EEM2203

Lecture – 9 Date: 24.04.2025

• Electromagnetic Fields
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Electromagnetic Fields

• Stationary Charges → Electrostatic Fields

• Steady Currents → Magnetostatic Fields
• Time Varying Currents → Electromagnetic Fields (or Waves)

• Any pulsating current will produce radiation (time-varying fields)

cause of radiated emission

in digital logic boards
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Faraday’s Law
• Say instead of a static magnetic flux density, we consider a time-varying 𝐵
field (i.e., 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)).
• Recall that one of Maxwell’s equations is:
B( x, y, z , t )
  E ( x, y , z )  
t

Yikes! The curl of the electric field is therefore not zero if

the magnetic flux density is time-varying!

If the magnetic flux density is changing with time, the electric field
will not be conservative!
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Faraday’s Law (contd.) B( x, y, z , t )

  E ( x, y , z )  
Q: What the heck does this equation mean ?!? t
A: Integrate both sides over some surface S:
Stoke’s
 Theorem
   E ( x, y, z ).ds  
S

t S
B( x, y, z , t ).ds

 E ( x, y, z ).dl  
L

t S
B( x, y, z , t ).ds

Note that 𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 . 𝑑𝑙 ≠ 0
This equation is called Faraday’s
Law of Induction.
Q: Again, what does this mean?
A: It means that a time varying magnetic flux density 𝐵(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) can
induce an electric field (and thus an electric potential difference)!
Faraday’s Law describes the behavior of devices such as
generators, inductors, and transformers !
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Faraday’s Law (contd.)
• Farday discovered that an induced potential difference (or electromotive
force, emf) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux linkage by the circuit.
d d d
Vemf    N   N  [Link]
dt dt dt S

Derivative is a total time derivative and operates on the magnetic

field 𝐵 as well as the differential surface area 𝑑𝑠.

• It is apparent that an 𝑒𝑚𝑓 can be generated in a closed loop under any

of the three conditions
• A time varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop; the induced
𝑒𝑚𝑓 is then called the 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
• A moving loop with a time-varying surface area in a static field; the
induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is then called 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
• A moving loop in a time-varying field 𝐵.
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Faraday’s Law (contd.)
• The total 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is then given by: Vemf  Vemf
tr
 Vemf
m

• For stationary loop: m

Vemf 0 • For static 𝐵:
tr
Vemf 0

d d d
Vemf    N   N  [Link]
dt dt dt S

The negative sign in this expression shows that the induced

voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it.
This is known as Lenz’s Law.

It emphasizes that the direction of current flow in the circuit is such

that the induced magnetic field produced by the induced current will
oppose the change in the original magnetic field.
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 𝐵(𝑡)

• Let us consider a stationary, single-
turn, conducting, circular loop with
contour C and surface area S placed in
a time-varying magnetic field 𝐵 𝑡 .
• As stated, 𝑒𝑚𝑓 will be induced in this
loop and its given by:
B
tr
Vemf   .ds
S
t 𝐵(𝑡)

• The 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is the voltage

difference that would appear across
the small opening between terminals 1
and 2, even in the absence of the
resistor 𝑅.
B 𝑉12 is the open-circuit voltage across
V  
tr
.ds
t
emf
S
the open ends of the loop
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 (contd.)

• The direction of 𝑑𝑠, the loops 𝐵(𝑡)

differential surface normal, can be
chosen either upward or downward.
• These two choices are associated
with the opposite designations of
the polarities of terminals 1 and 2.
• The choice of direction of 𝑑𝑠 and
the polarity of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is governed by
right hand rule: If 𝑑𝑠 points along
the thumb of the right hand, then
B
the directions of the contour C tr
Vemf  V12    .ds
indicated by the four fingers is such S
t
that it always passes across the
opening from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal.
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 (contd.)

• If the loop has an internal resistance 𝑅𝑖 , the

circuit can be represented equivalently as:
• Therefore the current 𝐼 flowing through the
circuit is: tr
Vemf
I
R  Ri
• The polarity of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 and hence the direction of 𝐼 is governed by Lenz’s
law, which states that the current in the loop is always in a direction that
opposes the change of magnetic flux ψ(𝑡) that produced 𝐼.
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 (contd.)

• The current 𝐼 induces a magnetic field
𝐵(𝑡)
of its own, 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 , with a corresponding
flux ψ𝑖𝑛𝑑 .
• The direction of 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 is governed by 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑
right hand rule: If 𝐼 is in a clockwise
direction, then 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 points downward
through S.
• Conversely, if 𝐼 is in counter clockwise
direction, then 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 points upwards
through S.
𝑑ψ
• If the original 𝑩(𝐭) is increasing, means > 0, then according to Lenz’s
𝑑𝑡
law, 𝐼 has to be in the direction shown in order for 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 to be in
opposition to 𝐵(t).
• As a consequence, terminal 2 would be at higher potential and 𝑒𝑚𝑓
would have a negative value.
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 (contd.)

