Term 1: Weeks 1-7

 1. Define psychology as the scientific investigation of the

effect of mental processes (thinking, remembering and
feeling) and behaviour.

The scientific investigation of the effect of mental processes

(thinking, remembering and feeling) and behaviour.

 2. State some of the approaches to psychology include

behavioural, biological, cognitive, socio-cultural, and
evolutionary. Recognise key ideas behind these.

Definition Key ideas

Focuses on observable behaviours

Behaviour Reinforcement,
and how they are learned through
al punishment
conditioning

Examines how biological factors Genetics, brain

Biological influence behaviour and mental structures,
processes neurotransmitters

Studies how people think, learn, Perception, problem-

Cognitive remember and process solving, decision-
information. making

Emphasises the impact of social

Socio-
interactions, culture and
cultural
environment on behaviour

Explains behaviour through

natural selection and adaptation,
Evolutiona
suggesting that psychological
ry
traits have evolved for survival
and reproduction.

 2. State some of the approaches to psychology include

behavioural, biological, cognitive, socio-cultural, and
evolutionary. Recognise key ideas behind these.

Definition Key ideas

Behaviour Focuses on observable behaviours Reinforcement,

al and how they are learned through punishment
 Definition Key ideas

conditioning

Examines how biological factors Genetics, brain

Biological influence behaviour and mental structures,
processes neurotransmitters

Studies how people think, learn, Perception, problem-

Cognitive remember and process solving, decision-
information. making

Emphasises the impact of social

Socio-
interactions, culture and
cultural
environment on behaviour

Explains behaviour through

natural selection and adaptation,
Evolutiona
suggesting that psychological
ry
traits have evolved for survival
and reproduction.

 3. Outline scientific method stages: identify research area,

formulate hypothesis, design research method, collect and
analyse data, draw conclusion (accept/reject hypothesis)
and report findings.

1. Identify research area

2. Formulate hypothesis

3. Design research method

4. Collect and analyse data

5. Draw conclusion

6. Report findings

 4. Write a full detailed hypothesis for psychological

research.

Parts of a full detailed hypothesis:

 Sample
 Independent and dependent variables
 Time period
 5. Identify and describe independent, dependent and
controlled variables in research designs. Recognise
problems of uncontrolled variables.

Independent variables: A variable who is not dependent on

another.

Dependent variables: A variable whose value depends on that of

another.

Controlled variables: Any factor that is held constant or kept the

same throughout the experiment to ensure that any observed
changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent
variable and not other factors.

Uncontrolled variables can lead to inaccurate and misleading

research results by masking the true effects of the independent
variable or making it seem like there is a relationship when there
isn't.

 6. Define, understand and apply the concept of reliability to

research, including sample size.

Reliability in Research:

Reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of research

results. A study is considered reliable if it produces the same results
when repeated under similar conditions. There are different types of
reliability, including:

Sample Size & Reliability:

A larger sample size generally increases reliability by reducing

random errors and making results more representative of the
population. However, reliability also depends on proper sampling
methods and research design.

 7. Write and explain conclusions to research based on data.

Conclusion structure:

1. Hypothesis supported
2. General statement
3. Data to support
 8. Outline Kahneman’s two systems of thinking: thinking
fast and thinking slow.

System 1 - Thinking fast:

o instinctive

o little/no effort

o emotional

o automatic

o quick

o no sense of voluntary control

System 2 - Thinking slow:

o complex decisions

o conscious

o effortful

o more deliberative

o more logical

o slower

 9. Give advantages and examples of each of System 1 and

System 2 thinking, including understanding results of the
Cognitive Reflection test and disfluent font study.

System 1 System 2

Avoiding danger, Solving complex problems,

Walking/running, allow us to speaking in another language,
+think and react quickly which is writing a story, allows us to
important in dangerous or thoroughly think through
stressful situations problems for the best solution

System 1 takes care of the routine and things that you need to react
to, while system two allows you to think things through carefully and
create solutions. They complement each other.

Cognitive reflection test:

 Our brain automatically reacts to the question (that seems basic)
with your system 1 brain, but later, if thought through carefully, you
use your system two brain to solve for the correct answer.

Disfluent font study:

In the experiment, they were testing whether disfluency might

signal to people that the question demanded more mental effort.
Half answered the questions with a fluent font and the other had a
smaller, grey, italicized text. On average 2.45 of the three questions
were answered correctly of the disfluent group while only 1.9
answered correctly in the fluent group. This is explained that when
the text is harder to read, the system 1 is activated and allows
people to more thoroughly think about the correct solutions rather
than react automatically.

