, 5]

(b) f (x) = x2 , [−1, 2]
(c) f (x) = x3 , [−2, 2]
(d) f (x) = sin x, [−π/2, π]
(e) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x + 4, [0, 2]
(f) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x + 4, [−4, 2]

4. Find the local extrema [compare the values obtained by the first and second
derivative tests].

(a) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 36x

(b) f (x) = 5x2/3 − 2x5/3
(c) f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 6x + 1
√
(d) f (x) = x 6 − x
(e) f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3

5. The function f (x) = x3 + rx2 − 7x − 1 has a stationary value where x = 1.

Find the value of r.

6. Determine interval(s) where the graph of the function f is concave upward

and interval(s) where it is concave downward, then find point(s) of inflection.

(a) f (x) = 3x4 − 44x3 + 144x2

(b) f (x) = 4x3 − 18x2 + 48x − 290
(c) f (x) = x4 − 8x2
(d) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 144x
(e) f (x) = x4 + 28x3 + 10x

150
 Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the use of derivatives to find rates of change and
related rates of change. You have also learnt how to use the derivatives of a
function to discuss the shape of the graph of a function.

Activity 7.36 (Unit Test).

1. Use the second derivative test to find local maximum and local minimum
values of the function f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 3.

2. The velocity v cms−1 of a particle moving in a straight line is given by

v = 6t − ct2 , where c is a constant and t is time in seconds from start. If its
acceleration is 0 cms−2 , when t = 1, find

(a) the value of c

(b) the time when the particle comes to instantaneous rest
(c) the maximum velocity of the particle

3. Find the intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing;

(a) f (x) = 6x2 − 9x + 5

(b) f (x) = 2x3 + x2 − 20x + 1

4. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on the given
interval;

(a) f (x) = x2 , [−2, 2]

(b) f (x) = 3x(x + 4)2/3 , [−5, −1]
(c) f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 1, [−2, 3]
(d) f (x) = 3x2 − 10x + 7, [−1, 3]
(e) f (x) = 5 + 54x − 2x3 , [0, 4]

5. Where is the function 3x2 + 4x + 1 increasing? Where is it decreasing?

6. Determine interval(s) where the graph of the function f is concave upward

and interval(s) where it is concave downward, then find point(s) of inflection.

(a) f (x) = 3x4 + 8x3 − 174x2 − 360x

151
 (b) f (x) = x2 (x + 4)

7. Two parallel sides of a rectangle are being shortened at the rate of 2 cm/sec,
while the other two are shortened in such a way that the figure remains
a rectangle with constant area of 50 cm2 . What is the rate of change of
perimeter when the length of an increasing side is 5 cm? Is the perimeter
increasing or decreasing? [A = lw and P = 2l + 2w].

8. Sand falling from a chute forms a conical pile whose height is always equal to
4
the radius of the base. How fast is the volume changing when the radius
3
1
of the base is 3 m and is increasing at the rate of 3 m/min? [V = πr2 h and
3
4
h = r].
3

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 7.13

dS 1 dr 1
1. = − cm2 /min 2. = √ cm/hr
dt 3 dt π
3. (a) k = 4 (b) initial velocity is −4 m/s.

4. (a) 2 m (b) 6 m (c) −3 m/s (d) 6 m/s

(e) 7 s (f) 2 m/s2 (g) 2 m/s2

5. (a) ∆y = −0.72 (b) ∆y = 0.271

6. (a) ∆y ≈ dy = 0.06 (b) ∆y ≈ dy = 5.44

Suggested Solutions to Activity 7.35

1
1. (a) Critical numbers are , 0 and 1.
13
18
(b) Critical numbers are , 0 and 2.
11
 
7
2. (a) The function is increasing on the interval −∞, − and it is decreas-
  8
7
ing on the interval − , ∞ .
8

152
 (b) f is increasing on (−∞, 1) and decreasing on (1, ∞).
(c) f is increasing on (−∞, −2) and (0, ∞) and is decreasing on (−2, 0).

3. (a) Absolute maximum is 16 and absolute minimum is 7.

(b) Absolute maximum is 4 and absolute minimum is 0.
(c) Absolute maximum is 8 and absolute minimum is −8.
(e) Absolute maximum is 8 and absolute minimum is −3.
(f) Absolute maximum is 24 and absolute minimum is −28.

4. (a) Local maximum is f (−3) = 81 and local minimum is f (2) = −44.

 
1 3
(c) Local maximum is f (−1) = 6 and local minimum is f =− .
2 4
√
(d) Local maximum is f (4) = 4 2.
(e) Local maximum is f (0) = 3 and local minimum is f (1) = 2.

5. r = 2.
   
4 4
6. (a) concave upward: −∞, , (6, ∞), concave downward: ,6
3 3
   
3 3
(b) concave upward: , ∞ , concave downward: −∞, and point of
 2  2
3
inflection is , −245 .
2
     
2 2 2 2
(c) concave upward: −∞, − √ , √ , ∞ , concave downward: − √ , √
 3 3 3 3
2 80
and point of inflection is − √ , − .
3 9
(d) concave upward: (1, ∞), concave downward: (−∞, 1) and point of in-
flection is (1, −146).
(e) concave upward: (−∞, −14), (0, ∞), concave downward: (−14, 0) and
points of inflection (0, 0) and (−14, −1316).

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1. Local maximum: −5, local minimum: 1

2. (a) c = 3 (b) t = 2 s (c) 3 m/s

153
    
3 3
3. (a) The function is increasing on , ∞ and is decreasing on −∞, .
4 4
 
5
(b) The function is increasing on (−∞, −2) and , ∞ , it is decreasing
  3
5
on −2, .
3
4. (a) Absolute maximum is f (2) = 4 and absolute minimum is f (0) = 0.
(b) Absolute maximum is 0 and absolute minimum is −15.
(c) Absolute maximum is 8 and absolute minimum is −19.
 
1
5. The function is increasing on (−∞, −1) and − , ∞ , it is decreasing on
  3
1
( −1, − ).
3
dP
7. = −4 cm/s. The perimeter is decreasing.
dt

154
Unit 8

Integration

8.1 Introduction
In this unit, we will introduce integration as a reverse operation to differentiation.
We will discuss both indefinite and definite integrals. Basic techniques of integra-
tion, such as constant rule and power rule, will also be discussed. We will also
discuss integrals of natural exponential functions and trigonometric functions.

8.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ find indefinite and definite integrals of polynomial functions.

ˆ find indefinite and definite integrals of trigonometric functions.

ˆ find indefinite and definite integrals of natural exponential functions.

