SOIL SCIENCE MODULE

INTRODUCTION
This module unit is intended to impart knowledge and skills to the trainee in handling
soils for maximizing and sustaining high yield in agricultural production.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to-

(a) Understand the general principles involved in soil physical and chemical
reactions.
(b) Apply the knowledge gained on the proper methods of fertilizer use and
applications.
(c) Analyse soil sample and give the correct interpretation of the results.

COURSE UNIT SUMMARY AND TIME

ALLOCATIONS THEORY 41 HOURS

TOPIC SUB-TOPIC HOUR

SOIL GENESIS AND .Introductory Geology 20
CLASSIFICATION .Fundamental concepts of soil genesis
.Soil formation.
.Weathering of soil.
.Soil profile.
.Introduction to soil classification
.Land capability and irrigation suitability.
.Taxonomy or classification.
. Important soils of East Africa.
.Salt affected soils.
.Hydromorphic soils.

SOIL PHYSICS AND .Soil constituents 21

CHEMISTRY .Nature of mineral particles
.Soil moisture characteristics
.Soil aggregates
.Soil colloids
.Clay fractions of soils
.Occurrence and properties of iron (fe)
and .Aluminium(Al)oxides
.Mineral colloids solution relationship
.Ions in the soil solution
.Soil acidity

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SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION
Specific Objectives
By the end of topic, the learner should be able to
i. Explain the geology of common rocks
ii. Explain the factors of soil formation
iii. Explain the fundamental concepts of soil science
iv. Describe weathering process
v. Define soil profile
vi. Classify soils according to their capability and suitability to different crops
vii. Classify soils according to food and agricultural Organisation FAO AND united
states department of agriculture
viii. Describe important soils of [Link]
ix. Explain the nature and properties of salt-affected soils
x. Describe the nature and properties of hydromorphic soils.

SOIL GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION

Definition; Soil is a dynamic natural body composed of mineral and organic materials,
living forms as well as air in which plants grow.

INTRODUCTORY GEOLOGY
Geology is the scientific study of the earth’s crust and formation of rocks and minerals in
relation to the sphere factors e.g. climatic factors and volcanic eruptions.
The sphere is divided into four regions;
-Barisphere (fluid magma)
-Lithosphere (rocks and minerals)
-Hydrosphere (surface and underground water)
-Atmosphere (gases)
-Barisphere is the source of fluid magma which is forced into the lithosphere through
volcanic force. Cooling of the larva occurs at lithosphere or at hydrosphere when
volcanic force is insufficient to push the magma to the earth’s surface. Cooled magma
forms the rocks (igneous rocks).

Structure of the earth

SOIL PHASES
Soil is made up of three phases;
 Solid phase
 Liquid phase
 Gaseous phase

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 Components of the soil
Soil

Solids (50%) Liquids (25%) Gases (25%)

Organic component Inorganic component

Fine fraction (<2mm) Large gravels and rocks

Sand Silt Clay (Secondary minerals e.g.

Primary minerals e.g. Quartz and feldspars) clay minerals and hydrous oxides)

CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF THE ROCKS

-Rocks are classified into three major divisions;
 Igneous rocks
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic

Igneous rocks
-When molten magma from under the earth’s crust is exposed on the surface or at
different depths in the earth, igneous rocks are formed from it as it cools. The fastest
cooled expelled igneous rocks have a glossy texture while those slowly cooled have small
crystals in the rock mass.
-Extrusive igneous rocks form above the earth’s surface while intrusive or plutonic
igneous rocks form below the earth’s surface and have large crystals.
-Porphyries are igneous rocks having mixed large and small crystal particles due to
changes in cooling rate.
-Examples of igneous rocks include granite, diorite and biotite, hornblende, augite, gabro
and basalt. Gabro and basalt weather easily.

Sedimentary rocks
-They result from the deposition and cementation of weathering products of other rocks
e.g. sandstone (formed from quartz), shale (cemented clays), dolomite [CaMg (CO 3)2],
limestone which is composed mainly of calcite (CaCO3) mineral and the conglomerate.
-Resistance to weathering by sedimentary rock is determined by the dominant minerals
and the cementing agent. The cementing material often makes part of the name for
instance ferruginous for iron oxides, Siliceous for silica (SiO 2) and Calcareous for
carbonates or lime as in calcareous sandstone.
-Sedimentary conglomerates and breccias are made up of various sized fragments of
rocks cemented together.
-Sandstones are formed mainly from quartz mineral, shades from consolidated clays and
silts, limestone forms from calcium carbonate or mixtures of calcium and magnesium
carbonate, clays, silts and sand.
-Dolomites are similar to limestone but have more magnesium carbonate. Quartzites are
silica cemented sands.

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Metamorphic rocks
-These are rocks formed by the metamorphism or change in or change in the form of
other rocks. Igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to tremendous pressures and
high temperatures form metamorphic rocks.
-Examples; Gneiss formed mainly from granites, rhyolites, aridesites among other
minerals. Slate from shale or siltstone, schist from micas, quartzite, and marble from
limestone or dolomite and are easily decomposed.

SOIL GENESIS
-Soils are formed from hard (solid) rock masses, loose unconsolidated transported
materials and organic residues. Organic soils develop mainly from plants that have fallen
into stagnant water where decomposition is slow.
-Minerals are inorganic substances which are homogenous, have a definite composition
and have characteristic physical properties such as shape, colour, melting temperature
and hardiness. Minerals may be primary or secondary.
-Primary minerals are mainly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. They are formed
from cooling the molten larva to rock.
Important primary minerals
-Quartz (SiO2), Feldspar; are hard major materials in sands. They weather to give clay
and important minerals
-Micas (Muscovite and Biotite); Source of potassium and clay
-Augite and hornblende; they are good clay formers and weather moderately faster
-Apatite, albite, anorthite and olivine; they are common minerals supplying phosphorous
Secondary minerals
-Are mainly found in sedimentary rocks. These minerals are formed from precipitated
soluble substances.
Examples;
-Calcite and dolomite; are slightly soluble minerals in limestone or dolomite rock
common in arid soils. Are sources of calcium or magnesium.
-Gypsum; is soft, moderately soluble mineral found in arid-region soils
-Iron oxides; yellow to red coloured group of minerals with different amounts of water
giving their soils yellow-red colours. Provides iron.
-Kaolinite, montmorillonite; are silicate clays
-Geothite; most resistant to weathering
-Gibsite; resistant to weathering

FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION

1. Parent material
-This could be consolidated or unconsolidated. It may also be organic or inorganic.
-Inorganic parent materials produce mineral soils. The organic matter is usually
composed predominantly of unconsolidated material, dead decaying materials while the
inorganic material can either be consolidated or unconsolidated.
-Depending on the materials in the parent material, the resulting soil may be acidic or
alkaline. E.g. granite rocks may give reddish brown oxisols which are acidic also trachyte
rocks.

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-Parent material also contributes to soil colour, permeability, and specific surface area
(texture).The chemical and mineralogical compositions of parent material often control
the natural vegetation.
-Parent material determines the type of clay minerals in the soil profile e.g. volcanic tuff
of Nandi hills produce acidic soils but produces black clays in the Nyando-Chemilil zone.

2. Topography (Relief)
-This refers to the outline of the earth’s surface and is synonymous with relief. It includes
the dramatic mountain ranges and flat featureless plains. Topography forms dynamic
system, the study which is known as geomorphology.
-Topography may hasten or delay the work of climatic forces in soil formation. Rolling
topography encourages soil erosion which if extensive will reduce formation of a deep
soil. Soils in in rolling places will thus differ from the ones in the plains (maturity).
-Medium to high altitudes is associated with low evaporation rate. The rate of
decomposition of litter decreases with increase in altitude due to low temperature among
other factors. This means soils with different profiles are found along the landscape and
this association is known as catena.

3. Living organisms
-Living organisms are responsible for breaking down the organic matter to produce
proteins, celluloses, hemicelluloses, suberins, waxes, pectin, alcohols and lignin among
higher plants. All these form humus which binds the soil particles together. The microbes
also die to produce protein.
-Coniferous trees have lower metallic cations than deciduous when decomposed. The
former encourages leaching of cations.
-Organic matter in grassland soils is higher than in forest soils especially in subsurface
horizons. This gives the soil darker colour, higher moisture and cation holding capacity
as compared to the forest soil.
-Human activities of deforestation, cultivation, fertilizer use have effect on soil formation
while ploughing affects soil profile.

4. Climate
-This includes the influence of temperature, humidity, evapotranspiration, rainfall and
duration of sunshine. Climate is the principal factor governing the rate and type of soil
formation as well as being the main factor determining vegetation distribution and the
type of geomorphological processes; therefore it forms the basis of many classifications
of natural phenomena including soils.
-Temperature and precipitation affect the rates of chemical and physical process
responsible for profile development. For every 10˚C rise, the rate of chemical reaction
doubles. This also affects microbial activities in the soil.
-The amount of sunshine is influenced by the cloud cover frequency so that most of the
lowlands have greater amount of sunshine. The greater the sunshine, the more the
evaporation rate and less moisture level in the soil. Also in high altitudes particularly in
the sun facing slopes, soil formation is faster than slopes facing away from the sun.
-Wind influences the temperature and precipitation.

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 5. Time
-The length of time the material is subjected to soil forming processes and factors is
crucial in soil formation e.g. glaciated regions have their soil profile developing quite
slowly. Maturity of the soil can be determined by the quantity of the clay within the soil
profile.

COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL

Volume of a silt loam surface soil in good condition for plant growth shows the following
component quantities;
 Soil air 20-30%
 Soil minerals 45%
 Organic matter 5%
 Water 20-30%
-The term mineral in soil science can be taken to mean soils dominated by constituents
and also to describe distinct minerals found in nature such as in nature such as quartz and
feldspars.
a) Soil air
-Soil air is important in aerobic decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. Soil air has
more moisture than that of atmospheric air. High water or moisture in the soil displaces
soil air. Soil air has more carbon-dioxide content than that found in the atmosphere and
less oxygen than that in the atmosphere.
-Larger pores are the first to loose water while small pores are the last. This is why clay
soils with small air pores are poorly aerated.
b) Soil water
-Soil water is held within soil pores with varying degrees of pressure, thus we have;
 Hygroscopic water; it’s held strongly in the soil and is not available for plants
 Gravity held water ; it’s not available for plants
 Capillary water; it’s available for plants
-Water is the medium for nutrient absorption. Too much water in the soil for along period
of time leads to anaerobic condition since air pores are all filled with water while
microbes utilise the remaining oxygen.
c) Minerals (inorganic) constituents in soils
Regolith refers to the unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil material on the
earth’s surface i.e. loose earth materials above the solid rock. Primary minerals often
resist weathering thus dominate the coarser fractions of the soil where as secondary
minerals are prominent in the finer materials especially in clays.
-Inorganic component is the carrier of cations in the soil.

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Size fraction Common name
1. very coarse- >200mm diameter -stones
- 200-20mm -gravel

2. Coarse- 20-2mm -Fine gravel

2-0.2mm -Coarse sand
0.2-0.02mm -Fine sand

3. Fine- 0.02-0.002mm -Silt

4. Very fine- <0.002 -Clay

d) Soil organic matter

This is comprised of partially decayed and animal residues. The soil micro-organisms are
active in this medium. It is the main source of nitrogen and an important source of
phosphorous and sulphur.
-Organic matter gives the soil dark colour hence enhances soil temperature and moisture
retention.
-Organic matter holds soil together and also forms source of energy for soil organisms.
-Organic matter has more agricultural quantities than the inorganic (clay) components

SOIL WETHERING WEATHERING

Weathering refers to the physical and chemical changes produced in rocks at or near the
earth’s surface leading to disintegration and decomposition of the rock matter.
-Soil formation comprises of two different processes; first, the disintegration of solid rock
and secondly, the changes occurring within the loose material as time passes. This later
process is also called soil development but the two processes occur simultaneously.
-Soil formation is therefore used to mean production of unconsolidated material by
weathering process and soil profile development which are the changes involved in
development of horizons. Horizons tell much about the characteristics of a soil.

AGENTS OF WEATHERING
There are three main agents of weathering;
 Physical/mechanical
 Chemical
 Biological
The above agents exhibit themselves in various processes (forces) and therefore we the
following processes under each;

1. PHYSICAL PROCESSES/AGENTS
These processes are designated as disintegration. Disintegration results in a decrease in
size of rocks and minerals without appreciably affecting their composition.