 10. Understand the explanation of

psychological adaptations in terms of ancestral problems as
an evolutionary perspective, eg. we see symmetry as beauty
as it signals health and good genes.

Pattern recognition:

Fractal patterns were used in the past to determine safety. They

were used to see if water was safe, looking for the existence of
waves or clouds coming in for a storm. Storms and waves both
demonstrate fractal patterns.

Symmetry was used to determine the safety of eating food as well.

An ear of corn that is drooping and asymmetrical is likely not safe to
eat and is either sick or damaged. In addition, people who had
symmetrical were often healthy and were good partners to mate
with.

 11. Describe face blindness (prosopagnosia).

An inability to carry out the complex processing of facial recognition,

which occurs in specific brain areas. Key area is fusiform face area
(FFA) in the temporal lobe, along with the occipital face area (OFA)
and others.
 12. Define and apply Theory of Mind (ToM)as the cognitive
representations underlying our ability to attribute mental
states to ourselves and others and understand that others
have a perspective different to our own.

The cognitive representations underlying our ability to attribute

mental states to ourselves and others and understand that others
have a perspective different to our own.

 13. Explain examples of ToM such as Smarties and Sally Ann

tasks used with children.

Smarties Task:

A child is shown a box labelled ‘smarties’, and the box is opened to

reveal that it is full of pencils. Another child/adult enters the room
and the child is asked what the new person expects to be in the box.

Sally-Anne Task:

A child is told that Sally and Anne are in a room together and Sally
has a ball. Sally puts the ball in her basket and covers it with a
blanket before leaving the room. While she is gone, Anne puts the
ball in a box and closes it. The child is then asked “when sally enters
the room later, where will she look for the ball first?”.

 14. Define and describe the Computational Theory of Mind

(CTM) as the idea that our brains work a bit like computers.
The way we think, learn, and solve problems involves
processing information in steps, much like a computer
following a program.

The idea that our brains work a bit like computers. The way we
think, learn, and solve problems involves processing information in
steps, much like a computer following a program.

 15. Define thinking in CTM as the manipulation of symbols or

mental representations, following steps called algorithms.

The manipulation of symbols or mental representations, following

steps called algorithms.
 16. Name and simply describe the 5 components of ‘'old
fashioned'' computation

1. Goal state

2. Working memory

3. Long term memory

4. Algorithm

5. Pattern matching

 17. Apply the idea of algorithms and neural networks to

describe how AI simulates thinking by applying step-by-step
rules to information processing and decision making.

AI doesn’t “think” like a human, but it simulates thinking by:

 Using algorithms to follow rules step-by-step.

 Using neural networks to learn from examples and improve
decision-making.

Together, they let AI process information, learn from data, and make
choices — which feels a lot like thinking.

 18. Describe neural networks (simple neural nets) as having

input, hidden layers, output, weights, and threshold (neuron
influence) in order to function.

Neural networks (simple neural nets) have input, hidden layers,

output, weights, and threshold (neuron influence) in order to
function.

 19. Compare and contrast sensation and perception, in

terms of the visual system

Sensation: The filtering of stimulus to select important features for

future processing.

Cornea → Pupil→Iris→Retina→Rods and Cones→Occipital lobe→Visual

cortex→Other areas for further processing

o Physical process of our sensory organs

 Perception: Organizing and interpreting what the sense organs
take in.

Feature detector cells (occipital lobe/visual cortex)→ Temporal lobe

& Parietal lobe (simultaneously)←memory

o Psychological process of experiencing sensations

 20. Outline the 6 steps of visual perception: SENSATION

(Reception, Transduction and transmission) and PERCEPTION
(Selection, organisation and Interpretation)

1. Reception -

1. Light rays (Electromagnetic radiation or visible light)

enter the eye through the cornea and enter the pupil

2. The iris (ring of muscles) expands/contracts to control

the amount of light passing through the pupil

3. Light passes through the lens which focuses the light

onto the retina where the light sensitive cells
(photoreceptors: rods and cones) are located.

4. The lens adjusts it shape (ciliary muscles) to focus on

the object being viewed depending on distance

 Bulges for nearby objects

 Flattens for distant objects

2. Transduction -

 Rods and cones detect light and change light energy

into electrochemical energy (nerve impulses)

3. Transmission -

1. Rods and cones send the nerve impulses to the optic

nerve and through that to the visual cortex in the
occipital lobe.

2. Specialised receptor cells respond and interpret this

information.

3. The visual cortex receives and processes visual

information.

4. Sends the information for extra processing in other

areas of the brain.
 4. Selection -

1. Feature detector cells break up the image and pay

attention to certain parts.