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ integrals

155
 ˆ integrand

ˆ indefinite integrals

ˆ definite integrals

ˆ constant rule of integration

ˆ power rule of integration

ˆ properties of indefinite integrals

ˆ properties of definite integrals

ˆ integrals of trigonometric integrals

ˆ integrals of natural exponential functions

8.3 Indefinite Integrals

Given a differentiable function f (x), we can differentiate it to find its derivative
f ′ (x). Suppose we are given f ′ (x) and asked to find the original function f (x). To
find f (x) we apply the reverse operation to differentiation called integration
to f ′ (x).
In integration, the function that gets integrated is called an integrand. The
function, which results from integrating another function,
R is called an integral or
an anti-derivative. The symbol for integration is . Thus

f (x)dx = F (x) means F ′ (x) = f (x).

R

Consider the two functions f (x) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 7 and g(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + 18.
Clearly f (x) ̸= g(x) but f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) = 3x2 + 8x + 8. In general, the derivative
of a function x3 + 4x2 + 8x + C, where C is any constant, is 3x2 + 8x + 8. This is
so because the derivative of any constant is zero.
The preceding discussion implies that
Z
(3x2 + 8x + 8)dx = x3 + 4x2 + 8x + C

156
since integration is the reverse of differentiation and

d 3
[x + 4x2 + 8x + C] = 3x2 + 8x + 8.
dx

The integral 3x2 + 8x + 8 + C is called indefinite integral since it represents the

whole family of infinitely many functions (C ∈ R and R is an infinite set).

8.3.1 The Constant Rule of Integration

R
Theorem 8.1 (Constant Rule). If k is a constant, then kdx = kx + C.

Example 8.2.

R
1. 2dx = 2x + C
R
2. 7dx = 7x + C
R
3. dx = x + C
R
4. −4dx = −4x + C

8.3.2 The Power Rule of Integration

Theorem 8.3 (Power Rule). If n is any real number, then

xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1

Example 8.4.

R 2 x2+1 x3
1. x dx = +C = + C.
2+1 3
√
R√ R 1/2 x1/2+1 x3/2 2 x3
2. xdx = x dx = +C = +C = + C.
1/2 + 1 (3/2) 3

x−3 1
x−4 dx =
R
3. + C = − 3 + C.
−3 3x

157
8.3.3 Properties of Indefinite Integrals
Theorem 8.5. Let f (x) and g(x) be two functions and let k be a constant. Then
R R
i. kf (x)dx = k
f (x)dx.
R R R
ii. [f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
R R R
iii. [f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx.

In words, Theorem 8.5 states that:

i. the integral of a constant times a function is the constant times the integral
of the function.

ii. the integral of the sum of two (or more) functions is the sum of the integrals
of the two functions.

iii. the integral of the difference between two functions is the difference between
the integrals of the to functions.

Example 8.6.

Evaluate the following integrals;

R
1. (2x3 + 3x − 4)dx
R
2. (7x6 − 3x2 + 2x)dx
R
3. (19x7 + 1)dx

Solution

1.
Z Z Z Z
3 3
(2x + 3x − 4)dx = 2 x dx + 3 xdx − 4 dx
 4  2
x x
=2 +3 − 4x + C
4 2
x4 3x2
= + − 4x + C.
2 2
158
 2.
Z Z Z Z
6 2 6 2
(7x − 3x + 2x)dx = 7 x dx − 3 x dx + 2 xdx
 7  3  2
x x x
=7 −3 +2 +C
7 3 2
= x7 − x3 + x2 + C.

3. Z
19 8
(19x7 + 1)dx = x + x + C.
8

8.3.4 Integrals of Natural Exponential Functions

d x d ax
Since [e ] = ex and [e ] = aex (a ∈ R), the following result is immediate.
dx dx
Theorem 8.7. Let k be a constant. Then
R
i. ex dx = ex + C.
R 1 kx
ii. ekx dx = e + C.
k
Example 8.8.

R 1
1. e2x dx = e2x + C.
2
3
3e−4x dx = − e−4x + C.
R
2.
4

8.3.5 Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

Integrals of trigonometric functions are given in Table 8.1. Please compare Table
8.1 with Table 6.1 which gives derivatives of basic trigonometric functions in Unit
3.

R f (x) sin x cos x sec2 x csc2 x csc x cot x sec x tan x

f (x)dx − cos x + C sin x + C tan x + C − cot x + C − csc x + C sec x + C
Table 8.1: Integrals of trigonometric functions

159
Example 8.9.

Evaluate the following integrals.

R
1. (x − csc x cot x)dx
R
2. sec x(sec x + tan x)dx
R sin x + sin x tan2 x
3. dx
sec2 x
R
4. (5ex + 3 cos x)dx

Solution

R x2 x2
1. (x − csc x cot x)dx =
− (− csc x) + C = + csc x + C.
2 2
R R
2. sec x(sec x + tan x)dx = (sec2 x + sec x tan x)dx = tan x + sec x + C.

3.
sin x + sin x tan2 x sin x(1 + tan2 x)
Z Z
dx = dx
sec2 x sec2 x
sin x sec2 x
Z
= dx
sec2 x
Z
= sin xdx

= − cos x + C.

Notice that we have used the trigonometric identity

tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x

whch is true for all angles x.

R
4. (5ex + 3 cos x)dx = 5ex + 3 sin x + C.

Activity 8.10.

Evaluate each of the following integrals.

R
1. (tan2 x + 1)dx

160
 R
2. (x3 − 4 sin x)dx
R√ 2
3. x(x − 3)dx
 
R 1
4. 1− √ 3
dx
x4
R 5
5. (x − 6x2 + x − 1)dx
R 1 + cos2 x
 
6. dx
cos2 x
R e2x
7. dx
ex
 
R 1
8. sin x + x dx
2

8.4 Definite Integrals

In Section 5.3, you learnt the integral of a function, called indefinite integral, which
is another function. However, if we are given the interval in which the integral is
to be evaluated, we find definite integral which is a number. The notation
Z b
f (x)dx
a

means the integral of f (x) is to be evaluated in the interval [a, b].

The numbers a and b are called limits of integration. a is the lower limit while
b is the upper limit. We will use Theorem 8.11 in evaluating definite integrals.
Theorem 8.11 is also called fundamental theorem of calculus.

RTheorem 8.11 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Suppose that

f (x)dx = F (x), i.e., F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x). If f (x) is continuous
on [a, b] then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

By Theorem 8.11, the definite integral is found by following these steps:

i. Find the integral F (x) of f (x) (of course without adding a constant C).

ii. Substitute the upper limit b for x in F (x), i.e., find F (b).

