Literary Theory Overview
Practical and New Criticism (pp. 4-27)
Overview
Practical Criticism and New Criticism emphasize a close, text-centered
approach to literary analysis, rejecting the influence of external factors such as
the author's biography or historical context. These movements were
foundational in transforming literary studies into a rigorous academic discipline
in the early to mid-20th century.
Key Theorists and Ideas
1. Matthew Arnold (1822-1888):
Arnold viewed literature, especially poetry, as a remedy for the moral and
spiritual crises of the industrialized world. He believed literature could interpret
life and provide guidance in a secular age, serving as a substitute for religion.
2. I.A. Richards (1893-1979):
- Introduced Practical Criticism through experiments where students
interpreted poems stripped of all context (e.g., title, author, publication date).
- Argued for "close reading," where every textual detail is scrutinized to
understand its contribution to the poem's unity and complexity.
- Saw poetry as a stabilizing force against societal fragmentation.
3. T.S. Eliot (1888-1965):
- Advocated for an impersonal approach to poetry in essays like Tradition and
the Individual Talent (1919).
- Proposed the concept of the "objective correlative," where poets use external
objects or events to evoke emotions in readers.
- Criticized overly autobiographical or sentimental poetry, favoring irony, wit,
and intellectual depth.
4. F.R. Leavis (1895-1978):
- Focused on moral and cultural aspects of literature.
- Emphasized the importance of great literature that reveals "authentic life" and
embodies moral seriousness.
- Highlighted the novel's ability to offer "representative experience" for readers
to judge their own lives and society.
Major Concepts
- Close Reading: A meticulous focus on the text itself, considering elements
like structure, imagery, and symbolism to uncover its meaning.
- Textual Autonomy: The idea that a work of literature should be analyzed
independently of external influences like authorial intent or audience reception.
- Criticism as Cultural Custodianship: Critics were seen as gatekeepers who
could guide society by identifying works of "the best that has been thought and
said."
Formalism and Early Structuralism (pp. 28-43)
Overview
Formalism and Early Structuralism sought to understand literature as an
autonomous system of linguistic and structural elements. These approaches
emphasized form, function, and internal mechanics over historical,
biographical, or moral considerations.
Key Theorists and Ideas
1. Russian Formalism (1910s-1930s):
- Viktor Shklovsky:
Introduced defamiliarization (ostranenie), arguing that art's purpose is to make
the familiar seem strange, thereby renewing perception.
- Roman Jakobson:
Distinguished between the poetic function of language (focused on the
message's form) and other communicative functions.
- Formalists treated literature as a set of devices, such as narrative structures,
sound patterns, and rhetorical techniques.
2. Saussurean Linguistics (1857-1913):
- Ferdinand de Saussure's theories on language provided the foundation for
structuralism:
- Language is a system of signs, where each sign consists of a signifier
(sound/image) and a signified (concept).
- Meaning arises from the differences between signs, not inherent qualities.
3. Early Structuralism (1940s-1960s):
- Applied Saussure's ideas to literature and culture, viewing narratives as
governed by underlying systems and structures.
- Identified recurring patterns, such as binary oppositions, that organize
meaning.
Major Concepts
- Literary Autonomy: The text is a self-contained system of linguistic devices
that create meaning.
- Defamiliarization: The process by which literature challenges habitual
perceptions, offering a fresh perspective.
- Structural Analysis: The study of underlying structures that shape narratives
and cultural myths.
French Structuralism (pp. 44-64)
Overview
French Structuralism expanded on early structuralist principles, applying them
to culture, literature, and human behavior. It emphasized the study of
relationships between elements within systems.
Key Theorists and Ideas
1. Claude Lévi-Strauss:
- Studied myths as universal structures, arguing that myths reflect the shared
mental frameworks of societies.
- Identified recurring patterns, such as binary oppositions (e.g., life/death,
nature/culture), that underlie all narratives.
2. Roland Barthes:
- Viewed texts as "woven" systems of signs, with no single, fixed meaning.
- Distinguished between readerly texts (straightforward and passive) and
writerly texts (open to interpretation and active engagement).
- Later works, like S/Z (1970), challenged traditional notions of authorship,
advocating for the "death of the author."
3. Gérard Genette:
- Focused on narratology, the study of narrative structures, identifying
elements like time, perspective, and voice.
- Proposed five key aspects of narrative discourse: order, duration, frequency,
mood, and voice.
Major Concepts
- Binary Oppositions: Fundamental contrasts that organize cultural systems
(e.g., good/evil, male/female).
- The Death of the Author: Emphasizes the reader's role in creating meaning,
rather than the author's intentions.
- Intertextuality: The idea that texts derive meaning from their relationship to
other texts.
Class, Gender, and Race in the 1970s and 1980s (pp. 65-95)
Overview
This section examines how literature reflects and reinforces societal
hierarchies based on class, gender, and race. Theories from Marxism,
feminism, and postcolonial studies reshaped literary criticism by foregrounding
power dynamics.
Key Frameworks
1. Marxist Criticism:
- Analyzes literature in terms of economic systems and class struggles.
- Focuses on how texts perpetuate or challenge ideologies of capitalism and
class exploitation.
2. Feminist Criticism:
- Examines gender representation in literature, highlighting how texts reinforce
or subvert patriarchal norms.
- Key theorists include Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millett, and Judith Butler.
3. Postcolonial Criticism:
- Explores how literature represents colonized cultures and the legacy of
imperialism.
- Theorists like Edward Said and Homi Bhabha examine how texts construct the
"Other" and resist colonial power structures.
Major Themes
- Intersectionality: Literature often intersects with issues of class, gender, and
race, revealing how these categories reinforce one another.
- Subversion and Resistance: Many texts challenge dominant ideologies,
offering alternative perspectives.
- Representation: Critics analyze whose voices are included or excluded in
literary works, questioning the role of canon formation.