 Found in the optic nerve and in the visual cortex

2. They individually respond to lines of a certain

length/angle/direction

5. Organisation -

1. Make a mental image using perceptual constancies,

Gestalt principles and depth clues.

2. Information travels along the Temporal lobe (Identify

object) and Parietal lobe (judge space) simultaneously.

6. Interpretation -

1. Temporal lobe identifies what the object is by comparing

incoming information with information already stored
within memory.

 Memory, motivation, past experience, emotional

state and context may affect the way in which we
interpret sensations.

 21. Define and explain perceptual set.

A perceptual set is your memory, motivation, past experience,

emotional state and context that affect the way in which we
interpret sensations.

For example, a person may be familiar with a computer and

understand what it is and how to use it and recognises it when they
see it. However, a person who is not familiar with a computer may
be confused or simply think it is a black box.

 22. Describe FOUR key Gestalt principles: figure-ground

organisation, closure, similarity, proximity, and describe
how this are used to perceive a meaningful whole.

Gestalt
Definition
principles

Figure-ground When we look at a scene we separate some of the

organisation objects to that some are the focus and some are
 Gestalt
Definition
principles

the background.

Our minds close objects that are not necessarily

Closure
together or complete in order to create a whole.

We place objects with similar characteristics in a

Similarity
group.

We group together objects that are close to each

Proximity
other.

 23. Describe key depth cues humans use to perceive in 3D:

linear perspective, overlapping, relative size and height in
visual field; retinal (binocular) disparity and convergence.

Depth cues: Provide information to help us perceive depth or

distance so that we can locate objects and perceive how far away
they are.

Depth Cues Definition

Linear The apparent convergence of parallel lines creates

Perspective the impression of increasing distance.

One object partially blocking another object so it

Overlapping seems in front of, and therefore closer than, the
object it covers

Given two similar objects in the one image, the

Relative size
smaller image is perceived as further away

Height in visual Objects higher up in the visual field are perceived

field as further away.

Retinal The slight difference in the images captured by our

(binocular) two eyes, which our brain uses to perceive depth
disparity and 3D space.

The inward movement of our eyes as we focus on

Convergence objects closer to us, providing the brain with
information about distance.
 24. Apply Gestalt principles and depth cues to explain visual
perception and illusions.

Visual perception is guided by Gestalt principles and depth cues,

which help us interpret images and illusions.

o Gestalt principles explain how we group elements:

 Figure-Ground (distinguishing objects from the

background)

 Proximity & Similarity (grouping based on closeness

and resemblance)

 Continuity & Closure (seeing smooth patterns and

completing missing parts)

 Common Fate (grouping moving objects together)

o Depth cues create 3D perception:

 Monocular cues (size, shading, linear perspective,

motion)

 Binocular cues (retinal disparity and eye convergence)

o Optical illusions occur when these principles mislead us, like

the Müller-Lyer or Ponzo illusions, where depth cues distort
our perception.

 25. Explain common illusions: Ponzo, Muller-Lyer and Ames

Room, including the effects of culture and experience.

Ponzo:

Where two lines of equal length appear to be different in length due

to the context of converging lines. This makes the upper line seem
longer as objects get small further into the distance, and the
converging lines suggest this. (size constancy) Pygmies living in
dense rainforests, when taken to an open plain to see a herd of
buffalo, were unable to identify such ‘strange insects’ on the horizon
and lack such size constancy so would likely see them as the same
length.

Muller-Lyer:

There are two lines, one framed by closed fins and the other by
open ones. It is assumed the line framed by open fins is longer. This
is often explained by the ‘carpentered world’ theory where corners
 are so frequently encountered that they are readily learnt depth
cues.

Ames Room:

A distorted room designed to trick the brain into thinking one person
is growing when walking from one side to the other or one person is
much larger than the other. People expect the room to be
rectangular, as this is what they are used to, so readily accept the
warped room to be rectangular/normal.

Term 1: Weeks 8-10

 State three types of leadership, according to Lewin Lippit

and White (1939)

o Democratic

o Authoritarian

o Laissez-faire

 Describe and give examples of the leadership types above

o Democratic: tasks were negotiated fairly by the leader and all

opinions were heard

 This led to slightly less efficiency when discussing ideas,

but possibly doing things in the best way and team
connection allowing greater effectiveness

o Authoritarian: the leader made all the decisions and controlled

behaviour

 This led to more efficiency, but great dislike of the

leader and possibly doing things in an
inefficient/incorrect way

o Laissez-faire: the leader took no part in the proceedings

 This led to less efficiency but great liking of the

leadership

 Define social identity.