161
 iii. Substitute the lower limit a for x in F (x), i.e., find F (a).

iv. The definite integral is F (b) − F (a).

We state properties of definite integrals in Theorem 8.12.

Theorem 8.12. Let f and g be functions and let a, b and c be constants. Then
Rb
i. a
kdx = k(b − a).
Rb Rb
ii. a
kf (x)dx = k a
f (x)dx.
Ra
iii. a
f (x)dx = 0.
Rb Ra
iv. a
f (x)dx = − b f (x)dx.
Rb Rb Rb
v. a
[f (x) ± g(x)]dx = a f (x)dx ± a g(x)dx.
Rc Rb Rb
vi. a
f (x)dx + c f (x)dx = a f (x)dx, provided that a < c < b.

Example 8.13.

Evaluate the following integrals

R4
1. 1
(3x2 − 2x + 6)dx
Rπ
2. 0
sec x tan xdx

Solution

R
1. i. F (x) = (3x2 − 2x + 6)dx = x3 − x2 + 6x.
ii. F (4) = 43 − 42 + 6(4) = 64 − 16 + 24 = 72.
iii. F (1) = 13 − 12 + 6(1) = 1 − 1 + 6 = 6.
R4
iv. 1 (3x2 − 2x + 6)dx = F (4) − F (1) = 72 − 6 = 66.
R 1
2. i. F (x) = sec x tan xdx = sec x = .
cos x
1 1
ii. F (π) = = = −1.
cos π (−1)
1 1
iii. F (0) = = = 1.
cos 0 1
162
 Rπ
iv. 0
sec x tan xdx = F (π) − F (0) = −1 − 1 = −2.

The steps followed in finding definite integrals can be combined, in order to save
time and space, as in Example 8.14 below.
Example 8.14.

Evaluate each integral below.

R2
1. 1 (4x5 + 6x2 − 4x)dx
R1
2. 0 (2x4 + 3x3 − 21)dx

Solution

1.
Z 2  2
5 2 2 6 3 2
(4x + 6x − 4x)dx = x + 2x − 2x
1 3 1
   
2 6 3 2 2 6 3 2
= (2) + 2(2) − 2(2) − (1) + 2(1) − 2(1)
3 3
   
128 2
= + 16 − 8 − +2−2
3 3
128 2
= + 16 − 8 −
3 3
126
= +8
3
= 42 + 8
= 50.

2.
Z 1  1
4 3 2 5 3 2
(2x + 3x − 21)dx = x + x − 21x
0 5 4 0
   
2 5 3 2 2 5 3 2
= (1) + (1) − 21(1) − (0) + (0) − 21(0)
3 4 3 4
2 3
= + − 21
5 4
8 15 420
= + −
20 20 20
397
=− .
20
163
Activity 8.15.

Evaluate each definite integral below.

R2
1. −1
(x2 − 2x + 3)dx
R1
2. 0
x(x2 + 1)dx
 
R4 2 1
3. 1 x + √ dx
2 x
R2
4. 0 x(2 − 3x)2 dx
R 2 x2 + 1
5. 1
√ dx
x
R2
6. −2 (x4 − 3x2 + 5)dx
R4
7. 4
(x − 5x4 )dx
 
R1 2 1
8. 4 x + √ dx
2 x
Rπ
9. 0 sin xdx

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt calculation of integrals of basic functions. You have
learnt definite and indefinite integrals of polynomials, exponential functions and
trigonometric functions.

Activity 8.16 (Unit Test).

Evaluate each integral below.

R √
1. (3x2 − 5x + 2)dx
 
R 3 2
2. √ − 2 dx
x x

164
 R x2 + 3x − 2
3. √ dx
x
 
R 3 2 1
4. (x − 2x ) − 5 dx
x
R7
5. 3
5dx
R 1/2

6. x − 3x2/3 + 6 dx
R3 3
7. 0
(6x − 15x2 − 3x)dx
R2
8. −1
[(x + 2) − x2 ]dx
R2
9. 0
(x3 − 5x2 + 6x)dx
R
10. (2 cos x + 3ex )dx
R π/2
11. 0
3 sin xdx

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 8.10

x4 2 7/2 √ 3
1. tan x + C 2. + 4 cos x + C 3. x − 2 x3 + C 4. x + √ +C
4 7 3
x
x6 x2 1
5. − 2x3 + − x + C 6. tan x + x + C 7. ex + C 8. − cos x + x2 + C
6 2 4

Suggested Solutions to Activity 8.15

R2 R1 7
1. −1
(x2 − 2x + 3)dx = 9 2. 0
x(x2 + 1)dx =
12
 
R4 2 1 R2
3. 1
x + √ dx = 22 4. 0
x(2 − 3x)2 dx = 12
2 x
 
R4 4
R1 2 1 Rπ
7. 4
(x − 5x )dx = 0 8. 4
x + √ dx = −22 9. 0
sin xdx = 2
2 x

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

165
 R √ 2 √
1. (3x2 −
5x + 2)dx = x3 − x 5x + 2x + C
3
√
 
R 3 2 2
2. √ − 2 dx = 6 x + + C
x x x
R x2 + 3x − 2 2 √ √ √
3. √ dx = x2 x + 2x x − 4 x + C
x 5
 
R 3 1 5 11
4. (x − 2x2 ) − 5 dx = − x4 + x3 − x2 + C
x 4 3
R7
5. 3 5dx = 20
R
2 9
6. x1/2 − 3x2/3 + 6 dx = x3/2 − x5/3 + 6x + C
3 5
R3
7. 0
(6x3 − 15x2 − 3x)dx = −18
R2 9
8. −1
[(x + 2) − x2 ]dx =
2
R2 8
9. 0
(x3 − 5x2 + 6x)dx =
3
R
10. (2 cos x + 3ex )dx = 2 sin x + 3ex + C
R π/2
11. 0
3 sin xdx = 3

166
Unit 9

Integration Techniques

9.1 Introduction
Having introduced integration in Unit 5, we will look at further techniques of
integration in this unit. These techniques are the substitution rule, integration by
parts and integration by partial fractions. Under substitution rule, we will also
R g ′ (x)
consider integrals of the form dx.
g(x)

9.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ use the substitution rule to find integrals of appropriate functions.

ˆ use integration by parts to find integrals of appropriate functions.

ˆ use integration by partial fractions to find integrals of appropriate functions.