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 a) Aggregation
This is a process whereby a number of particles are held or brought together to form units
of varying but characteristic shapes (cementing together).The type and degree of
aggregation is referred to as structure. Aggregation can be facilitated by humus,
mesofauna e.g. earthworms, plant roots, exchangeable cations etc.
b) Translocation
This refers to the reorganization and redistribution of material mainly in the upper 2m or
so of the earth’s surface. This can be achieved through suspension, solution, thawing
among others.

c) Frost action (freezing and thawing)

In high altitudes, low temperatures lead to freezing of water found in rock cracks. At 4˚C,
water attains maximum density of 1.0g cm-3, therefore it expands slightly until it reaches
0˚C and changes into ice where upon there is a 10% increase in volume corresponding to
a density of 0.9g cm-3. With further reduction in temperature, ice behaves like any normal
solid and decreases in specific volume but has a very high coefficient of linear expansion
which is 51x 10-6K-1. Freezing can exert pressure of 146kg cm -2. Expansion of water in
cracks will lead to slight crack enlargement. During high temperature periods, the frost
will melt and run out as water, the process known as freezing thawing. Repeated freezing
and thawing results into deep cracks which further weaken the rock structure.
d) Solifluction
This is movement ‘en masse’ of the material down the slope forming stratified slope
deposits that are known as solifluction deposits. This is due to repeated freezing and
thawing on sloping land.
e) Expansion and contraction (wetting and drying)
These processes are common with high clay-containing soils like montmorillolite.
Contraction on drying leads to large cracks and the top soil falls in the cracks and during
rains there is expansion of these soils leading to bulging out, a phenomenon known as
gilgai.
f) Exfoliation
Boulders or outcrops of rocks experience a wide temperatures fluctuation which leads to
‘scaling’ of rocks.
g) unloading
Removal of the weathered material from the rock surface giving it more surface area for
the agents of weathering like temperature changes to manifest on the rocks.
h) Wind effect
Wind is a major transporting agent. It grinds together materials on transit via cyclonic
actions. Fine soils often found in the desert called Loess are as a result of wind deposits
and they are fertile soils.
i) Man activities, ants, termites moles
j) Water movement and action

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 2. CHEMICAL PROCESSES
-This is faster than physical processes
-These processes include;

a) Solution
-Its dissolving of a solid in liquid. Solid material is separated to independent soluble ions.
Each ion is surrounded by water. The driving force behind solution is ionization and
when an element is ionised then it’s soluble.
E.g. NaCl + H2O → Na+ Cl- H2O
-Sodium chloride is soluble in soil and the ions become ready to react in chemical
reactions
b) Hydrolysis
-This deals with water molecule being split to its ions and then reacting with other
substances.
E.g. KAlSi3O8 + HOH → HAlSi3O2 + KOH
(Ordhodase) (Silicate clay) very soluble
Not very soluble more soluble
c) Carbonation
-This is the reaction of compound with carbonic (weak acid produced by carbon dioxide
dissolving in water)
E.g. CaCO3 + H+ +HCO3 → Ca (HCO3)2 + HCO3
Slightly soluble readily soluble
NB: Hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective processes in chemical weathering.
d) Reduction
-Is the process in which electrons are gained. Negative charge increases as positive
charge decreases. It occurs when there is lack of oxygen i.e. anaerobic condition
especially in stagnant water. It results in;
 Electrically unstable compounds
 More soluble compounds
 Increased atom size- internally charged atom is stressed and therefore reduction in
faster decomposition
e) Hydration
-It’s the combination of solid chemical with water. They interchange mineral structure.
There increase in volume and the solid become softer due to internal stresses and
therefore more easily weathered.

3. BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
-This important in soil formation and development and not in weathering.
a) Translocation
Churning or other soil disturbances by earthworms, termites among others which keep
microbiological population into contact with fresh food supply hence breakdown of
organic matter.
b) Humification
Is the breakdown of organic matter to yield humus
c) Nitrification

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Is the process during which nitrate is formed by soil organisms (autotrophs). Nitrogen is
converted to ammonia then to nitrites and finally nitrates.
-Ammonia is oxidised by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria and the nitrite by the
Nitrobacter bacteria in an aerobic condition which is moist.
-Nitrogen is constantly being recycled from the soil to plants and then back to the soil via
the litter and its’ decomposition products.
d) Nitrogen fixation
There are a number of free living chemo-heterotrophic bacteria including Azobacter,
Clostridium and other algae varieties capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The
microbes utilise atmospheric nitrogen to form their cells protein which upon death of the
organism, is decomposed to ammonia to form part of nitrogen available to plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL WEATHERING

I. Climatic conditions
-These will control the kind and rate of weathering. High moisture enhances chemical as
well as mechanical changes. High temperatures accelerate weathering.
-Climate also affects vegetation hence indirectly affecting the weathering process e.g.
soils developing under conifer trees whose needles are low in metallic cations are more
acidic than soils developed under grassland or most deciduous trees.
-Large diurnal range will also enhance exfoliation.

II. Physical characteristics

Particle size, hardness and the degree of cementation affect weathering.
-Rocks with large crystals have varying quantities of different minerals which have
differing expansion –contraction coefficient hence large sized particles will weather more
readily than small sized ones. Finer particles will however react more readily with
chemicals due to the enhanced surface area thus high rate of chemical weathering.
-Compact cemented quartz is hard and difficult to weather while porous volcanic ash or
coarse limestones are readily broken down.

III. Chemical and structural characteristics

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is easily dissolved in adequate water. Calcite and dolomite are
easily dissolved by carbonic acid, Ferro-magnesium which are dark-coloured primary
minerals are more susceptible to chemical weathering than feldspars and quartz due to
reaction of iron in ferromagnesian minerals.

SOIL PROFILE
This refers to a vertical section of a soil in the field showing distinct horizontal layers.
The individual layers in the soil profile are referred to as horizons. These horizons above
the parent material are collectively referred to as solum. Every well developed,
undisturbed soil has its own distinctive soil profile characteristics which are utilised in
soil classification and survey. A profile is vital in soil judgement.
-Top soil is darker due to high accumulation of organic matter.

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-Subsoil especially in humid region mature soil has two belts; the upper belt with higher
organic matter and the lower belt with higher mineral components i.e. gypsum, clays,
aluminium oxides and calcium carbonates.
-For convenience, the layers resulting from the soil forming processes are grouped into
five main categories; O, A, E, B, and C. These capital letters designate the master
horizons in soils. Lower case letters are used to give subordinate distinctions of these
master horizons (specific details). Numbers 1, 2, 3 can also be used to give some
distinctions of the horizons.
-A pedon is a three dimensional body of soil of 1-10m 2 top areas, whose lateral
dimensions are large enough to permit study of horizons both physical and chemical
composition.

-Many pedons (polypedons) are used in thorough study of a given soil for classification.
-Solum is the upper most weathered part of the soil profile (A and B horizons). A
transition zone lies between two main horizons and has characteristics of both. The first
letter e.g. B/A means the transition zone has more than 50% characteristics of B than A.

Stages of soil development

-Soils are constantly undergoing change. Soil is a three phase system, consisting of
solids, liquids and gases.
-The life cycle of soil includes the following stages;
1. Parent material
2. Immature soil e.g. Entisol
3. Mature soil e.g. Mollisol
4. Old soil e.g. Alfisol
ASSIGNMENT: Identify characteristics of each stage above.
-The mature stage is attained with development of the B horizon. Old soil e.g. clay-pan
soils are highly differentiated and have low fertility.
-Mohr and Barren have recognised five stages in the development of tropical soils;
1. initial stage; the un-weathered parent material
2. Juvenile stage; involves the start of weathering
3. Virile stage; large proportion of the rock has weathered
4. Serile stage; final stage of decomposition and only most resistant minerals have
survived.
5. Final stage; soil decomposition has completed

Terminologies used in the process of soil formation

-Solodization; process of the removal of sodium ions from clay humus complex usually
leading to solodized solonetz leached of metal cations and is dominant with hydrogen
ions resulting in an acid soil.
-Alkalization; excess Na+, Ca+, Mg+ hence basic horizon
-Salinization; enrichment of soil with salts e.g. in arid regions
-Leaching; process by which clay-humus complex and substitute hydrogen ion in their
place
-Eluviation; is loss in suspension of material from a soil horizon

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-Podzolization; The development of an extremely acid humus known as mor in which
decomposition of organic matter is slow, this is common in cool humid soil
-Terrallitzation/latolization/laterization; is characteristic of soil; formation in the humid
tropical regions of the world. It involves the relative accumulation of sesquioxides of iron
and aluminium accumulation with the loss of silica.
-Pedoturbation; is mixing of soil naturally through contraction shrinking and expansion
(dry and wet) as in montmorillonite (vertisols).
-Faunal pedoturbation; mixing of soils by soil living animals.
-Illuvial horizon; is horizon that receives material in solution or suspension from some
other parts of the soil.
-Illuviation; The process of movement of material from one horizon and its deposition to
another horizon of the same soil usually from upper horizon to middle or lower horizon in
the pedo-unit (also lateral movement).
-Alluvial soil; soils developed on fairly recent alluvium; usually they show no horizon
development.
-Alluvium; sediment deposited by streams and varying widely in particle size (fertile in
nature).
-Catena; segment of soils developed from similar parent material under similar climatic
conditions but whose characteristics differ because of variations in relief and drainage.
-Relief; the difference between the high and low areas of a landscape (topography,
elevation difference, earth surface contour).
-Sesquioxides (metal oxides); minerals containing 1.5 atoms of oxygen per atom of the
metal, particularly Al2O3 and Fe2O3 and at time TiO2 although it doesn’t strictly fit the
meaning of sesqui (=1.5 times).
-Colloid; the organic and inorganic material with very fine particles thus high surface
area which usually exhibits exchange properties (-charge).
-Micelle; highly charged clay-humus particle

-Eluviations means leaching (washing out)

-Illuviation means accumulation (washing in). Horizon A and B together constitute the
solum.
NB: All the stated horizons are not always present in very soil. Some might not be
discernible.
-Additional features of the horizons are indicated with the use of lowercase letters e.g. A 1
and part of the A2 may be mixed together hence having a layer designated A P to indicate
disturbance through cultivation or pasturing.

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MASTER HORIZONS/LAYERS
-All soil profiles contain two or more master horizons. The descriptions of these horizons
are summarised below;
 O- these are organic horizons of mineral soils
O 1 horizon forms at the upper part mainly composed of un-decomposed
organic matter
O2 horizon is dominated by partly decomposed organic material
 A- mineral horizons
A1; organic matter is accumulating here but characterised by severe leaching. The
finely decomposed organic matter leads to dark colour
A2; a light coloured leached horizon representing a layer of maximum leaching. It
is prominent inmany acid forest soils and faintly developed or even absent in most
grassland soils
A3; is a transition layer similar to A2
 B horizons are characterised by accumulation of leached minerals e.g. iron,
aluminium and silicon (illuvial concentration).
B1; transition layer similar to A2
B2; layer of maximum accumulation of silicate clay minerals and development of
blocky structures
B3; transition to C
 C horizon shows little effect from podogenic processes and lacks properties
diagnostic of A and B.
 R is underlying consolidated bedrock such as granite, sandstone or limestone

Main Horizons

The following horizons are listed by their position from top to bottom within the soil
profile. Not all of these layers are present in every location – for instance, P horizons only
form in areas which have been waterlogged for long periods of time. Soils with a history
of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing,
may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field,
attention must be paid to the local geomorphology and the historical uses to which the
land has been put in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the
observed horizons.(The one horizon not listed is O horizon which is grass and
animal/plant life.) Soil has three main horizons (A, B, and C), which will be explained
below along with other layers.

Layers

Soil generally consists of visually and texturally distinct layers, which can be
summarized as follows from top to bottom:

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 O) Organic matter: Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form.
A) Surface soil: Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and
soil life. This layer eluviates (is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic
compounds, and other soluble constituents. When eluviation is pronounced, a
lighter colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the "A"
horizon. A-horizons may also be the result of a combination of soil bioturbation
and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded
topsoil. In this case, the A-horizon is regarded as a "biomantle".
B) Subsoil: This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds,
a process referred to as illuviation.
C) parent rock: Layer of large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the
more soluble compounds .

[O Horizon

The "O" stands for Organic. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large
amounts of organic material in varying stages of decomposition. The O Horizon should
be considered distinct from the layer of leaf litter covering many heavily vegetated areas,
which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons
may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain decomposed
matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of rotting leaves),
and O2 horizons containing only well-decomposed organic matter, the origin or which is
not readily visible.