A person’s sense of who they are based on their group memberships

(like nationality, gender, team, religion etc)

 Describe how social groups contribute to our sense of self-

esteem. (Social Identity Theory)
 Social groups:

o Categorise themselves into groups (e.g., “I’m Australian”).

o Identify with those groups, boosting their self-worth.

o Compare their group with others, favouring their own (“in-

group”) over others (“out-groups”) to maintain pride and self-
esteem.

 Define ‘in-group’ and ‘out-groups’

o In-group: The group you belong to and identify with.

Example: Your school sports team.

o Out-group: Groups you don’t belong to.

Example: A rival school’s sports team.

 Social Identity Theory experiments (Tajfel), and Social

Identity Theory of Leadership (Hogg)

Tajfel:

 We define ourselves by the groups we belong to (e.g., school,

team).
 This leads to ingroup favouritism and outgroup
discrimination.

Hogg:

 People prefer leaders who represent their group’s values

and identity.
 A strong leader is seen as a “typical” group member.
 Leadership success depends on fitting in with the group,
not just personal traits.

 Define obedience and give examples

Change of behaviour due to command by an authority figure.

eg: A teacher who has authority over a student can tell them to do
their homework
 eg: A soldier obeying a commanding officer, even if it goes against
personal beliefs.

 Describe the method and findings of Milgram’s Obedience

study

Method

40 male volunteers aged 20 to 50 years of varying levels of wealth

and employment. They were paid $4.50 USD (About $50 USD today)
every hour.

Two participants entered a room and drew a piece of paper,

determining ‘randomly’ who would be the learner and teacher
though the results were fixed and the other participant who received
the ‘learner’ role was actually an actor.

The teacher was shown that the shocks were ‘real’ and hurt quite a
bit by giving them a genuine 45 volt shock. They were then
separated. The ‘teacher’ sat at a control panel with 30 switches and
several imposing dials and lights. The switches were labelled from
15 to 450 volts in 15 volt increments. The ‘learner’ sat in another
room, within earshot of the teacher, and was strapped into a chair
with electrodes strapped to his wrists. The "teacher" would read a
list of word pairs to the ‘learner,’ who would then have to recall the
second word from each pair. For each incorrect answer, the ‘teacher’
would be instructed to administer a shock, with the voltage
increasing with each incorrect answer.

Findings

o All 40 participants obeyed up to the 300-volt level

o 65% of participants gave the maximum 450-volt shock.

o People obeyed authority even when it conflicted with

their morals.

Conclusion

From this initial experiment, and the many variations he performed,

Milgram concluded that people are very likely to perform actions
contrary to their beliefs and wishes if they are instructed to do so by
an authority figure
 Define deindividuation and give examples.

Deindividuation is when people lose their sense of identity and

personal responsibility in a group or crowd, which could potentially
lead to behaviours that they normally wouldn’t engage in.

 Describe the method and findings of Zimbardo’s Stanford

Prison Experiment

Method: Twenty-four male college students were randomly

assigned to be either “prisoners” or “guards” in a simulated prison
environment set up in the basement of the Stanford psychology
building.

There were the guards (high status) and the prisoners (low status).
The guards were given military style uniforms and reflective
sunglasses while the prisoners wore stockings, chains around ankles
and a prison number to increase immersion into their roles and
‘deindividuation’.

The guards were instruction to impose their will on prisoners, to

blindfold prisoners when they needed to leave the prison (increase
immersion into the experiment) and to touch prisoners with their
batons if necessary, but not hit them. Prisoners were instructed to
obey all instructions, ask permission to do anything and refer to
themselves by their prison number.

Results: Men assigned as guards began behaving sadistically,

inflicting humiliation and suffering on the prisoners. Prisoners
became blindly obedient and allowed themselves to be
dehumanized. The experiment had to be terminated after only 6
days due to the extreme, pathological behaviour emerging in both
groups.

The first day was fine, but the second day the prisoners protested
and rebelled. The guards stopped the rebellion by using fire
extinguishers on them. They then entered each cell and stripped all
the prisoners of their clothes and beds and forced the leaders into
solitary confinement. There was a ‘good cell’ where all the people
that didn’t rebel were put into. They were later replaced by people
who actually rebelled to sow distrust by making them suspect them
to be informants.

Conclusion: The experiment demonstrated the power of situations

to alter human behaviour dramatically. Even good, normal people
 can do evil things when situational forces push them in that
direction.