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

167
 ˆ partial fractions

ˆ the substitution rule

ˆ integration by parts

ˆ integration by partial fractions

ˆ substitution rule for definite integrals

g ′ (x)
ˆ the integral dx
g(x)
ˆ improper fractions

ˆ linear factor

ˆ repeated factor

ˆ irreducible quadratic factor

9.3 The Substitution Rule

Integrals for some functions are difficult to evaluate in the function’s original repre-
sentation. In some cases we have to make a substitution, i.e., we have to change
the variable. We calculate the integral and then change back to the original vari-
able. The change of the variable is made in such a way that the integral looks
different from the original one. The most important thing is that the integral
becomes easy to evaluate than it was before changing the variable.
The Substitution Rule is the method used to find integrals of the form f (g(x))g ′ (x)dx.
R
R √ d 2
For example, in 2x x2 + 4dx notice that [x + 4] = 2x. We state the rule in
dx
Theorem 9.1.

Theorem 9.1 (The Substitution rule). If u = g(x) is a differentiable function

whose range is an interval I and if f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
′
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du.

168
By Theorem 9.1, to find the integral
Z
f (g(x))g ′ (x)dx,

we substitute u = g(x) and du = g ′ (x)dx to get

Z
f (u)du,

i.e., we change the variable from x to u. We calculate the integral with respect to
u after which we revert back to the original variable x.
For example, to find the integral
Z √
2x x2 + 4dx,

we first put u = x2 + 4. Differentiating we have du = 2xdx.

Therefore
Z √ Z √ 
2x x2 + 4dx = x2 + 4 (xdx)
√
Z
= udu
Z
= u1/2 du
2
= u3/2 + C.
3
Writing it in terms of the original variable x we have
2 3/2 2
u + C = (x2 + 4)3/2 + C.
3 3
Example 9.2.

Evaluate each integral below.

R 4x
1. √ dx
2x2 + 1
R
2. sin(7x − 3)dx
R 2 −5
3. 2xex dx

169
 √
R sin x
4. √ dx
x
R
5. ecos x sin xdx

Solution

1. Let u = 2x2 + 1. Then du = 4xdx.

Therefore
Z Z  
4x 1
√ dx = √ 4xdx
2x2 + 1 Z 2x 2+1

1
= √ du
u
Z
= u−1/2 du

u1/2
= +C
1/2
√
=2 u+C
√
= 2 2x2 + 1 + C.

du
2. Let u = 7x − 3. Then du = 7dx giving = dx.
7
Therefore
Z Z
du
sin(7x − 3)dx = (sin u)
7
Z
1
= sin udu
7
1
= − cos u + C
7
1
= − cos(7x − 3) + C.
7

3. Let u = x2 − 5. Then du = 2xdx.

170
 Therefore
Z Z  
x2 −5 2 −5
2xe dx = ex 2xdx
Z
= eu du

= eu + C
2 −5
= ex + C.

√ 1 1 dx
4. Let u = x = x1/2 . Then du = x−1/2 dx = √ dx giving 2du = √ .
2 2 x x
Therefore
√
√ dx
Z Z
sin x
√ dx = (sin x) √
x x
Z
= sin u(2du)
Z
= 2 sin udu

= −2 cos u + C
√
= −2 cos x + C.

5. Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin xdx giving −du = sin xdx.

Therefore
Z Z
cos x
e sin xdx = ecos x sin xdx
Z
= eu (−du)
Z
= − eu du

= −eu + C
= −ecos x + C.

9.3.1 The Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals

Recall that the definite integral
Z b
f (x)dx
a

171
 R
is the number F (b)−F (a) where F (x) is the integral f (x)dx. To evaluate definite
integrals using the substitution rule, we will change the variable from x to u as
before but we do not need to revert back to x at the end. Instead we will change
the limits of integration from a and b to g(a) and g(b) respectively (see Theorem
9.3). Then the
R new limits of integration, g(a) and g(b), will be substituted into
the integral f (u)du.

Theorem 9.3. If g ′ is continuous on [a, b] and if f is continuous on the range of

u = g(x), then
Z b Z g(b)
′
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du.
a g(a)

Example 9.4.

Evaluate each integral below.

R eπ sin(ln x)
1. 1
dx
x
R1 2
2. 0 (x + 1)ex +2x dx
R5 √
3. 0
x3 x4 + 1dx

Solution

1 dx
1. Let u = ln x. Then du = dx = .
x x
Now when x = 1, u = ln 1 = 0 and when x = eπ , u = ln eπ = π ln e = π
(since ln e = 1).
Therefore
Z eπ Z eπ
sin(ln x) dx
dx = sin(ln x)
1 x x
Z1 π
= sin udu
0
= [− cos u]π0
= − cos π − (− cos 0)
= −(−1) − (1)
= 2.

172
 du
2. Let u = x2 + 2x. Then du = (2x + 2)dx = 2(x + 1)dx giving = (x + 1)dx.
2
Now, when x = 0, u = 02 + 2(0) = 0 and when x = 1, u = 12 + 2(1) = 3.

Therefore
Z 1 Z 1  2 
x2 +2x
(x + 1)e dx = ex +2x (x + 1)dx
0
Z0 3
du
= eu
0 2
1 3 u
Z
= e du
2 0
1 u3
= [e ]0
2
1 3
= [e − e0 ]
2
1 3

= e −1 .
2

du
3. Let u = x4 + 1. Then du = 4x3 dx giving = x3 dx.
4
Now when x = 0, u = 04 + 1 = 1 and when x = 5, u = 54 + 1 = 626.

Therefore
Z 5 √
3
Z 5 √ 
4
x x + 1dx = x + 1 x3 dx
4
0
Z0 626
√ du
= u
1 u
Z 626
1
= u1/2 du
4 1
 626
1 2 3/2
= u
4 3 1
2  3/2
626 − 13/2

=
12
1 h√ 3 i
= 626 − 1
6
≈ 2610.25.

173
 R g ′ (x)
9.3.2 The Integral dx
g(x)
We consider the integral of the fractional function in which the numerator is the
derivative of the denominator. The simplest form of this function is
1
.
x
Recall, from Unit 3, that
d 1
[ln x] = .
dx x
Working in reverse we have
Z
1
dx = ln x + C.
x

Also recall that if g is a differentiable function, then

d g ′ (x)
[ln g(x)] = .
dx g(x)
Now, working in reverse, we must have
Z ′
g (x)
dx = ln g(x) + C.
g(x)

It works as follows. Put u = g(x) and then du = g ′ (x)dx to obtain

Z ′ Z
g (x) du
dx = = ln u + C = ln g(x) + C.
g(x) u

Recall that the domain of a logarithmic function is the set of positive numbers
only. Therefore ln g(x) is true only for those values of x such that g(x) is positive.
In general, we will write
Z ′
g (x)
dx = ln |g(x)| + C
g(x)

where ln |g(x)| makes sure that we do not find logarithms of non-positive numbers
(|, | is the absolute value function discussed last semester).
Similarly we have Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C.
x

174
Example 9.5.

Evaluate each integral below.