P Horizon

These horizons are also heavily organic, but are distinct from O Horizons in that they
form under waterlogged conditions. The “P” designation comes from their common
name, peats. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O Horizons. This
layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds, a process referred to as
illuviation.[2]

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A Horizon

The A Horizon is the top layer of the soil horizons or 'topsoil'. This layer has a layer of
dark decomposed organic materials, which is called "humus".The technical definition of
an A Horizon may vary, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to deeper
layers. "A" Horizons may be darker in color than deeper layers and contain more organic
material, or they may be lighter but contain less clay or sesquioxides. The A is a surface
horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most biological activity occurs.
Soil organisms such as earthworms, potworms (enchytraeids), arthropods, nematodes,
fungi, and many species of bacteria and archaebacteria are concentrated here, often in
close association with plant roots. Thus the A-horizon may be referred to as the
biomantle.[3][4] However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it
cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A Horizon.

E Horizon

“E” being short for eluviated, this designation is most commonly used to label a horizon
that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale
layer largely composed of silicates. These are present only in older, well-developed soils,
and generally occur between the A and B Horizons. In regions where this designation is
not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other
characteristics, and then appended with the designation “e” (see the section below on
horizon suffixes). In soils that contain gravels, due to animal bioturbation, a stonelayer
commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.

The above layers may be referred to collectively as the ‘solum’. The layers below have
no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface
soil-forming processes.

B Horizon

The B Horizon is commonly referred to as ‘subsoil’, and consist of mineral layers which
may contain concentrations of clay or minerals such as iron or aluminum, or organic
material which get there by leaching. Accordingly, this layer is also known as the
"illuviated" horizon or the "zone of accumulation". In addition it is defined by having a
distinctly different structure or consistence to the A horizon above and the horizons
below. They may also have ‘stronger’ colors (is higher chroma) than the A horizon.

As with A horizon, B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the
Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 –
dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon
characteristics. B2 horizons have a concentration of clay, minerals, or organics and
feature the strongest pedological development within the profile. B3 horizons are
transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D
horizon.

15
The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the
discretion of the individual worker.

Plant roots penetrate through this layer, but it has very little humus. It is usually brownish
or red because of the clay and iron oxides (rust) washed down from A Horizon.

C Horizon

The C Horizon is simply named so because it comes ‘after’ A and B within the soil
profile. This layer is little affected by soil forming processes (weathering), and the lack of
pedological development is one of the defining attributes. The C Horizon may contain
lumps or more likely large shelves of unweathered rock, rather than being comprised
solely of small fragments as in the solum. ‘Ghost’ rock structure may be present within
these horizons. C Horizon also contains parent material.

D Horizon

D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system refer to ‘any
soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in general character, is not C
horizon, and cannot be given reliable designation… [it] may be recognised by the
contrast in pedologic organization between it and the overlying horizons’ (MacDonald et
al., 1990, p. 106).

R Horizon (bedrock)

R horizons basically denote the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the
soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as
opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed in situ
will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer,

DIAGNOSTIC HORIZONS
-Are combinations of specific soil characteristics that are indicative of certain classes of
soils. Characteristics of different horizons are due to soil forming processes thus
diagnostic horizons for separating soil units is based on resultant quantitative
morphological properties that have identified value.
-Diagnostic horizons are more distinct and allow for specific classification of soil layers
in soil taxonomy. They differentiate among soil orders, sub-orders, great groups and
subgroups.
-The A, B, and C nomenclature referring to master horizons are still used as the standard
for describing and defining soil horizons (general). But the need for more strict definition
of soil horizons led to the development of diagnostic horizons
-Two kinds of diagnostic horizons are identified;
 Surface diagnostic horizons (epipedons)
 Sub-surface diagnostic horizons (endopedons)
-The two above have peculiar distinguishing features. The major features are used in
defining most of the soil orders.

16
-Diagnostic horizons are identified from the general master horizons. The former are used
in soil taxonomy e.g. by USDA and UNESCO/FAO.
-Diagnostic horizons are therefore combinations of specific soil characteristics that
indicate certain categories of soil.

Derivations and major features of diagnostic horizons

Horizon Derivation Major features
Surface diagnostic horizons
Mollic L. mollis, soft Thick, dark, high base
saturation, not hard when dry
Umbric L. umbra, shade Same as mollic but may be
hard when dry and highly
saturated
Ochric Gr. Ochros, pale Thin, light coloured, low in
organic matter

Histic Gr. Histos, tissue Very high in organic matter,

water saturated unless
artificially drained
Anthropic Gr. Anthropos, man High phosphate due to fertilizer
application, mollic-like
Plaggen Ger. Plaggen, sod Very thick over 20inches due to
long continued manuring
Sub-surface diagnostic horizons
Argillic L. Argilla, white clay Found in B horizon. It is an
illuvial horizon of silicate clay
accumulation
Natric L. Natrium, sodium As argillic, high exchangeable
sodium, columnar or prismatic
structure. It is white and has
permeability problem
Spodic Gr. Spodos, wood ash Illuvial accumulation of free
iron, aluminium oxides and
organic matter. It is ash-white
Oxic L. oxide Hydrated iron oxides,
aluminium oxides and 1:1 clays
Cambic L. cambiare, to change Altered horizon due to frost,
roots, animals activities
Agric L. ager, field Illuvial horizon of clay and
organic matter accumulation
just below the ploughing level
due to long continued
cultivation

17
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL CLASSIFICATION
-To develop a useful classification and to establish the kinds and ranges of properties that
are to characterise given soil units, the soil must be studied in the field.
-A pedon is a three dimensional body of soil whose lateral dimensions are large enough
to permit study of horizons and the related physical and chemical composition. A pedon
can be 1-10m2.

Soil orders; the order is the highest category and there are 10 orders each ending in ‘sol’
meaning soil. These are;
 Entisols; these are very recent soils, low humic clayey soils
 Vertisols; have high clay content characterised by alternate swelling and
shrinking.
 Inceptisols; are young soils. Brown forest, low humic soils
 Aridosls; common in arid regions, reddish solonichalk and solonetz
 Mollisols; grassland soils with thick dark coloured surface
 Sopdosols; soils with spodic horizon
 Alfisols; leached but with high Al3+ and Fe2+
 Ultisols; are extremely leached and very low in bases
 Oxisols; are red tropical soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium oxide (also 1:1
clay)
 Histosols; big soils composed mainly of plant tissues

Sub-orders; these are differentiated largely on soil properties and horizons resulting
from differences in soil moisture and soil temperature (47 sub-orders).
-Sub-orders are distinct to each other and are not interchangeable to other orders.
Soil types; this refers to the lowest unit in the natural system of soil classification; a
subdivision of a soil series and describes soils that are alike in texture mainly horizon A.

SOIL FAMILIES AND SERIES

-The family category of classification is based on properties important to the growth of
plant roots mainly textural classes, mineralogical classes, temperature classes and soil
temperature.
-Terms used to describe the mineralogical classes include; montmorillonitic, kaolinitic,
siliceous, gypsic and mixed.
-For temperature we have frigid, mesic and thermic.
-For textural (particle size); loamy, clayey (fine, coarse).
-The name of the soil series has no pedogenic (soil formation) significance but represents
a prominent geographical name or a river, town, or area near where the series was first
recognised i.e. basis of observable and mappable soil characteristics e.g. colour, pH,
texture and structure.
-Soil phases are sub-divisions of soil series. Soil phases describe soil surface texture,
thickness, stoniness, saltiness etc. Phases are used to describe mapping units. All

18
mapping units are polydpedons. Soil phases are technically not included as a class in soil
taxonomy.
-Soil catena refers to a sequence of soils of about the same age derived from similar
parental material and occurring under similar climatic conditions but having different
characteristics due to variation in relief and drainage.
-Soil catena is essentially a group of soils derived from similar parent materials occurring
in a complex in which the individual members are differentiated by topographical and
hydrological conditions. The catena concept apart from its value directing attention to the
relationships of different soils derived from similar parent materials is a convenient
mapping unit in areas of great complexity where detailed mapping might be too
demanding in time and labour.

LAND CAPABILITY
-Land capability classification is the grouping of soil into special units, classes according
to their capability for intensive use and the treatments required for sustained use
(commonly used by USDA).
- US soil conservation service (1949) identified eight land capability classes as illustrated
below;
 Soils have few limitations that restrict their uses
 Soils have some limitations hence proper choice of plants and some conservation
practices
 Soils have severe limitations
 Soils have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants, require very
careful management or both.
The above four classes comprise land suited for cultivation and other uses.
 Soils have little erosion hazards but have other limitations impractical to remove
that limits their use. They are good for pasture, range, woodland, wildlife and are
frequent flooding.
 Have severe limitations for cultivation more than the upper one (v)
 Very severe limitations used for grazing, woodland and wildlife
 Soils impractical for commercial farming but restrict it to recreation, wildlife,
water supply.
Increasing intensity of land use

SELECTING LAND FOR IRRIGATION

In choosing land for irrigation, a careful examination should be made of the soil to
determine;
 Texture of the soil to depth of several feet
 Presence of impermeable stratum or gravel within a depth of 5-6 feet
 Accumulation of soluble salts in injurious quantities
 Land terrain (slope and evenness of the soil surface)
 Behaviour of soil under irrigation
NB: A good desirable soil is readily permeable to water and yet is moisture retentive.
Infiltration rates should be in the range of 0.1-3 inches per hour and wet soil to a depth of
2-3 feet in 24 hours, but some soils have varying wet depths. Desirable slope should be

19
10-20 feet to one mile, but it should be noted that irrigation water should be able to
follow in all directions in the farm for uniform supply of water.

SOIL TAXONOMY
-This refers to classification of soils according to natural relationships among the soil
characteristics. Taxonomy relates to natural (climatic, living organisms and modified
relief) soil forming factors only as they have imparted observable and measurable
characteristics of the soil.
-These characteristics are horizons, soil moisture regimes, organic matter content, soil
pH, texture, mineralogy, colour, structure and soil temperature regimes. A minimum soil
volume (pedon) that will represent an individual soil measuring about 1m 2 is studied. It is
as deep as roots grow.
-Soil taxonomy places emphasis on soil properties as they are (observable and
measurable even in laboratory), rather than the pedogenesis or the soil genesis as was in
earlier classification. Other advantages of this recent (taxonomy) classification are;
 Focuses more on soil rather than related sciences e.g. geology and climatology
 It permits classification of soils of unknown genesis so long there are known
 It permits greater uniformity
-There are several systems of classification/taxonomy used in the world;
a) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy
(1975)
-USDA system fits all soils into 10 orders, 47 sub-orders, 230 great groups, 1200
subgroups, 6000 families and 13000 series, thus there are six main classes (soil phase is
included to specify the series but this is often ignored).
-The 1975 USDA system has designated 23 specific horizons called diagnostic horizons;
 An epipedon; is a surface is a surface horizon which is darkened by organic
matter and includes eluvial horizons which makes up the surface horizons and
these are;
 Mollic epipedon; dark-coloured, thick surface horizon with over 50% of
the exchange capacity saturated by base cations
 Anthropic epipedon; similar to mollic but has high amount of phosphate
accumulated by long continued farming
 Umbric epipedon; dark surface horizon less than 50% of the exchange
capacity saturated by base cations
 Plaggen epipedon; man-made surface horizon more than 50cm thick with
characteristics that depend upon original soil from which it was derived
 Histic epipedon; a thin surface horizon saturate with water for part of the
year and with large amount of organic carbon
 Ochric epipedon; this is too light in colour and too low in organic carbon
 Sub-surface diagnostic horizons
These occur below the surface horizons. They include;
 Argillic horizon; an illuvial horizon in which clays have accumulated to a
significant extent
 Agric horizon; compact horizon formed by cultivation which has been enriched
by clay and/or humus

20
  Natric horizon; its argillic horizon with columnar structure and more than 15%
saturated with exchangeable Na+
 Spodic horizon; has accumulation of free sesquioxides and/or organic carbon but
not clay
 Cambic horizon; a change horizon including structure formation, liberation of
free iron oxides and clay formation
 Oxic horizon; very low content of weatherable minerals in which clay is
composed of kaolinite and sesquioxides having a low cation exchange capacity
and poorly dispersible in water.
 Calcic horizon; enriched horizon with calcium carbonate in the form of
secondary concentrations more than 15cm thick
 Gypsic horizon; enriched horizon with calcium sulphate more than 15cm thick
 Salic horizon; enriched horizon with more soluble than gypsum more than 15cm
thick
 Albic horizon; horizon in which clay and free oxides have been removed so the
colour is determined by the colour of sand and silt and not the coatings on these
particle
 Others
 Duripan; horizon cemented by silica or aluminium silicate
 Fragipan; loamy sub-surface with platy structure and high bulk
density, brittle when wet and hard when dry
 Petrocalcic; its cemented with calcium carbonate
 Plinthite; rich in sesquioxides, highly weathered and poor humus

Soil taxonomy based on USDA for soil orders

These are;
 Entisols; these are very recent soils, low humic clayey soils
 Vertisols; have high clay content characterised by alternate swelling and
shrinking.
 Inceptisols; are young soils. Brown forest, low humic soils
 Aridosls; common in arid regions, reddish solonichalk and solonetz
 Mollisols; grassland soils with thick dark coloured surface
 Sopdosols; soils with spodic horizon
 Alfisols; leached but with high Al3+ and Fe2+
 Ultisols; are extremely leached and very low in bases
 Oxisols; are red tropical soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium oxide (also 1:1
clay)
 Histosols; big soils composed mainly of plant tissues

Soil taxonomy based on FAO/UNESCO (soil map of the world).