Ethics:

o Emotional turmoil and physical harm

o Paranoid view of people/trauma

 State and explain ethical concerns raised by Milgram’s and

Zimbardo’s experiments

MILGRAMS EXPERIMENT:

o Deception: Participants were misled about the true

purpose of the experiment and believed they were
causing real pain.

o Emotional distress: Many showed visible signs of

stress, anxiety, and guilt during the study.

o Lack of informed consent: Because of the deception,

participants couldn’t fully agree to what they were
actually doing.

o Right to withdraw: Some participants felt pressured to

continue, even when they wanted to stop.

ZIMBARDO’s EXPERIMENT:

o Psychological harm: Participants experienced trauma,

humiliation, and extreme stress.

o Loss of identity: Some prisoners forgot it was just an

experiment and felt trapped.

o Lack of intervention: The study went on for six days

before Zimbardo stopped it, even though abuse was
happening.

o Informed consent and withdrawal: While

participants consented at the start, they weren't
prepared for how intense the situation would become,
and some weren’t sure if they were allowed to leave.
  Explain the contribution of Milgram’s and Zimbardo’s
experiments to our understanding of group effects on
individual behaviour.

Milgram showed that individuals are likely to obey authority figures

even when it involves harming another person, aka obedience to
authority.

Term 2: Weeks 1-5

 Recognise and state the 7 steps of scientific research

1. Identify the research problem – What are you trying to find

out?

2. Formulate a hypothesis – Make a prediction ("If... then...")

3. Design the method – Plan how you’ll test it (participants,

tools, etc.)

4. Collect the data – Do the experiment or survey

5. Analyse the data – Look for patterns or results

6. Interpret the results – Do they support your hypothesis?

7. Report the findings – Share what you found (e.g., in a report

or journal)

 Identify independent and dependent variables

IV - the thing that you change

DV - what you measure (the outcome)

“The IV changes the DV”

 Distinguish between population and sample

A good sample is representative of the population; usually large and

randomly chosen and representative of the population

A population is all the people that you could study in a study, but a
samplet is a representative amount of a population.
 Distinguish between random sampling and random
allocation to groups (the latter also called Assignment)

Random sampling - how you pick people to be in the study

Random allocation - how you assign people to groups

 Name and outline the 6 principles of ethics for participant in

research: VP, IC, WR, C, D, D

o Voluntary Participation (VP) – People join the study freely

o Informed Consent (IC) – They understand what’s involved

and agree

o Withdrawal Rights (WR) – They can leave at any time

o Confidentiality (C) – Their data stays private

o Deception (D) – Only allowed if it’s necessary and explained

after

o Debriefing (D) – They’re told everything after the study ends

 Recognise and explain the importance of the 4 values for

research in the NHMRC's National Statement on Ethical
Conduct in Human Research (2007):

1. Research merit and integrity (appropriate and worthwhile)

2. Justice – fair processes, no exploitation, access to research

benefits

3. Beneficence and minimising harm or risk to participants

4. Respect for human wellbeing – respecting rights of

participants and care for their well being

 Outline and apply the 3 determinants of liking: proximity,

reciprocity and similarity

1. proximity - being physically close

2. reciprocity - liking must be reciprocated

3. similarity - shared interests, values, backgrounds

 Importance of peer group in socialisation

o helps teens learn norms, values, how to interact socially

o influences identity, self-esteem, behaviour choices

o strong during adolescence because peers matter more than

parents sometimes

 Reinforcement theory

o We repeat behaviours that get rewarded

o In relationships: if someone is kind, funny, caring = positive

reinforcement = we like them more

 Social Exchange Theory

o Relationships are like deals: we weigh costs vs benefits

o We stay in relationships if rewards > costs

 Investment Model of Relationships

People stay in a relationship based on:

1. Satisfaction

2. Quality of alternatives (Are there better options?)

3. Investment (Time, emotions, money put in)

 Theory of Passionate Love

o Intense emotions, attraction, obsession

o Often early-stage love (high arousal, idealisation)

o Can be short-lived or evolve into deeper love

 Peer group relationships in adolescence

Dyads – 2 people
 Clique – 4-6/7-8 people form a close group

Crowds – loose groups of people

5 stages of Dunphy's theory:

1. Same sex cliques

2. Unisex and same sex cliques form crowds

3. Hierachy forms

4. Fully formed crowds with dating

5. Crowd disintegration

 Love vs arranged marriage - cultural differences

o Love Marriage:

 Based on personal choice

 Common in Western cultures

 Focus: Romantic love, compatibility

o Arranged Marriage:

 Families help choose partner

 Common in many Eastern cultures

 Focus: Family values, long-term compatibility

 Still can have love—just develops after marriage

re