R
1. cot xdx

R 2x4
2. dx
x5 + 1
R 3x4 + 12x3 + 6
3. dx
x5 + 5x4 + 10x + 12

Solution

R R cos x
1. We note that cot xdx = dx.
sin x
Let u = sin x. Then du = cos xdx.
Therefore
Z Z
cos x
cot xdx = dx
sin x
Z
du
=
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | sin x| + C.

du
2. Let u = x5 + 1. Then du = 5x4 dx giving = x4 dx.
u
Therefore
2x4
Z Z  
1
dx = 2 x4 dx
x5 + 1 x5 + 1
Z  
1 du
=2
u 5
Z
2 du
=
5 u
2
= ln |u| + C
5
2
= ln |x5 + 1| + C.
5
175
 3. Let u = x5 +5x4 +10x+12. Then du = (5x4 +20x3 +10)dx = 5(x4 +4x3 +2)dx
du
giving = (x4 + 4x3 + 2).
5
Therefore
3x4 + 12x3 + 6
Z Z  
1
5 4
dx = 3 5 4
(x4 + 4x3 + 2)dx
x + 5x + 10x + 12 x + 5x + 10x + 12
Z   
1 du
=3
u 5
Z
3 du
=
5 u
3
= ln |u| + C
5
3
= ln |x5 + 5x4 + 10x + 12| + C.
5

Activity 9.6.

Evaluate each integral below.

R1 dx
1. 0
3x + 5
R4 6x − 3
2. 3
dx
4x2 − 4x + 1
R 10x3 − 5x
3. √ dx
x 4 − x2 + 6
R dx
4.
x ln x
R ln x2
5. dx
x
R
6. (x + 1)(x − 2)9 dx [Let u = x − 2. Then u + 3 = x + 1.]
R 2x ln(x2 + 1)
7. dx
x2 + 1
R
8. tan xdx
R 3x
9. dx
x2 +7

176
9.4 Integration by Parts
Recall (the product rule of differentiation) that if f and g are differentiable func-
tions, then
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f ′ (x)g(x) + g ′ (x)f (x). (9.1)
dx
Integrating both sides of Equation 9.1, gives
Z
f (x)g(x) = [f ′ (x)g(x) + g ′ (x)f (x)]dx
Z Z
= f (x)g(x)dx + g ′ (x)f (x)dx.
′

Rearranging, we have
Z Z
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x)dx.
′
(9.2)

In Equation 9.2 we have what is called the formula for integration by parts.
If we put u = f (x) and v = g(x) in 9.2, we have the following form which is easy
to remember; Z Z
uv = uv − vu′ .
′

The key in integration by parts is in making right substitutions for both u and v ′ .
Generally, we choose to be u the function whose derivative u′ is simpler than u
itself. v ′ is the function whose integral is found easily.

Example 9.7.

Evaluate each integral below.

R
1. x3 ln xdx
R
2. sin x ln(cos x)dx
R
3. ex sin xdx
R1
4. 0
x2 e−x dx

Solution

177
 d 1 x4
1. Let u = ln x and v ′ = x3 . Then u′ =
R
[ln x] = dx and v = x3 dx = .
dx x 4
Therefore
Z Z
′
vu′
uv = uv −
x4
Z Z  4 
3 x 1
x ln xdx = (ln x) − dx
4 4 x
x4
Z
1
= (ln x) − x3 dx
4 4
x4 1
= (ln x) − x4 + C.
4 16
2. Let u = ln(cos x) and v ′ = sin x.
d − sin x
Then u′ = [ln(cos x)] = dx = − tan xdx and
R dx cos x
v = sin xdx = − cos x.
Therefore
Z Z
′
uv = uv − vu′
Z Z
sin x ln(cos x)dx = − cos x ln(cos x) − (− cos x)(− tan x)dx
Z  
sin x
= − cos x ln(cos x) − cos x dx
cos x
Z
= − cos x ln(cos x) − sin xdx

= − cos x ln(cos x) − (− cos x) + C

= − cos x ln(cos x) + cos x + C.

d x
3. Let u = ex and v ′ = sin x. Then u′ = [e ] = ex dx and
R dx
v = sin xdx = − cos x.
Therefore
Z Z
′
uv = uv − vu′
Z Z
x x
e sin xdx = −e cos x − ex (− cos x)dx
Z
x
= −e cos x + ex cos xdx.

178
 R
We apply integration by parts again to get the integral ex cos xdx.
d x
Let u = ex and v ′ = cos x. Then u′ = [e ] = ex dx and
R dx
v = cos xdx = sin x.
So Z Z
x x
e cos xdx = e sin x − ex sin xdx.

Therefore
Z Z
x x x
e sin xdx = −e cos x + e sin x − ex sin xdx.

Hence
Z
2 ex sin xdx = −ex cos x + ex sin x = ex (sin x − cos x)

giving Z
1
ex sin xdx = ex (sin x − cos x).
2
4. Let u = x2 and v ′ = e−x . Then u′ = 2xdx and v = −e−x .
Z Z
x e dx = −x e − 2x(−e−x )dx
2 −x 2 −x

Z
= −x e + 2 xe−x dx.
2 −x

xe−x dx, let u = x and v ′ = e−x . Then u′ = 1 and v = −e−x .

R
For
So
Z Z
−x −x
xe dx = −xe − (1)(−e−x )dx
Z
−x
= −xe + e−x dx

= −xe−x − e−x .

Hence
Z 1 1
x2 e−x dx = −x2 e−x − 2xe−x − 2e−x 0

0
= −e−1 − 2e−1 − 2e−1 + 2
5
=2− .
e
179
Activity 9.8.

Evaluate integrals below.