 Fluvinols; weakly developed soils from alluvial deposits in active flood plains
 Regosols; formed from collection of loose material (blanket)
 Arenosols; strongly weathered sandy soils of tropical and subtropical areas
 Gleysols; is formed from mottled layers resulting from excess of water. They are
soils in which hydromorphic processes are dominant

21
 Rendzinas; soils developed in surface horizon enriched in organic matter over
highly calcareous materials
 Rankers; soils developed in surface horizon enriched in organic matter over
siliceous materials
 Andozols; soils formed from materials rich in volcanic glass and have dark
surface horizon. The soils are weakly developed rich in allophone and have low
bulk density
 Vertisols; are surface soils that are self-mulching. The soils are black and
cracking clay soils
 Yermosols; are soils of desert environment
 Xerosols; soils of semi-arid environments
 Solonechaks; soils showing strong salinity
 Solonetz; soils developed under the influence of high sodium saturation
 Planosols; soils developed in level or depressed topography with poor drainage
 Greyzems; soils of the forest-steppe transition rich in organic matter and having a
grey colour caused by white silica powder on structure faces
 Kastanozems; soils of the semi-arid steppes showing an accumulation of organic
matter in the surface horizons often calcareous throughout.
 Chernozems; soils of the grassland steppes showing strong accumulation of
organic matter in the surface horizons and an accumulation of calcium carbonate
at shallow depth
 Phacozems; soils of the forest-steppes showing a strong accumulation of organic
matter in the surface but a deep leaching of calcium
 Cambisols; soils formed from a weak alteration of the parent material
 Luvisols; soils having an argillic B horizon of medium to high base status
 Acrisols; soils having an argillic B horizon of low base saturation
 Podzols; soils with a strongly bleached horizon having B horizons with iron or
humus accumulation or both
 Podzoluvisols; soils having an argillic B horizon but also showing features of
podzols (combined podzol and luvisol)
 Nitosols; soils having very deeply developed argillic B horizon features of strong
weathering
 Ferrasols; strongly weathered soils consisting mainly of kaolinite, quartz and
hydrated oxides
 Histosols; are organic soils
 Lithosols; are shallow soils over hard rocks

COMMON SOILS OF EAST AFRICA

22
The soils are differentiated on bio-climatic zones and they include;

1. HYDROMORPOHIC SOILS (GLEYSOLS)

-Poor drainage can be observed in the soils of most regions of the world. This leads to the
formation of gleysol or hydromortphic soils
Definition; hydromorphic soils refers to suborder of intrazonal soils (calcimorphic,
hydromorphic, halomorphic and andozols) all formed under conditions of poor drainage
in marshes, swamps, seepage areas or flats.
-Thus they are soils developed in the presence of excess water. Gleying is the reduction
of iron in an anaerobic environment leading to the formation of grey or blue colours and
occurs when water saturates a soil filling all the pore spaces hence anaerobic.
-Hydromorphic soils can be found in association with all zonal soils (podzols, grey soils,
ferralitic and vertisols) where water can gather in sufficient volumes and time to produce
the effects of gleying

Characteristics of hydromorphic soils

 Water saturated by ground water (water-logged) through capillarity
 Anaerobic where even the remaining oxygen is consumed by the microbiological
population
 In the reducing conditions brought about by the absence of oxygen and in the
presence of organic matter, iron compounds are chemically reduced from the
ferric to the ferrous state. The ferrous form of iron is very much soluble hence
leached leaving behind the colourless minerals which gives gley soils their
characteristic grey colouration
 Some are permanently saturated (gleysols) others temporarily saturated hence
called pseudo-gleysols
 Peaty surface horizon (semi-decomposed organic matter) are saturated in water
 Hydromorphic soils develop from fine grained parent material (clay skin)
 When dry they become aerated hence ferric iron compounds colour (rust)
 Are formed from permeable parent materials e.g. alluvial sands and gravels which
overlie an impervious substratum upon which water accumulates
 They occur in lower parts of the landscape
 Mottling when artificially drained
-There are seven subdivisions of gleysols; eutric, calcaric, dystric, mollic, plinthic, gellic
and humic gleysols

Reclamation of hydromorphic soils

Land drainage;
i). Surface field drains. Used to remove surface water. Ditches are dug with gentle
side slopes. They are constructed across the slope of the land and across the
direction of cultivation e.g. open ditches
ii). Subsurface underground drains. Systems of underground channels to remove
water from the zone of maximum water saturation e.g. mole channel underground
channels, perforated plastic pipes and clay tile system.
iii). Ridging.
2. Halomorphic soils

23
-These are soils comprising a suborder of intrazonal soil order consisting of saline and
alkali soils formed under poor drainage in arid regions including solochak or saline soils,
solonetz and soloth soils.
-The salts which affect the soils are chiefly the sulphates, chlorides and carbonates of
sodium and magnesium. Excessive evaporation of arid regions where underground water
moves up together with the dissolved salts leads to deposition of these salts on the surface
of the ground. This results to three main groups of soils;
 Saline soils; contain a composition of neutral soluble salts sufficient to seriously
interfere with the growth of most plants. pH of about 8.5 though salts are neutral
 Saline-sodic soils; have high adsorbed sodium ions with relatively high
concentration of neutral soluble salts
 Sodic soils; have low neutral soluble salts but Na+ and OH- are in toxic quantities

3. Solonchaks (solorthids)
-This is an intrazonal group of soils with high soluble salts concentration, usually light
coloured occurring in sub-humid or semi-arid climate
Characteristics/properties of solonchaks
 High content of salts which are usually highest near to or at the surface decreasing
with depth
 The most common ions are chloride, sulphate, carbonate, sodium, bicarbonate,
calcium and magnesium.
 Fine textured soils have a higher retentivity
 therefore they hold more saline water upon evaporation leaving high amount of
salts
 Loess, alluvium and pedi-sediments are the principal parent materials
Occurrence of solonchaks
There are four subdivisions of solonachaks
i) Orthic solonchaks; have ochric A horizon and lack hydromorphic properties within
50cm of the surface
ii) Mollic solonchaks; have mollic A horizon and lack hydromorphic properties within
50cm of the surface
iii) Takyric solonchaks; have takyric feature and lack hydromorphic properties within
50cm of the surface
iv) Gleyic solonchaks; have hydromorphic properties within 50cm of the surface
-The common occurrence of solonchaks is in mid-latitude and tropical arid and semi-arid
areas where evaporation is much greater than precipitation mainly in NW Africa.
-They develop in alluvial terraces and beds of old lakes
-Colour; very dark-grey clay loam within 20cm depth and pH of 8.3
-Dark-grey clay loam within 20-50cm depth with Ph of 8.5
-Olive-grey clay loam at 50-120cm depth of pH 8.4 from the ground surface

3. Solonetz
-This is an intrazonal group of soils having surface horizons of varying degrees of
friability underlay by dark hard soil, ordinarily with columnar structure (prismatic
structure with rounded tops)
Characteristics of Solonetz

24
  They are formed under better drainage than solonchaks and under a native
vegetation of halophytic plants
 The most conspicuous property is the abrupt and large increase in clay passing
from upper into the nitric B horizon
 Organic matter in the surface mineral horizon varies but it is usually less than
10%
 There is high humification as the C:N ratio is less than 12 (decomposition of
organic matter leading to the formation of humus)
 The pH varies between 6.0 and 7.5 at the surface and 8.5 in the lower horizons
 Upper horizons are non-saline but salinity increases with depth
Occurrence
-Clay minerals emanate from parent material and are dominated by micas but kaolinites
and montmorillonite can also be present
-Solonetz are formed by the progressive leaching of solonchaks which are deficient in
calcium but have a large amount of sodium ions
-Some crops can grow in these soils but used for grazing in tropics and sub-tropics since
these regions are too dry
-Solonetz are confined to flat or gently sloping land while solonchaks occur in
depressions with close water table
-The soils occur in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world mainly N and S Africa,
Australia, W. Pakistan and SW USSR
-In all cases Solonetz are deficient in plant nutrients but this can be enhanced by
reclamation through liming and irrigation
-Has same subdivisions like solonchaks

4. Vertisols
-These are dark swelling soils formally called black cotton soils or tropical black clays
Characteristics
 Dark brown or black clays which are fine textured
 When dry they shrink and crack widely so that top soil material can fall down the
cracks so that after sometimes the soils invert themselves
 They swell when wetted forming micro-relief on the soil surface e.g.
montmorillonite
 Have over 30% clay (swelling type) to a depth of 1m
 The excessive shrinking, cracking and shearing make them unstable hence pose a
problem when used for building foundations, highway bases and even for
agricultural purposes
 Sometimes mica and kaolinite may be present but the amounts of these two
minerals are fairly small
 The C:N ratio is about 10-14
 The cation exchange capacity is high varying between 25-80me%.
 Salinity is low since salts seldom appear to accumulate in vertisols and when they
do it is usually below about 30cm.
 The pH ranges between 6.0-8.5 but an increase in case of accumulation of sodium

Distribution

25
- Vertisols are found mostly in sub-humid to semi-arid climates with moderate to high
temperatures e.g. sub-Saharan Africa, NE Australia, India and Sudan

Utilisation of vertisols
-Generally in tropical areas, the natural grassland is grazed
-Irrigation in vertisols is also practised e.g. Gezira in Sudan
-It is not possible to exploit full potential of these soils due to narrow moisture range for
cultivation
-They are deficient in many macro and micronutrients thus fertilizer application is
necessary
-They are susceptible to erosion even a slope of 5% or less may develop deep gullies in a
very short period. A characteristic form of erosion is landslides where large area will
move as a unit
-They are sticky and plastic when wet and hard when dry thus less suitable for crop
production. These soils are heavy and when wet are poorly worked by both machines and
hand tools
-Sorghum, corn, millet and cotton are crops commonly grown though the yields are
generally low. Modern management is required for productivity of these soils.