• However, if 𝐵(t) were to remain in the same direction but decrease in

𝑑ψ
magnitude, means < 0, then the current would have to reverse
𝑑𝑡
direction, and its induced field 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 would be in the same direction as
𝐵(t) so as to oppose the change (decrease) in 𝐵(t).

It is important to remember that 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 serves to oppose

the change in 𝐵(t), and not necessarily 𝐵(t) itself.
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying 𝑩 (contd.)

Summary: B 𝐵(𝑡)
V tr
   .ds
t
emf
S

𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑
tr
Vemf   [Link]
C

Its assumed that the

contour C is closed path
↔ Approximation

B B  B(t )
 [Link]   
C S
t
.ds  (  E ).ds   
S S
t
.ds  E  
t

The time varying magnetic field induces an electric field 𝐸 whose curl is
equal to the negative of the time derivative of 𝐵.
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Example – 6
Determine voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 across 2Ω
and 4Ω resistors shown in the figure. The
loop is located in 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, its area is
4𝑚2 , the magnetic flux density is
𝐵 = −𝑎𝑧 0.3𝑡 (T), and the internal
resistance of the wire may be ignored.
• The flux flowing through the loop is:

   [Link]    0.3taˆ z . dsaˆ z    0.3t  4  1.2t Wb

S S

d d d
• The corresponding transformer emf is: Vemf
tr
 N  (1)   1.2V
dt dt dt

Given: the magnetic flux through the loop is along the −𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(into the page) and increases in magnitude with time 𝑡.
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Example – 6 (contd.)
• According to Lenz’s law, the induced
current should be in a direction such
that the magnetic flux density it
induces (𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 ) counteracts the
direction of change of ψ.
• Therefore 𝐼 must be in the direction as
shown to get 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑 in +𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
• The total voltage of 1.2𝑉 is distributed across two resistors in series.
tr
Vemf 1.2
• As a consequence: I   0.2 A
R1  R2 24

• Therefore: V1  0.2  2  0.4V V2  0.2  4  0.8V

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Moving Conductor in a Static 𝑩

𝐵

• Let us consider a wire of

length 𝑙 moving across a static 𝐸𝑚
𝑢
magnetic field 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑧 𝐵0 with
constant velocity 𝑢. The 𝑢
conducting wire contains free
electrons.

• The magnetic force 𝐹𝑚 acting on a particle with charge

𝑞 moving with velocity 𝑢 in a magnetic field 𝐵 is: 
Fm  q u B 
• This magnetic force is equivalent to the electrical force
Fm
that would be exerted on the particle by the electric Em  uB
q
field 𝐸𝑚 given by:
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Moving Conductor in a Static 𝑩 (contd.)

• The field 𝐸𝑚 generated by the
motion of the charged particle is 𝐵
called motional electric field and
is orthogonal to both 𝑢 and 𝐵. 𝑢
𝐸𝑚
• For our example, 𝐸𝑚 is along
−𝑎𝑦 . 𝑢
• The magnetic force acting on the
negatively charged electrons
causes them to drift in the
direction of −𝐸𝑚 ; i.e., toward the
wire end label 1.
• The movement of electrons induces a voltage between ends 1 and 2.
• The induced voltage is called 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓.

 
1 1

• 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is defined as:

m
Vemf  V12   E m .dl   u  B .dl
2 2
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Moving Conductor in a Static 𝑩 (contd.)

• For the conducting wire:

u  B  uaˆ x  aˆ z B0  aˆ yuB0 dl  aˆ y dl

• Therefore: Vemf  V12  uB0l

m

• In general, if any segment of a closed circuit with contour C moves with a

velocity 𝑢 across a static magnetic field 𝐵, then the induced
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is:
Only those segments of the circuit that
   u  B .dl
m
V emf cross magnetic field lines contribute to
C
𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
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Example – 7

• The wire shown in the figure 𝐵 𝐵

carries a current 𝐼 = 10𝐴. A
30-cm long metal rod moves 𝜌 𝑢
with a constant velocity
𝑢 = 5𝑎𝑧 m/s. Find 𝑉12 .

• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑:

0 I
B aˆ Where, ρ is the radial distance
2
from the wire and 𝑎ϕ is into the
page at the rod side.
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Example – 7 (contd.)

• The movement of the rod in the presence of the field 𝐵 induces a

𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 given by:

  u  B .dl
10 cm
m
Vemf  V12 
40 cm

10 cm
 0 I 
V12    z 2 aˆ  . aˆ  d  
5aˆ 
40 cm  

V12  13.9( V )