R
1. x2 e2x dx
R
2. e2x cos xdx
R
3. xex dx
R
4. x sec2 xdx
R
5. x sec x tan xdx [Let u = x]
R
6. x5 ln xdx
R
7. ex cos xdx
R
8. x2 sin xdx
R
9. x ln x2 dx [Let u = ln x2 ]

9.5 Integration by Partial Fractions

In Subsection 9.3.2, we discussed how to find integrals of the form
Z ′
g (x)
dx,
g(x)
i.e., integrals of fractions in which the numerator is the derivative of the denomi-
nator. In this section we will look at integrals of the form
Z
p(x)
dx (9.3)
q(x)
where both p(x) and q(x) are polynomials which are not related as above. The
p(x)
function is called a rational function.
q(x)
The integral of the form 9.3 will be found by first decomposing
p(x)
q(x)
into smaller fractions called partial fractions. Then we will integrate each partial
fraction and put the results together. Generally the partial fractions will be easier
to integrate than the whole function in its original form.

180
9.5.1 Strategy for Decomposing Rational Functions into
Partial Fractions
p(x)
Consider a rational function .
q(x)

p(x)
1. Divide if improper: Before expressing into partial fractions, we have
q(x)
to make sure that the degree (highest power of x) of q(x) is greater than
that of p(x). If the degree of p(x) is greater than or equal to that of q(x),
then we have an improper fraction. In this case, we divide q(x) into p(x)
to obtain
p(x) g(x)
= f (x) +
q(x) q(x)
where f (x) is the quotient and g(x) is the remainder.
2. Factorise the denominator: Completely factorise the denominator into
factors of the form
(ax + b)m or (ax2 + bx + c)n
where ax2 + bx + c is an irreducible quadratic factor, i.e., a quadratic factor
which can not be factorised into linear factors.
3. Linear factors:
i. A linear factor ax + b in the denominator gives rise to a partial fraction
of the form
A
ax + b
where A ∈ R.
ii. A linear factor ax + b, repeated r times in the denominator, gives rise
to partial fractions of the form
A1 A2 Ar
+ 2
+ ... +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)r
where A1 , A2 , ..., Ar ∈ R.
4. Quadratic factors:
i. A quadratic factor ax2 +bx+c in the denominator gives rise to a partial
fraction of the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
where A, B ∈ R.

181
 ii. A quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c, repeated r times in the denominator,
gives rise to partial fractions of the form

A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ar x + Br
+ + ... +
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)r

where A1 , A2 , ..., Ar , B1 , B2 , ..., Br ∈ R.

Table 9.1 is a summary of the preceding discussion.

Factor in Denominator Factor Name Corresponding Partial Fraction(s

A
ax + b linear Factor
ax + b
A1 A2 Ar
(ax + b)r repeated linear factor + 2
+ ... +
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)r
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c quadratic factor
ax2 + bx + c
A1 x + B1 Ar x + Br
ax2 + bx + c repeated quadratic factor 2
+ ... +
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)r
Table 9.1: Partial Fraction Decomposition

Example 9.9.

Evaluate each integral below.

R 3x + 11
1. dx
x2−x−6
R dx
2.
x2 − 1
R dx
3.
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
R x
4. dx
x4 − 16
R 2x3 + x2 − 7x + 7
5. dx
x2 + x − 2

Solution

182
1. Factorising the denominator we have
3x + 11 3x + 11
= .
x2 − x − 6 (x − 3)(x + 2)
Now lets decompose this into partial fractions.
Suppose that
3x + 11 A B A(x + 2) + B(x − 3)
= + = ,
(x − 3)(x + 2) x−3 x+2 (x − 3)(x + 2)
i.e.,
3x + 11 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 3).

Let x = −2. Then

3(−2) + 11 = A(−2 + 2) + B(−2 − 3) ⇒ −6 + 11 = −5B ⇒ 5 = −5B

giving B = −1.
Let x = 3. Then

3(3) + 11 = A(3 + 2) + B(3 − 3) ⇒ 20 = 5A ⇒ A = 4.

Therefore
3x + 11 4 1
= − .
(x − 3)(x + 2) x−3 x+2
Integrating we have
Z Z  
3x + 11 4 1
dx = − dx
(x − 3)(x + 2) x−3 x+2
Z Z
4dx dx
= −
x−3 x+2
= 4 ln |x − 3| − ln |x + 2| + C
(x − 3)4
= ln + C.
x+2

Notice that we have used laws of logarithms in coming up with the last step.

2. Factorising the denominator we have

1 1
= .
x2 −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)

183
 Suppose
1 A B A(x − 1) + B(x + 1)
= + = ,
(x + 1)(x − 1) x+1 x−1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
i.e.,
1 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 1).
1
Let x = 1. Then 1 = A(1 − 1) + B(1 + 1) ⇒ 1 = 2B ⇒ B = .
2
1
let x = −1. Then 1 = A(−1 − 1) + B(−1 + 1) ⇒ 1 = −2A ⇒ A = − .
2
Therefore
 
1 −1/2 1/2 1 1 1
= + = − .
(x + 1)(x − 1) x+1 x−1 2 x−1 x+1

Integrating we have
Z Z
dx 1
2
=
x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
Z  
1 1 1
= − dx
2 x−1 x+1
Z Z 
1 dx dx
= −
2 x−1 x+1
1
= [ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1|] + C.
2

3. Suppose
dx A B C A(x − 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x − 1)2
= + + = ,
(x − 1)2 (x + 1) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1 (x − 1)2 (x + 1)
i.e.,
1 = A(x − 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x − 1)2 .
1
If we put x = 1 we get 1 = 2B which gives B = .
2
1
If we put x = −1 we have 1 = C(−1 − 1)2 ⇒ 1 = 4C giving C = .
4
Equating constant terms we have
1 1 1
1 = −A + B + C ⇒ 1 = −A + + ⇒A=− .
2 4 4
184
 Therefore
 
dx −1/4 1/2 1/4 1 1 2 1
= + + = − + + .
(x − 1)2 (x + 1) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1 4 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1

Integrating we have
Z Z  
dx 1 1 2 1
= − + + dx
(x − 1)2 (x + 1) 4 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1
 
1 2
= − ln |x − 1| − + ln |x + 1| + C
4 x−1
 
1 x+1 2
= ln − + C.
4 x−1 x−1

4. Factorising the denominator we have

x x
4
= .
x − 16 (x + 2)(x − 2)(x2 + 4)

Suppose
x A B Cx + D
= + + 2
x4 − 16 x+2 x−2 x +4
A(x − 2)(x + 4) + B(x + 2)(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x + 2)(x − 2)
2
= ,
(x + 2)(x − 2)(x2 + 4)

i.e.,
x = A(x − 2)(x2 + 4) + B(x + 2)(x2 + 4) + (Cx + D)(x + 2)(x − 2).