5. Acrisols (ultisols)
-These are soils having argillic B horizon (illuvial accumulation of clay) of low base
saturation or low base status
Characteristics
 They are moist soils that develop under warm to tropical climates
 Have low bases
 It is not at an advanced stage of humification as the C:N ratio is 15:1
 The cation exchange capacity has two maxima, 35me% in the A horizon due to
presence of organic matter and about 45me% in the argillic B horizon due to the
greater amount of clay
 Has pH of about 5.5 which is relatively uniform but increases with depth due to
high surface leaching (acidic soil)
 Subsurface horizons are commonly red or yellow in colour
Occurrence
-The soils develop on stable sites that range from flat to steeply sloping water so long as
water can percolate freely but their most common occurrence is on flat or undulating
landscape
-They are also formed on old land surfaces normally under forest vegetations or savannah
-Beside EA Africa and the tropics the soils are common in SE USA, NE Africa, SE
Australia and other humid tropical areas
-Liming of the soil is necessary and also application of nitrogenous and phosphate
fertilizers
-The crops commonly grown in these soils are fruits, maize, tobacco and sweet potatoes.
Distribution and land use
-Beside E. Africa and the tropics, these soils are common in SE USA, NE Africa, SE
Australia and other humid tropical areas.
-Liming the soil is necessary also nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers

26
-The crops commonly grown in these soils are fruits, maize, tobacco and sweet potatoes

6. Andosols (volcanic ash black, low density)

Properties/characteristics
 Soils formed from materials rich in volcanic glass and commonly having a
dark surface horizon
 Have high organic matter (20%) developed in volcanic ash deposits
 Weakly developed soils rich in allophone (dust-like clay from volcanic
eruption) and having a low bulk density. The clay content is usually low
and does not exceed 20-25%. Much of the clay occurs in the upper horizon
and decreases with depth to <5% in the un-weathered parent material
 High porosity
 Very acidic (pH 4.5) in the upper surface which decreases to pH 6 down
the unaltered ash
 The C:N ratio is 15:1
 In some andosols manganese dioxide is a product of weathering
 Have high water retaining capacity due to high content of allophone
Occurrence and distribution
-The formation of andosols is a very rapid process resulting from the high surface area of
the volcanic ash parent materials which behaves in a unique manner under humid
conditions
-Hydrolysis process weathers the volcanic ash initially to yellow, brown or orange
palagonite. These changes quickly into allophone. There is also partial humification of
organic matter
-The soil develops under aerobic conditions
-These soils are common in tropics but under humid conditions because volcanic ash
doesn’t give rise to andosols in dry or very dry climates
-They are common in E Africa (Engasura, Langalaga), East Indies and Hawaii
Utilization of andosols in agriculture
These are relatively infertile soils but respond well when sufficient fertilizers and lime
are applied
-Phosphorous is necessary because the allophone has very high capacity for absorbing
and fixing this element
-It is advantageous in warm climates to plant certain crops such as sweet potatoes which
show little response to phosphorous. Rice will do well due to the soils’ high water
holding capacity

7. Luvisols (Alfisols)
-Latin meaning to wash; connotative of illuvial accumulation of clay
Characteristics/properties
 Soils having an argillic B horizon which has a base saturation of 50% or more at
the lower part of the B horizon
 They lack mollic A horizon
 Can be a mixture of vertisols, ferric, calcic, orthic, albic, gleyic or chromic

27
  They develop material of medium texture with a high proportion forming on loess
(material transported and deposited by wind and consisting of predominantly silt-
sized particles)
 The content of clay (<2μm) is at a minimum in the two uppermost horizons
increasing to maximum in the middle horizon
 pH values have an interesting pattern; they vary from 5.5-6.5 in the upper horizon
decreasing to about 4.5-5.0 where there is the clay maximum then increasing to
7.5
 have organic matter at the uppermost layer of about 5-10%
 have moderate C:N ratio of 12:18 reflecting the partially decomposed state of
organic matter
 have CEC maximum at the surface due to high organic matter and at the middle
horizon where the clay content is also at its maximum
Distribution of luvisols
-Luvisols are widespread in NC USA, EC USA, E Africa and Central Europe
-They occur under moist conditions
Utilization
-The potential of these soils for agriculture varies from moderate to good. They are used
for mixed farming, dairying, horticulture, wheat, maize and oats
-Fertility is maintained by the normal procedure of liming and fertilizer application
-Erosion is common feature and rigorous control methods must be maintained at all times

8. Ferrasols (oxisols)
Derived from Latin meaning iron and aluminium connotative of high content of
sesquioxides
Characteristics/properties
 Soils having an oxic B horizon which is highly weathered with primarily a
mixture of iron and aluminium oxides
 pH of 4.5-5.5
 Have a thick oxic B horizon to 16m. The thicker the oxic B horizon the older the
soil
 High clay content but of non-sticky type
 Deficiency of micronutrients
 80% kaolinite hence low CEC
 Low silt: clay ratio due to the profound weathering that has taken place
Distribution
-Common in forests
Utilization
-Require phosphorous fertilization but can be highly productive if well managed
-Liming is necessary

9. Nitosols (alfisols and ultisols)

These are sufficiently weathered Alfisols from ultisols. This class has been created
recently and has not yet been fully categorised
General characteristics/properties

28
  They are strongly weathered kaollinitic soils. The clay increases with depth to a
maximum in the middle horizon
 Soils have very deeply developed argillic (an alluvial horizon which clays have
accumulated) B horizons and showing features of strong weathering
 Nitosols combine the characteristics of Alfisols and Ultisols
 Alfisols are moist mineral soils having no mollic (organic matter) epipedon
 They are grey to brown on the surface horizons, medium to high base status
 Have alluvial horizon in which silicate clays have accumulated
 More than 15% saturated with sodium
 Have prismatic or columnar structure
 Alfisols are more fertile than Ultisols
 High amounts of exchangeable aluminium are usually present ultisols occur in the
warmer parts of the world with mean annual soil temperature is 8˚C or more
where rainfall is considerably in excess of evaporation
 Fertilizers are necessary for better output with ultisols since the soils have low
organic matter
 Ultisols have low pH. Ultisols are commonly red or yellow in colour due to
accumulation of free oxides of iron. Ultisols are sometimes found mixed with
oxisols
Agricultural use of Nitosols and distribution
-Fertilizer application can be used to alter the pH or slightly liming
-The importance of lime to raise pH and to reduce the aluminium toxicity often increases
the cost of production
-Alfisols are common in S. Africa
-In general Alfisols are quite productive soils. Usually ultisols have developed in humid
climates, tropical to subtropical temperatures and forest or grassy forests (savannah)
vegetation
-Insects are abundant and fungus diseases are prevalent in the warm humid climate
-Ultisols account for 12.5% of the land area of the US and occupies 5.5% of the world’s
land area

BASIC SOIL PHYSICS

NATURE OF MINERAL PARTICLES
Mineral particles refer to mineral soil. This is a soil consisting predominantly of mineral
matter. It usually contains less than 20% organic matter, but may contain an organic
surface layer up to 30cm thick. The properties of a mineral soil are determined by mineral
(inorganic) matter.

SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Physical properties of soils include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency,
temperature, stability, colour and water content. These are dominant factors affecting the
use of the soil. These physical properties are important in that;
i). They determine the movement of water movement in the soil (hydraulic response)
ii). They determine the availability of oxygen
iii). They facilitate ease of root penetration

29
 iv). They determine the thermo response i.e. how the temperatures respond in
different soils in terms of how they influence germination and growth of a plant.
Temperatures influence soil microbial activity

1. SOIL TEXTURE
-This is the relative proportions of various ultimate soil particle sizes and how they are
distributed i.e. the grain size in the soil in terms of sand, clay, silt and gravel.
-The soil particle-size groups (sand, silt and clay) are also called soil separates. If
particles are more than 2mm in diameter then it is gravel, if 2-0.2mm its sand, 0.2-
0.02mm its fine sand, 0.02-0.002mm is silt and less than 0.002mm in diameter is clay.

Importance of soil texture

-Soil texture will in part determine;
 Water intake rates (absorption)
 Water storage in the soil
 Ease of tilling the soil
 Root zone aeration and will influence soil fertility in general
For instance a coarse sandy soil is easy to till, has plenty of air pores, roots penetrate
easily, easily wetted but it also dries rapidly and loses nutrients plant nutrients easily
through leaching in rapidly draining water
Assignment: explain clay and silt soils in relation to the above properties

Soil textural classes

There are two common and relatively simple methods of determination of soil class using
texture as the parameter/criterion (sand, silt, clay and loam)
i). ‘feel’ method
This field method. Soil is rubbed between the thumb and fingers. Wetting the soil is
important in order to estimate plasticity more accurately. The sticker the wet soil, the
higher the clay content, silt is floury or talcum-powder feel when dry and only slightly
plastic and sticky when wet. Sandy soil is gritty. Experience is important for accuracy.
ii). Laboratory method
Textural names are given to soils based upon the relative proportions of each of the three
soil separates (sand, silt and clay). Loam soil does not exhibit dominancy of any of these
three groups. It does however exhibit approximately equal properties of sand, silt and
clay.
-The textural triangle is used to determine the soil textural name after the percentage of
sand, silt and clay are determined from laboratory analysis.

-Particle-size (mechanical) analysis

This is the procedure used to separate a soil into various size groups from the coarsest
sand, through silt to the finest clay. Screening through different size sieves is used.
Humus is removed through oxidising (destroying) using hydrogen peroxide before
particle-size separation is done. Particles with over 2mm or gravel are considered
separately.

30
Stokes’ law
Stokes’ law of settling velocities states that when a small spherical particle falls under the
action of gravity through a given viscous fluid. It finally acquires a constant velocity
which is directly proportional to the square of the radius of the particle and inversely
proportional to the viscosity of the fluid

V= D2 (Рp – Pw)g or V= 2gr2(Рp – Pw) D2= 4r2

18ŋ 9ŋ
Where V= velocity of fall (cm/second)
g= acceleration of gravity (cm/sec2)
D= diameter of particle (cm) (D2= 4r2)
Pp= density of particle (g/cm3)
Pw= density of solution (g/cm3)
ŋ= viscosity of the solution (g/cm/sec)

 The densities, gravity and viscosity can be expressed by a constant k so V= kD2

NB: This law is only appropriate in soils because the soil particles are not spherical, not
smooth and vary in mineral density.

2. SOIL STRUCTURE
This refers to the relative proportion of sands, silt and clay in soil i.e. how these particles
are grouped together into stable collections or aggregates.
-It can also be defined as the arrangement of individual soil particles in respect to each
other into a pattern or shape.
-Natural aggregates are called peds while artificial aggregates are called clods

Soil structural classes

-Soil structural units (natural aggregates or peds) are described by three characteristics;
 Type: which is reflected by the shape
 Class; which is described by the size
 Grade; which is determined by the strength of cohesion together

Types of structure
a) Granular; small particles that are separate. Crumb; porous than granular
b) Prismatic; vertical axis is longer than horizontal axis. The tops are flat or
pointed
c) Blocky; 5-50mm in size. They are in B horizon. Can be angular or sub-
angular
d) Spheroidal; has a size of 1-10mm. they are found in A horizon and often
in granules
e) Platy; is 1-10mm; found in all horizons. Horizontal axis is longer than
vertical axis
f) Columnar; vertical axis is longer than horizontal axis and the tops are
curve-smoothened

Classes of structure

31
These are the ped sizes i.e. very fine, fine, coarse and very coarse.

Structure grades
These are evaluated by the stability or strength of the peds i.e. weak, moderate and
strong.
-Structure-less soil is single grained and shows no observable aggregation
-Soil structure influences many important properties of the soil such as the rate of
infiltration of water. Both granular and single-grain (structure-less) have rapid infiltration
rates. Platy and massive soil conditions have slow infiltration rates

Some processes which cause the formation of soil structure

 Freezing and thawing of the soil
 Wetting and drying of the soil (swelling and shrinking)
 Plant roots and animal activities in the soil
 Human activities

Soil stability/stabilization
Once the structure is formed, it needs to be stabilised. Soil stabilizers can be;
 Organic matter; this has a temporary or permanent influence on soil stability
 Inorganic binders; oxides and hydroxides, carbonates
 Adsorbed cations

The stability of structure

-Structural stability relates to the permanent of soil aggregates and is as important to the
physical character of the soil as is the initial development forms.
-Generally the degree of stability is a reflection of the chemical and biological state of the
soil

Factors influencing the stability of soil structure

i). Kind of ions (cations) adsorbed cations countering the negative charge of clays.
Maximum bonding and stability is afforded by ions of high valence, principal
among them being Ca2+, Mg2+ or Al3+
-Monovalent ions especially Na+ provides relatively weak bonding forces between
particles. Such a structure breaks easily hence erosion. The soil formed is also poorly
aerated because of the lack of large, structure-related pore spaces. To improve this
condition, Na+ is replaced by Ca+ (puddling: destroying soil structure when one
works on a very wet soil leading to a massive state)
ii). Cementation; the chief cementing inorganic agents are lime, silica and
sesquioxides. Aggregates stability is especially desirable in soils of humid tropics;
otherwise the heavy rains would results to immense erosion problems
iii). Cementation can also be aided by organic matter such as gums, wax,
polysaccharides etc. (cementation can also be enhanced by combined action of
organic and inorganic matters). Fungal mycelia can be a binding agent
-Cementing action of the intermediate products of microbial synthesis and decay
such as gums certain polysaccharides

32
 -The cementing action of the more resistant stable humus components aided by
inorganic compounds such as oxides of iron
NB: Aggregate (soil) stability is not entirely an organic phenomenon but there
exists continued interaction between organic and inorganic components such as
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+
-Films of clay called ‘clay-skins’ often surround the soil peds and help to provide
stability
-The noted stability of aggregates in red and yellow soils of tropical and
subtropical areas is due to the hydrated oxides of iron. The larger the aggregates
present in any particular soil the lower is their stability.
-Soil stability is of great importance. Some soil aggregates readily succumb to the
rains and man’s activities like cultivation. Others resist disintegration thus
maintaining suitable soil structure.