1
Let x = 2. Then 2 = (2 + 2)(4 + 4)B ⇒ 2 = 32B giving B = .
16
1
Let x = −2. Then −2 = (−2 − 2)(4 + 4)A ⇒ −2 = −32A giving A = .
16
Equating coefficients of x3 we have 0 = A + B + C ⇒ 0 = 1/16 + 1/16 + C
2 1
giving C = − = − .
16 8
Equating constant terms we have    
1 1
0 = −8A + 8B − 4D ⇒ 0 = −8 +8 − 4D giving D = 0.
16 16
Therefore
 
x 1/16 1/16 −(1/8)x 1 1 1 2x
= + + 2 = + − .
x4 − 16 x+2 x−2 x +4 16 x + 2 x − 2 x2 + 4

185
 Integrating we have
Z  
x 1 1 1 2x
= + − dx
x4 − 16 16 x + 2 x − 2 x2 + 4
1 
ln |x + 2| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x2 + 4| + C

=
16
1 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= ln + C.
16 x2 + 4

5. Since the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator,
we first need to use long division to simplify the integrand. Please verify
that after long division we get
2x3 + x2 − 7x + 7 −2x + 5
2
= (2x − 1) + 2 .
x +x−2 x +x−2

Now we need to express

−2x + 5
x2 + x − 2
into partial fractions.
Factorising the denominator we have
−2x + 5 −2x + 5
2
= .
x +x−2 (x + 2)(x − 1)

Let
−2x + 5 A B A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
= + = ,
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1 (x + 2)(x − 1)
i.e.,
−2x + 5 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2).

Equating constant terms we have

5 = −A + 2B.....(1)

Equating coefficients of x we have

−2 = A + B.....(ii)

Adding (i) and (ii) we have

5 = −A + 2B
+ −2 = A + B
3 = 3B

186
 giving B = 1.
Substituting in (i) we have

5 = −A + 2(1) giving A = −3.

Therefore
−2x + 5 −3 1
= + .
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1

Combining we have

2x3 + x2 − 7x + 7 3 1
2
= (2x − 1) − + .
x +x−2 x+2 x−1

Integrating we have

2x3 + x2 − 7x + 7
Z Z  
3 1
dx = (2x − 1) − + dx
x2 + x − 2 x+2 x−1
= x2 − x − ln |x + 2| + ln |x − 1| + C.

Activity 9.10.

Evaluate each integral below.

R 2 x4 + 1
1. 1
dx
x3 + 2x
R 5x − 3
2. dx
(x − 2)(x − 3)2
R dx
3.
x2 + 5x + 6
R 5x2 + 20x + 6
4. dx
x3 + 2x2 + x
R 2x − 2
5. dx
(x2 + 2x − 15)(x + 2)
R x2 − 2x − 5
6. dx
x3 − 5x2

187
 R x2 + x − 3
7.
(x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 3)

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt three techniques of integration: substitution rule,
integration by parts and integration by partial fractions. You have learnt that
the key in both substitution rule and integration by parts lies in making right
substitutions. Under integration by partial fractions, you learnt how to express a
rational function into partial fractions before performing integration.

Activity 9.11 (Unit Test).

1. Evaluate each integral below.

R π/4 tan3 x
(a) 0
dx
cos2 x
R 4
(b) 2
x(x + 4)
R 10(2x − 1)
(c)
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
3xe−x dx
R
(d)
R 2 x2
(e) xe dx
R0 2
(f) x ln xdx
R
(g) x cos 2xdx
R (x2 − 1)ex+1/x
(h) dx
x2
R4 36
(i) 2 2
dx
(x − 2x + 1)(x + 5)
R 3x + 1
(j) 2
dx
2x − x − 1
R dx
(k) √
cos2 x tan x
R 2x
(l) e sin xdx
R 5
(m) 2
dx
x +x−6

188
 R
(n) ex sec2 (ex )dx
R
(o) x3 ex dx

2. Use the Substitution rule to verify the following integrals. [Use trigonometric
identities where necessary].
R
(a) etan x sec2 xdx = etan x + C
1
(b) sin3 x cos x = sin x + C
R
4
R√ 2 2
(c) sin x cos3 xdx = sin3/2 x − sin7/2 x + C
3 7
1 1
(d) cos7 xdx = sin x − sin3 x − sin5 x − sin6 x + c
R
5 6
R 1 1
(e) tan3 x sec3 xdx = sec5 x − sec3 x + C
5 3
3. Evaluate the following integrals by the substitution rule and trigonometric
identities.
R
(a) cot3 x csc3 xdx
R sec x
(b) 3
dx
R cot4 x 4
(c) csc x cot xdx

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 9.6

1 3 √
1. (ln 8 − ln 5) 2. (ln 7 − ln 5) 3. 5 x4 − x2 + 6 + C
3 2
1 3
4. ln | ln x| + C 5. (ln x)2 + C 6. (x − 2)11 + (x − 2)10 + C
11 10
1 3
7. (ln |x2 + 1|)2 + C 8. ln | sec x| + C 9. ln |x2 + 7| + C
2 2

Suggested Solutions to Activity 9.8

1 2 2x 1 2x 1 2x 1 2x 2
1. x e − xe + e + C 2. e sin x + e2x cos x + C
2 2 4 5 5
3. (x−1)ex + C 4. x tan x−ln | sec x|+C 5. x sec x−ln | sec x+tan x|+C

189
 1 6 1 1 x
6. x ln x − x6 + C 7. e (cos x + sin x) + C
6 36 2
1 2
8. −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C 9. x (ln x2 − 1) + C
2

Suggested Solutions to Activity 9.10

3(2 − ln 2) x−2 12
1. 2. 7 ln − +C 3. ln |x + 2| − ln |x + 3| + C
4 x+3 x−3
9 1 2 1
4. 6 ln |x|−ln |x+1|− +C 5. − ln |x+5|+ ln |x+2|+ ln |x−3|+C
x+1 2 5 10
3 2 1 1 3
6. ln |x| + ln |x − 5| − + C 7. − ln |x + 1| + ln |x2 − 2x + 3| + C
5 5 x 2 4

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

1 1 (x + 1)5 (x − 2)2
1. (a) ln |x2 + 4| + C
(b) ln |x| − (c) ln +C
4 2 (x + 3)7
1 1 1
(d) ] −3xe−x − 3e−x + C (e) (e4 − 1) (f) x3 ln |x| − x3 + C
2 3 9
 
1 1 3
(g) x sin 2x + cos 2x + C (h) ex+1/x + C (i) 4 + ln
2 4 7
4 1 √ 1
(j) ln |x − 1| + ln |2x + 1| + C (k) 2 tan x + C (l) e2x (2 sin x −
3 6 5
cos x) + C
x−2
(m) ln +C (n) tan(ex ) + C (o) (x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 6)ex + C
x+3

190
Unit 10

Application of Integration

10.1 Introduction
There are a number of applications of integration. In this unit, we will discuss one
such application. This is the calculation of definite integrals to find area between
a curve and the x-axis and the area between two curves. In both cases, the areas
are bounded by two vertical lines x = a and x = b.