Soil consistence
-Soil consistence describes the resistance of a soil at various moisture contents to
mechanical stresses or manipulation. Resistance to reshaping or rupturing during
cultivation or erosion. Cohesion and adhesion are the main forces involved.
Consistence can be measured by manipulating by hand or pulling a tillage
(implement) instrument through it.
-Consistence is measured at three moisture conditions
a) Consistence in wet soils is described in terms of stickiness and
plasticity. Plasticity is the capacity of soil to be moulded and
maintain that shape when the stress is removed
b) Consistence in moist soils can be described as;
-very friable; coherent but easily crushed
-loose; non-coherent
-friable; easily crushed
-firm; crushable only under moderate pressure
-very firm; crushable only strong pressure
-extremely firm; resistance to crushing between thumb and
forefinger
c) Consistence in dry soils
-loose; non-coherent
-soft; breaks to powdery mass under slight pressure between thumb
And forefinger
-slightly hard; breaks under moderate pressure
-hard; high pressure needed to break it
-very hard; can’t be broken between thumb and forefinger
-extremely hard; can’t be broken in the hand
NB: Oxides of agents such as iron, aluminium, calcium carbonate and silica influence
consistence in some soil horizons

3. BULK DENSITY (Pp)

-Density is the mass of an object per unit volume. Water is the conventional reference for
density measurements;

33
-Densities of some materials
Material g/cm3
Water 1
Pine wood 0.1
Lose sand 1.6
Quartz mineral 2.6
Common steel 7.7
Lead metal 11.3
Mercury metal 13.5

-Bulk density is the weight of a dry soil as it exists naturally in the field. It includes any
air space and the organic matter materials. Moisture is not included.
-It is calculated by getting the dry weight of soil divided by the volume of soil
Bulk density (Pp) = dry weight (oven dry soil at 105˚C)
Soil volume
-High bulk density of about 1.6mg/cm3 has low porosity, poorly aerated and compact.
Soils with high percentage of loam have bulk density of 1.6mg/cm3, and those with high
sand percentage have a bulk density of 1.3mg/cm3. But sandy soils have high bulk
density if organic matter content is low.
-The cultivation and management employed on a given soil is likely to influence its bulk
density especially of the surface layers.
-Soils with high proportion of pore space have lower bulk densities.

4. PARTICLE DENSITY
-This is mass or weight of a unit volume of soil solids only. The pore spaces are not
considered. The dominant minerals are quartz, feldspars, micas and clay minerals which
average approximately 2.65g/cm3
Ps = Dry weight of solids
Volume of solids

5. POROSITY (f)
Pore spaces (voids) in a soil consist of that portion of the soil not occupied by solids
(organic and mineral). It is the volume of the empty space
f = volume of voids
Volume of soil
-The percentage of a given volume of soil occupied by pore space may be calculated
from the formula
Ep = % pore space
= 100 - % solid space
= 100 – (Pb/Ps x 100)
= 100 (1- Pb/Ps)

Significance of soil porosity

-In green houses and in nursery beds, water infiltration, retention and drainage are very
important. These factors plus costs have transformed much of the container grown plant
industry into one using mixtures of ground bark, expanded sericulture, peat and partite.

34
-These minerals will hold about 15-20% water against drainage.
NB: The primary methods to increase large pores are the use of high proportions of sand
and/or organic materials. The advantage of these large pores is that they provide for
adequate drainage and aeration.

6. SOIL COLOUR
-Dark soils absorb more heat than lighter soils. Some black coal mining wastes and dark-
coloured oil-shale residues reach 65˚C-70˚C which is lethal to life forms.
-Dark coloured humic soils hold more water. This water requires more heat to warm and
hence the net result is that many dark coloured soils may not be warmer than adjacent
lighter coloured soils.
-Soil colour may indicate the following;
 Mineral origin of the soil
 Level of aeration, spots (mottles), rust coloured may indicate inadequate aeration
 Bluish, greyish and greenish sub-soils (gleying) indicate water-logging and low
aeration
 Dark colour may indicate presence of organic matter but this differs with climatic
conditions
 White colours are common with carbonates (lime) and silica

Munsell colour charts

Soil colour determination is standardised and determined by the comparison of the soil
colour to Munsell colour charts
-Soil colour notation is divided into three parts
 Hue; the dominant spectral or rainbow colour (red, yellow, blue or green)
 Value; the relative blackness or whiteness, intensity of a colour or the amount of
reflected light
 Chroma; purity of the colour, strength or saturation of a colour. It is inversely
related to greyness

7. SOIL MOISTURE/WATER
-A representative soil in a cultivated field contains approximately 50% solid particles
(sand, silt, clay and organic matter), 25% air and 25% water. Only half of this water is
available to plants because of the mechanics of water storage in the soil.
-Soil is held in soils because of the attraction between unlike charges. The positively
charged hydrogen ion of water is attracted to nearby negatively charged ions such as
oxygen even to the oxygen of the adjacent molecule.
-Most minerals are composed of 75-80% by volume of oxygen. Hydrogen of water bond
strongly to these surface oxygen atoms by adhesive bonding. The hydrogen of water is
also attracted to oxygen of other water molecules including those already adsorbed to the
soil particle surfaces. The attraction of like molecules for each other is cohesive bonding.
-When fatty or oily substances which are low in oxygen coat the soil particles, water is
not attracted to the coated surfaces. Such soils are called water-repellent soils. They are
formed in nature under many plant covers and forest fires which tend to vaporise oils and

35
resins then drive them into the soil where they coat soil particles and cause them to resist
wetting.
-Strong combined adhesion and cohesion forces cause water films of considerable
thickness to be held on the surface of soil particles. Because the forces holding water in
soil are surface attractive forces, the more surface (the more clay and organic matter) a
soil has the greater is the amount of dissolved water.
-Because adsorbed water is less free to move than is water in a pool adsorbed water has
less free energy than water in the pool (zero potential). Therefore adsorbed water always
has a negative potential work and work must be done to remove water to a free pool of
water. Water potential is measured in bars
-The water potential in a soil varies. Water that is adjacent to a particle surfaces has a
power potential than has water on the outside portion of thick water films. Water is held
more tightly as the negative value increases.

Soil water classification

Classification of water relates to plant growth and is classified as;
i). Gravitational (drainage) water; is the portion of soil water that will drain freely
from the soil by the force of gravity. It is held at a potential of -1/3 bar.
ii). Plant-available water; is the portion of stored soil water that can not be absorbed
fast enough by plat roots to sustain life. It has water potential between -1/3 and 15
bars. The water held within theses potentials make up most of the storage water
used by plants. Crop plants wilt if only -15 bar water is present because the water
loss through transpiration is faster and greater than that amount absorbed by roots
at these low moisture potentials.
iii). Permanent wilting point (wilting point); is the percentage of soil water held with
water potential less than -15 bars. It is held so strongly that plants are not able to
absorb it fast enough for their needs. In contrast to temporary wilting, the wilting
point indicates low moisture availability in such conditions wilting plants do not
recover except when additional water is added to the soil.
iv). Field capacity; is the percentage of soil moisture that is held with water potential
more than -1/3 bar and is a measure of the greatest amount of water that a soil can
hold or store under conditions of complete wetting followed by free drainage.
Field values are used to determine the amount of irrigation water needed and the
amount of stored soil water available to plants

Factors affecting moisture holding capacity of soils

 Soil texture; large air pores to drain by gravitational flow. Small pores
retain water by capillary force. Soils with swelling montmorillonite clays
and hold more water than a soil with similar amounts of kaolinite and
sesquioxides clays which do not admit water between clay layers.
Medium textured soils have the unique combination of pores small
enough to hold large amounts of water at high water potentials (held
loosely) and relatively small amount of total surface which holds low
amounts of water at low water potentials (held tightly in clays). Because
of these conditions the largest amount of plant –available water is found
in silt loams and other high silt soils

36
  Organic matter; the higher the humus content in soil the larger the
amount of water the soil can store
 Soil structure;

Soil water measurements

The water content of soil is measured in four ways; gravimetric method, tensiometres,
electrical conductivity and by radioactive devices
i). Gravimetric method
-This is the classical procedure used as the check for all other methods.
-A soil is sampled, put into a container, weighed in the sampled condition (moist)
condition, oven-dried and weighed again after drying. Drying is done at 105-110˚C to a
constant weight.
-The mass water percentage (Pm) is calculated on the basis of dry weight
% water = wet soil weight – oven dry weight
Oven-dry soil weight
-Measuring water volume; since plants absorb water from a volume of soil, the volume of
water content (θv)
θv = volume of water = weight of water (Pw)
bulk vol of soil weight of soil (Pb)

Example
A soil sample taken from a field was placed in a can, weighed, dried in an oven at 105˚C
and reweighed. The measurements were; moist plus can (159g), oven-dried soil plus can
(134g) empty can (41g). Calculate the moisture content of this soil when it was sampled
(26.9%).
NB: Water volume is used to
 determine the amount of water a soil contains or can store
 how much irrigation water needs to be added
 how much water has evaporated or transpired
 how much deeply rainfall or irrigation would wet a soil

ii). Tensiometers
-These measure the matric potential of soil moisture with the use of porous clay cup
attached to a tube filled with water. The water in the cup and tube is attached t a vacuum
gauge or a mercury manometer. As the soil dries, water moves out through the porous
cup creating a suction or vacuum on the water column. These suction readings are then
calibrated on the gauge to a specific soil to interpret the percentage of moisture.
-Tensiometers can be used to schedule irrigation by placing one instrument at a depth of
maximum root density; a second instrument may be placed near the bottom of the active
root zone. Automatic irrigation systems would have a vacuum sensing valve attached to a
permanently installed tensiometers. Sugarcane and potatoes are two crops with which
water control by tensiometer measurement has been successfully used.
NB: The limitation of tensiometers is that they do not measure soil matric potential
values as low as the usual wilting values.

37
-Tensiometers are more useful in measuring moisture in sandy soils than in the fine-
textured ones because the matric potentials of most of the plant available water are higher
in sandy soils than in clayey soils.

iii). Resistance blocks

This is based upon the principle that electrical conductivity decreases with decrease in
soil moisture.
-Soluble salts (ions) in water carry electrons which form an electrical current; the more
ions present the more electrical current carried. The thicker the water films the more ions
between the block electrodes. For use, the conductivity or resistance reading for various
moisture contents must be calibrated for each soil that the blocks would be used in.

Saturated and unsaturated water flows

-When water moves mainly due to gravity which is at moisture potentials larger than -1/3
bar, the movement is called saturated flow.
-Unsaturated flow is the flow of water held with water potentials lower than -1/3 bar. The
gravitational force is no longer strong enough to cause flow.

Saturated flow
-This begins with infiltration of water. When the soil profile is wetted the movement of
more water flowing through the wetted soil is termed as percolation. The percolating
water moving through the soil and the substrata carries away nutrients and other salts
dissolved from the soil.
-The factors that control the rate of water movement into the soil are;
 The percentage sand, silt and clay. Coarse sands permit rapid infiltration
 The soil structure; fine textured soil with water-stable aggregates (granular
structure) have higher infiltration than massive (structure-less) soils
 Amount of organic matter in the soil; the greater the amount of organic matter and
the coarser it is the more water that enters the soil
 The depth of the soil to hardpan, bedrock or other impervious layers; shallow soils
do not permit as much water to enter as do deep soils if they are similar in texture
and structure
 The amount of water in the soil; wet soils do not have as high infiltration as do
moist or dry soils
 Soil temperature; warm soils take in water faster than cold soils
 Compaction; it reduces pore space and slows infiltration

Classification of infiltration
i). Very low; soils with infiltration rates of less than 0.25cm/hour. Soils have
very high percentage of clay
ii). Low; infiltration of 0.25-1.25 cm/hour. Soils are shallow, high in clay or
low in organic matter
iii). Medium; infiltration rates of 1.25-2.5 cm/hour. Soils in this group are loams
and silts.
iv). High; rates of infiltration greater than 2.5 cm/hour. These are deep sands,
deep well-aggregated silt loams and tropical soils with high porosity.