10.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

ˆ find the area enclosed by a curve, the x-axis and the vertical lines x = a and
x = b.

ˆ find the area enclosed by two curves and the vertical lines x = a and x = b.

Key Terms
Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed
below:

ˆ areas

191
 ˆ curves

ˆ x-axis

10.3 Areas

10.3.1 The Area between a Curve and the x-axis

The area between a curve and the x-axis, for x between a and b, is found by the
following;

1. If the curve of f (x) is entirely above the x-axis, then the area is
Z b
f (x)dx 9square units).
a

2. If the curve of f (x) is entirely below the x-axis, then the area is
Z b
− f (x)dx (square units).
a

3. If parts of the curve are below the x-axis and the other parts are above the
x-axis, then the area is found by subtracting the integral for those parts of
the curve that are below and adding the integrals for those lying above.

Example 10.1.

1. Find the area bounded by y = x2 − 4, the x-axis and the lines x = −1 and
x = 2.

2. Find the area bounded by y = x2 + x + 4, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1

and x = 3.

3. Find the area between the graph of y = x2 − 1 and the x-axis for x between
0 and 2.

Solution

192
 Figure 10.1: Sketch for y = x2 − 4 in Example 10.1

1. See Figure 10.1.

Since the graph is entirely below the x-axis, the area is;
Z 2 Z 2
2
A=− (x − 4)dx = (−x2 + 4)dx
−1 −1
 3
2
x
= − + 4x
3
  −1 
8 1
= − +8 − −4
3 3
8 24 1 12
=− + − +
3 3 3 3
27
=
3
= 9 (square units).

2. See Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2: Sketch for y = x2 + x + 4 in Example 10.1

193
 The required area is entirely above the x-axis, so

3 3
x3 x2
Z 
2
A= (x + x + 4)dx = + + 4x
1 3 2 1
   
27 9 1 1
= + + 12 − + +4
3 2 3 2
   
54 27 72 2 3 24
= + + − + +
6 6 6 6 6 6
153 29
= −
6 6
62
= (square units).
3

3. See Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3: Sketch for y = x2 − 1 in Example 10.1

The graph is below the x-axis when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. It is above the x-axis when

194
 1 ≤ x ≤ 2. Hence the area is
Z 1 Z 2
2
A=− (x − 1)dx + (x2 − 1)dx
Z 10 Z 12
= (−x2 + 1)dx + (x2 − 1)dx
0 1
 3 1  3 2
x x
= − +x + −x
3 0 3
    1 
1 8 1
= − +1 + −2 − −1
3 3 3
1 3 8 6 1 3
=− + + − − +
3 3 3 3 3 3
6
=
3
= 2 (square units).

10.3.2 The Area between Curves

The area between two graphs is found by subtracting the area between the lower
graph and the x-axis from the area between the upper graph and the x-axis.

Figure 10.4: Area between curves

Therefore the area of the shaded part in Figure 10.4 is

Z b Z b
A= f (x)dx − g(x)dx
a a
Z b
= [f (x) − g(x)]dx (square units).
a

Example 10.2.

195
 1. Calculate the area of the segment cut from the curve y = x(3 − x) and the
line y = x.

2. Find the area of the region bounded above by y = x, bounded below by

y = x2 and bounded on the sides by x = 0 and x = 1.

Solution

1. Solving for x in x(3 − x) = x gives values of x at the points of intersection

of the two graphs. So

x(3 − x) = x ⇒ 3x − x2 = x ⇒ x2 − 2x = 0

giving x = 0 and x = 2. See Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: Area between y = x(3 − x) and y = x

Hence
Z 2
A= [x(3 − x) − x]dx
0
Z 2
= (−x2 + 2x)dx
0
 3 2
x 2
= − +x
3 0
8
=− +4
3
4
= (square units).
3
196
 2. We do not need to sketch the two graphs to find the stated area, since we
know that the graph of y = x is above that of y = x2 . In fact the area is
Z 1
x − x2 dx


A=
0
 2 1
x x3
= −
2 3 0
1 1
= −
2 3
3 2
= −
6 6
1
= (square units).
6

Activity 10.3.

3
1. Find the area of the region included between the parabola y = x2 and the
4
line 3x − 2y + 12 = 0.

2. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x2 + x, x-axis and the
lines x = 2 and x = 5.

3. Find the area under the curve of y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 4.

2
4. Find the area of the region bounded above by the graph of y = 15xe−x ,
bounded below by the x-axis and bounded on the sides by lines x = 0 and
x = 2.

5. Find the area of the region bounded above by y = x2 , bounded below by

y = x4 and bounded on the sides by the lines x = −1 and x = 1.

6. Find the area of the region enclosed by y = x2 and y = 2x − x2 .

Unit Summary
In this unit, you have learnt how to find areas by calculating definite integrals.
These are areas between curves and areas between given curves and the x-axis.

Activity 10.4 (Unit Test).

197
 1. Find the area of the region
√ that lies between the x-axis and the graph of
y = x sin x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
2
2. Find the area of the region that lies between the graphs of y = x and y = xex
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

3. Find the area of the region bounded above by y = sec2 x, bounded below by
π
y = sin x and bounded on the sides by x = 0 and x = .
4
4. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2 − x2 and the line
y = −x.

5. Find the area enclosed by the graphs of f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = 2x + 4.

6. Find the area of the curve y = sin x between x = 0 and x = π.

Unit Answers
Suggested Solutions to Activity 10.3

297 64
1. 27 sq units 2. sq units 3. sq units 4. 7.36 sq units
6 3
4 1
5. sq units 6. sq units.
15 3

Suggested Solutions to Unit Test

√
1 2
1. 1 sq units 2. (e − 2) sq units 3. sq units
2 2
9 32
4. sq units 5. sq units 6. 2 sq units
2 3

198
Bibliography

[1] J. Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals (7th ed.) USA: Brooks/Cole,

2008.

[2] E. Swokowski, Calculus with Analytic Geometry (9th Ed.), PWS publishers,
1983.

[3] J. F. Talbert and H. H. Heng, Additional Mathematics: Pure and Applied,

South Asia: Pearson Education, 1990.

199