38
Unsaturated flow
The flow of water is held with water potential of lower than -1/3 bar. Water will move
towards the region of lower potential. In a uniform soil this means that water moves from
wetter to drier areas. The rate of flow is greater as the water potential gradient increases
and the size of water-filled pores also increases.
-Unsaturated water movement is rapid through fine sand or well-aggregated loams
(larger loams) and slower through very fine and poorly aggregated clayey soils (small
pore sizes)
NB: Any type of land use that adds organic matter, living or dead results in a soil that is
more open, porous and easily penetrated by water. Planting trees, leaving crop residues,
adding manure and rotational grazing contribute to more porous soil structure increasing
infiltration and reducing runoff.

Moisture availability to plants

Water in plants is absorbed by the following mechanisms;
 Passive absorption; this is the pulling force on soil water by the continuous water
column up through the plant cells as water is lost by transpiration.
 Root extension; because the water movement to roots by unsaturated flow occurs
only over very short distances of a few millimetres maximum per day, root
extension is important in aiding the plant’s absorption of moisture, particularly
when the soil root zone holds no gravitational water.
 Active transport; is absorption in which the plant must expend considerable
energy. The selective accumulation of soluble ions, which increases a plant’s
soluble salt content (osmotic potential) which can lead to active absorption.
Active absorption accounts for considerable portion of absorbed water during low
water needs.

SOIL AGGREGATES
Nature of soil aggregates
-Soil aggregate refers to a group of soil particles joined together so as to behave
mechanically as a unit. Aggregation in soils depends primarily on the cohesive nature of
the finer particles and on natural forces that organise and retain them in specific natural
units (peds) of definable shape and size.
-Soil aggregates are stabilised by;
 Cations involved in countering the negative charge of clays or soil colloids.
Principal among these are Ca2+, Mg2+ or Al3+. Maximum bonding and stability is
afforded by ions of high valence (Ca2+, Mg2+ or Al3+). Mono-valence ions
especially Na+ provides relatively weak bonding between particles. Na+ leads to
unstable and easily eroded soil, poor aeration due to lack of large structure related
pore spaces.
 Cementation; the chief cementing agents are lime, silica and sesquioxides. The
latter is very vital more so in tropical regions
 Organic matter; the mucilaginous materials or organic colloids bind clay particles
in a stable union.

39
Dispersion
-This refers to the process of breaking up of soil aggregates into small individual
component particles and the distribution of such particles.
Factors favouring dispersion of colloids
 High state of hydration forming suspension
 Absence of oppositely charged colloids or particles in the same system
 Mechanical movements
-Dispersion is disadvantageous since it makes the soil system unstable

Flocculation
-Flocculation involves coming together of soil colloids mainly from a suspension to form
a massive unit.
Conditions that favour flocculation
 Dehydration
 High electrolyte content
 Presence of an oppositely charged colloid

Swelling and shrinkage

-Expansion and contraction associated with wetting and drying, freezing and thawing and
particularly with gain and loss of material through migration, leaching and primary
mineral alteration contribute to the formation of the bulk density profile.

Cementation and de-cementation

-The term cementation is used to the consolidation of soil material by means of
cementing materials such as FeCO3, Al2O2 and/or SiO2
-De-cementation is the removal of the cementing agents resulting to desegregation of a
material

Other properties of colloids and aggregates

 Plasticity; soils containing more than 15% clay exhibit plasticity. This is the
pliability and capacity to be moulded. The particles easily slide over each other
much like planes of glass with films of water between them. Plasticity is exhibited
only when soils are moist or wet. Excess water makes the soil to cease to be
plastic. Plasticity of the soil is used to determine strength of the soil in
engineering work e.g. in buildings or highway bed. It also determines soil
structure hence tillage operations. Fine textured soil when it is too wet will limit
aeration and drainage e.g. in montmorillonite
 Cohesion; this refers to attraction of the colloidal particles for each other. This is
closely related to plasticity. Montmorillonite and illite exhibit cohesion to a much
more degree than does kaolinite or hydrous oxides. Humus by contrast tends to
reduce the attraction of individual particles for each other. Adhesion is the
attraction of unlike particles.
 Swelling and shrinkage; silicate clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage properties.
Expanding crystal lattice as in the case with montmorillonite, extreme

40
 (expanding) swelling may occur upon wetting. Kaolinite and most hydrous oxide
with static lattice do not exhibit the phenomenon to any extent, illite and
vermiculite are intermediate. After prolonged dry spell soils high in
montmorillonite often experience wide deep cracks.
 Dispersion; this refers to repulsion of particles by each other thus each act
independently. This is caused by the colloidal net negative charge.
 Flocculation; is the coming together of micelles when there is an increased
concentration of cations in the system. This stabilises the soil.

SOIL COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES

The colloidal state refers to a two phase system in which one phase in a very finely
divided state is dispersed through a second phase which is a bit coarse. Examples of
colloidal states are milk and cheese, clouds and fog, soil etc.
-In nature colloids are found as emulsions, aerosols or gels.
-Emulsions is where a liquid is dispersed in a liquid e.g. fat globules in water
-Aerosols is where a solid or liquid is dispersed in a gas e.g. smoke (carbon is solid), fog
(liquid in a gas)
-Gels is where a solid is dispersed in a liquid
-The most active portions of the soil are those in the colloidal state. There are two types
of colloidal matter; organic and inorganic
-Inorganic are almost exclusively of clay minerals of various kinds
-The organic colloids are represented by humus

SOIL COLLOIDS: THEIR NATURE AND PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The colloidal state refers to a two phase system in which one material/s in a very finely
divided state is dispersed through a second. Examples of colloidal states are milk and
cheese, clouds and fog, soil etc.
-The upper limit in size of the mineral colloidal particles is less than 0.001mm or one
micron or even 0.5-0.2μ. The maximum size limit of the clay fraction of a soil is
considered to be 0.002mm or 2μ thus not all clay is strictly colloidal
-The most active portions of the soil are those in the colloidal state. The two distinct
types of colloidal matter are;
 Inorganic matter; includes mainly clay minerals
 Organic matter; includes mainly humus
These two exist in intimate intermixture
-Colloidal particles regardless of their composition are made up of a complex negative
radical called the micelle and the adsorbed cations. Micelles are minute silicate-clay
colloidal particles ordinarily carrying negative charges
-Adsorption is the attraction of ions or compounds to the surface of a solid. Soil colloids
(negative) adsorb large amounts of ions (cations) and water.

Organic soil colloids-humus

A highly charged anion (micelle) is surrounded by adsorbed cations
Comparison between organic (humus) and inorganic micelles (silicates)
 The complex humus micelle is composed basically of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen rather than of Aluminium, silicon and oxygen as are silicate clays

41
  Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of humus per unit weight by far exceeds any of
the silicate clays (even montmorillonite)
 Humus micelle is not considered crystalline as in silicate but the size of individual
particles although extremely variable may be at least as small as montmorillonite
 Humus is not as stable as silicate and is thus somewhat more dynamic, being
formed and destroyed much more rapidly than clay
 Humus is not a specific compound nor does it have a single structural make-up as
does silicate
 The major sources of negative charge in humus are thought to be partially
neutralised carboxylic (-COOH) and Phenolic ( OH) groups associated with
central units of varying sizes and complexity
-Carboxyl groups (-COOH-) and phenolic hydroxyl groups ( O-) ( O-) attracted
to aromatic rings) are the major source of negative sites for adsorption of cations

NB: -COOH and OH lose (exchange) H+ for other cations as shown above
-Under strongly acid conditions hydrogen is tightly bound and not easily replaceable by
other cations. The organic colloid therefore exhibits a low negative charge. With the
addition of bases and consequent rise in alkalinity (rise in pH), first hydrogen from the
carboxyl groups and then the hydrogen from the phenolic groups –COOH and OH
respectively ionises and is replaced by Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, NH4+ etc.
-On the basis of solubility in acids and alkalis, humus is thought to be made up of three
classes;
 Fulvic acid humus, soluble in acids and bases
 Humic acid humus, soluble in alkali only
 Humin, highest in molecular weight and darkest in colour (followed by humic in
both properties) is soluble in acids and alkalis
-In humid regions, Ca2+, Al3+ and H+ are by far the most numerous. The order of strength
of adsorption of metallic cations when they are present in equivalent quantities is
Al>Ca>Mg>K>Na (H+ which is a non metallic cation will rank second in the above
order)

Inorganic colloids (clays)

Two groups of clays are recognised;
i). Silicate clays; which are common in temperate regions e.g. kaolinite, illite,
montmorillonite, vermiculite (micas). It is important to note that some are
expanding and others are non-expanding clays in the examples above.
ii). Iron and aluminium hydrous oxide clays (sesquioxides). This class is less dominant
in the most developed agricultural regions of the world.
-Allophane and other amorphous minerals are in significant quantities in some soils.
They are generally non-crystalline colloidal matter but made-up of sesquioxides and
silicate clay components. They therefore may be a separate class of clays in some
authorities.

42
Silicate clays
 Shape: they are made up of layers of plates or flakes. Their individual sizes and
shapes depend upon their mineralogical organizations and the conditions under
which they have developed. Micas are hexagonal e.g. kaolinite, montmorillonite
and illite are irregularly plate or flake-like
 Surface area: clays have large surface due to their fineness
 Electronegative charge and adsorbed cations: the minute silicate-clay colloid
particles referred to as micelles (micro-cells) ordinarily carry negative charges.
The positively charged ions (cations) are attracted to each colloid crystal. This
results to ionic double layer. Inner being negatively charged and the outer
positively charged. The adsorbed cations often coming in hydrated form brings
with them water.
 Adsorption of cations: in humid regions, adsorption of cations in order of their
numbers are H+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+. For well drained, arid and semi-arid
region soils, the order of exchangeable cations is usually Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+
> H+
NB: the exchangeable bases exclude H+ and Al3+ which are acidic

FUNDAMENTALS OF SILICATE CLAY STRUCTURE

X-rays, electron microscopy and other techniques have shown that the silicate clay
particles are definitely crystalline

Silica tetrahedral and alumina octahedral layers

-Most silicate clays are aluminosilicates i.e. there are both aluminium and silicon
components of the clay structure
-One silicon structure surrounded by four oxygen atoms makes up the silicon tetrahedron,
so called because of its’ four sided configuration
-One aluminium atom surrounded by six hydroxyls or oxygen(s) is an eight sided
structure called octahedron.
-A chain of silica tetrahedron units will form a silica layer while a chain of aluminium
octahedron units will form an aluminium layer of clay or sheet of clay (Tetrahedral sheet
and octahedral sheet). These two basic layers in different stacking arrangements and
combinations provide the fundamental structural units of silicate clays. The layers are
bound (together) to each other within the clay crystals by shared oxygen atoms

NB: The silicon in the tetrahedral layer and the aluminium in the octahedral layer can be
replaced by ions of comparable size but of lower charge. Silicon with four charges Si4+ is
replaced by trivalent aluminium (Al3+) by a process called isomorphous substitution.
Other atoms of higher valence can also be substituted by those of lower valence.
-Isomorphous substitution of three-valence aluminium for four-valence silicon is
responsible for the net negative charge in an otherwise neutral silicate layer.
-The ionic radius will determine substitution as the two ions should be almost of the same
size

43
Mineralogical organization of silicate clays
Silicate clays differ in their properties depending on the number and arrangement of the
tetrahedral (silica) and octahedral (alumina) layers contained in the crystal units. These
layers are represented in ratio of each other.

i). 1:1 clays/minerals crystal lattice e.g. kaolinite

-The units are made up of one silica (tetrahedral) layer alternating with one alumina
(octahedral) layer. Oxygen atoms are shared by the silicon and aluminium atoms in their
respective layers. Hydrogen in hydroxyls of alumina sheet form hydrogen bonding
between the two sheets. This tight bonding is so rigid that the lattice can not expand when
wet. The cations and water can not penetrate between the structural units of the micelle.
-Due to this bonding, contrary to other clays, plasticity, cohesion, shrinkage and swelling
properties are very low in kaolinite clay

OH OH OH OH OH OH OH

Al Al Al Al Al

O O OH O O O OH

Si Si Si Si

O O OO O O O OO O O

ii). 2:1 silicate clays (expanding clays)

-The crystal units of these minerals are characterised by alumina (octahedral) sheet
sandwiched between two silica (tetrahedral) layers e.g. montmorillonite and vermiculite.
-the crystal units are loosely held together by very weak oxygen to oxygen linkages.
Molecules of water and cations are attracted between crystal units causing expansion of
the crystal lattice.
-Isomorphous substitution of magnesium for the aluminium in the octahedral sheet and to
a lesser extent substitution of aluminium for silicon in the tetrahedral sheet leaves
montmorillonite crystals with a high net negative charge hence attracts H+, Al3+, Ca2+, K+
etc. this makes montmorillonite to have high cation adsorption capacity (perhaps 10-15
times that of kaolinite)
-The clay is signified by plasticity, highly cohesive and marked shrinkage on drying. The
montmorillonite clays dry to very hard clods, making tillage difficult. It is also very
sticky when wet.
NB: Vermiculite has 2:1 crystal lattice but there is octahedral layer is dominated by
magnesium rather than aluminium. Three magnesium being in place of two aluminium
atoms (thus the charges are equal), this is due to isomorphous substitution.

44
-In the tetrahedral layer of vermiculites there is considerable substitution of aluminium
for silicon. This often results to net negative charge in vermiculite.
-Vermiculite has limited expansion when wet.
-Vermiculite has the highest cation adsorption capacity over all other silicate clays
including montmorillonite. This is due to the net negative charge in the tetrahedral layer.

2:1 clay non-expanding minerals (illite)

-These are the hydrous micas. Illite is the most common and important in soils.
-About 15% of the tetrahedral silicon sites are occupied by aluminium atoms. This results
to a high net negative charge in the layer. K+ are attracted to satisfy the negative charges

2: 2 type minerals
This group is represented by chlorites. These are basically silicates of magnesium with
iron and aluminium present.
-Magnesium dominates the octahedral layer
-The crystal unit contains two silica tetrahedral sheets and two magnesium (replaces
aluminium) octahedral sheets, hence 2:2 clay.
-It is non-expanding clay
NB: the specific clay groups do not occur independent of each other in any soil but occur
in an intimate mixture. Hence there are chlorite-illite, illite-montmorillonite etc.

[Link] Mineral clays

This group is similar to 2:2 clay minerals. With [Link] clay minerals, two silica tetrahedral
sheets are attached to one alumina sheet and a magnesium sheet hence [Link] crystal
lattice.
the genesis of silicate clays or the sources are minerals such as feldspars, amphiboles and
pyroxenes

OCCURRENCE AND PROPERTIES OF IRON AND ALUMINIUM OXIDES

(SESQUIOXIDES)
-Sesquioxides can be studied for two main reasons;
a) They are dominant in the most highly weathered soils of the tropics and subtropics
b) They occur with silicate clays in temperate regions
Examples; gibbsite (Al2O3.3H2O), goethite (Fe2O3.H2O) or in their hydroxide form as
Al(OH)3 and FeOH for gibbsite and goethite respectively

Properties of sesquioxides
 Some have crystalline structure and amorphous e.g. Allophane
 At high pH values the small particles may carry a small negative charge hence
attract cations
 At low pH some acidic soils have the iron and aluminium oxides positively
charged thus get adsorbed to the large silicate clays which carry negative charges
thereby reduce the capacity of the silicate to adsorb cations

45
  Sesquioxides are not sticky, plastic and cohesive as are the silicates. This makes
the soils dominated by aluminium and iron oxides to have much better physical
condition
 They are highly negative but can carry some positive charges thus attract some
anions
 They don’t swell

CARBON-NITROGEN RELATIONSHIPS AND ORGANIC MATTER DECAY

-A reasonably consistent relationship exists between decomposition and the nitrogen or
carbon in plant residues. Decaying proceeds most rapidly with material of high nitrogen
and carbon contents. Lack of nitrogen in a residue restricts by limiting microbial agents.
-Sugars and starches which are subject to rapid decay usually contain less than 45%
carbon. Lignin and other decay-resistant compounds may contain more than 60% contain.
-Narrow carbon-nitrogen ratios associated with rapid decay customarily lie within the
range of 20:1-30:1 where as ratios above 80:1-100:1 normally signify slow
decomposition.
-Plant maturation leads to a decrease in the protein (N) content and a build up of
carbonaceous structural tissue high in cellulosic resinous materials and lignin thus
increase in carbon-nitrogen ratio.
-During controlled decomposition in the laboratory, the slower the rate of carbon-dioxide
release indicates slower rate of decay. This means that the material has a wide carbon-
nitrogen ratio e.g. 400:1.

Ion adsorption
-Adsorption is the attraction of ions or compounds to the surface of a solid. Micelle can
be seen as the soil colloid nucleus.
-Soil colloids, organic or inorganic units or small soil particles with a large surface area
are negatively charged. They therefore attract positive charged ions (cations). The
common order of the commonly adsorbed cations when they are present in equivalent
quantities is; Al3+>H+>Ca2+>Mg2+>K+>NH4+>Na+
-In semi-arid regions where calcium is high, aluminium and hydrogen ions are easily
replaced by calcium. Aluminium ions form insoluble compounds.
-Other factors determining replacement of ions are; concentration of an ion, valence and
ionic properties such as the size, degree of hydration and ease of movement

Cation exchange
-Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of one atom by another of similar size in a
crystal lattice without changing the crystal (physical) structure of the mineral. Study

46
shows that most substitutions are that lower charged particles replace higher charged ones
e.g. Mg2+ replacing Al3+ and Al3+ replacing Si4+ but the quantities should be equivalent.
-This means that upon isomorphous substitution, the soil colloid is left with more
negatively charged sites which need to be filled (neutralised). This exchange of one
positive ion by another is called cation exchange.
-Cation proportions in the soil are changed by leaching, fertilizer application e.g. NH 4+,
plant absorption among others. K+, NH4+ and Ca2+ are easily adsorbed thus don’t go far or
leach to greater depth. But this makes them less mobile.
-Exchange of adsorbed calcium by hydrogen is represented below;
Ca[micelle] + 2H+ 2H+[micelle] + Ca2+
-In natural conditions, a more complex reaction occurs but with the same principle e.g. if
new have Ca2+, Al3+, H+ and other metallic cations (M+) is the ratio of 40, 20, 20 and 20
per micelle respectively; the equation could be as follows with H2CO3

[Micelle] + 5H2CO3 [Micelle] + 2Ca(HCO3)2 + M(HCO3)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

This is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil.
-It can be seen as the number of cation adsorption sites per unit weight of soil or sum
total of exchangeable cations adsorbed expressed in milli-equivalents per 100grams of
oven-dry soil
-An equivalent (quantity) weight is that quantity that is chemically equal (equal charges)
to 1gm of hydrogen. The number of hydrogen atoms in an equivalent weight is the
Avogadro’s number (6.03 x 1023) i.e. hydrogen which has a valence of one its 1gm has
6.02 x 1023 which is one equivalent.
One milli-equivalent = equivalent/1000 (for hydrogen = 1gm/1000=0.001gm)
-An equivalent is the weight of a substance that will replace or be displaced by one gram
of hydrogen.
-CEC can be expressed in terms of milli-equivalents (M.e/100gm) or cent-moles
(cmol/kg)
One milli-equivalent per 100gm of soil = 1cmol of positive or negative charge/kg of soil
But the mass number is used in the calculation of these equivalents
Therefore one mole of hydrogen will give 1gm while one mole of calcium will give
40gms
1milli-equivalent of hydrogen = 0.001gm
1milli-equivalent of calcium= 40/2 x 1000 = 0.02g (since calcium is a bi-charge we
divide by two). This means that 0.001g of H+ will exchange with 0.002g of Ca2+ in
100gm soil.

Factors affecting the cation exchange capacity

 Fineness of soil particles; fine textured soils tend to have higher CEC than sandy
soils
 Organic matter content
 The type(s) of dominant clay types 1:1, 2:1 etc.
 High pH increases CEC.

47
PERCENTAGE BASE SATURATION OF SOILS
-Hydrogen and aluminium tend to dominate acid soils, both contributing to the
concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution.
-Adsorbed hydrogen contributes directly to the H+ concentration in the soil solution. Al3+
contributes indirectly through hydrolysis as illustrated below;

Al3+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+

Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)3 + H

-Most of the other cations called exchangeable bases neutralises soil acidity
-Percentage base saturation is the portion of the cation exchange capacity occupied by
exchangeable bases. The higher the percentage base saturation in the soil the higher the
pH.
-Exchangeable bases are calcium, magnesium, zinc, sodium and potassium.
-Exchange acidity is the titratable hydrogen and aluminium that can be replaced from the
adsorption complex by a neutral salt solution
-Zeta potential refers to the general net charge (negative or positive)
-The total cation exchangeable capacity of the soil is the total of exchange sites of both
the organic and mineral colloids. The CEC then would be the total number of milli-
equivalents of cations that the soil is capable of adsorbing.
-Exchangeable cations form hydroxyls as follows;
[Micelle]K + H2O [Micelle]H + K + OH
In solution
% base saturation = sum of exchangeable cations (Na, K, Mg, Ca) x 100
CEC
Some average CEC of soils
a) Clay minerals
 Hydrous oxides 4 M.e/100g of soil
 Kaolinite 10 ,,
 Illite 40 ,,
 Montmorillonite 100 ,,
b) Organic matter 200 ,,
c) Sandy soil >5 ,,
-Fine sand loams 5-10 ,,
d) Clay loams 15-30 ,,

Example
An experiment on determination of exchangeable bases revealed that at a depth of about
20cm a soil contained 12.3 M.e of calcium/100gm of soil, 1.8 M.e of Mg/100gm of soil
and 10 M.e of K/100gm of soil.
Assuming that one hectare to plough to a depth of 20cm has a soil weighing 2,000,000
kg.

48
a) Calculate the amount of calcium, magnesium and potassium contained in the soil in
kg/hectare
b) If the minimum calcium supply for optimum crop growth is 5200kg Ca/ha, comment.
Solution
a) Calcium has a relative mass of 40 and has a valence of two;
Therefore its equivalent is 40/2 = 20g
Its milli-equivalent = 20/1000 =0.02g
-The weight of soil 1ha is 2,000,000kgs
If 100g of the soil gives 0.02g of Calcium what about 2,000,000kg of the same soil?
(Change the units to be in kg values)
0.1kg = 0.00002kg Ca
2,000,000kg = 0.00002 x 2,000,000 = 400kgs Ca
0.1
But there are 12.3 M.e Ca/100g of soil
400 x 12.3 = 4920kg Ca/ha

b) More calcium should be supplied (5200-4920) =280kg calcium per hectare.

Assignment: Calculate the weight of magnesium and potassium.

ANION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (for negatively charged ions)

-The word negative charge implies that positively sites are also present although in lesser
numbers. Certain soil colloids have a net positive charge and attract exchangeable anions.
Such soils exhibit anion exchange instead of cation exchange.
-Soluble anions such as nitrates, chlorides and sulphates are held exchanged on positively
charged surfaces where the cations are repelled and remain in the solution. H2PO4- is also
attracted and held more tightly on the surfaces of iron, aluminium and calcium bearing
minerals by mechanism that operates in either positive or negatively charged soils.
-Soils that show more positive surface charges are characteristically acidic and their
colloidal component is high in kaolinite, iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides but
low in humus and expanding silicate clays. They are undesirable for crop production
because they contain enough aluminium or manganese to be toxic to plants. Many of
these soils have the ability to fix phosphorous in a form that is not available to plants.
Certain tropical acid soils contain colloids with a net positive charge.
-From economic point of view, positive soils may be better than negative soils in that
nitrates are not easily leached

Example 1
Suppose 20g of soil was extracted with 200ml KCl solution and the concentration of
NH4+ in the filtrate was found to be 270ppm. Calculate the CEC of the soil in both
m.e./100g of soil or cmol/kg of soil.

Solution
1cmol/kg soil = 1m.e./100g soil
Ppm – parts per million (mg/litre)
1000000mg = 1000g = 1kg
1ppm = 1part/1000000 parts, 270 is amount of mg/litre

49
1000ml = 1litre thus in 1000ml there is 270mg NH4+

We extracted 20g soil with 200ml KCl

1000ml = 270mg
200ml = 270 x 200 =
1000
To convert to milliequivalent/100g of soil divide by equivalent weight of NH4+
Equivalent weight of NH4+ = molar weight of NH4+
Valence of NH4+
=14+4 = 18 = 270 x 200 x 1 m.e of NH4+
1 1000 18
For 100g soil = 270 x 200 x 1 x 100 =15m.e/100g or 15cmol/kg of soil
1000 18 20

Example 2
Using NH4+, the following ion concentrations were determined for 20g of soil in 200ml.
Ca2+ 100ppm
Mg2+ 30ppm
K+ 78ppm
Na+ 23ppm
Determine
i) Concentration of ions in m.e/100g
ii) Percentage base saturation if CEC is 15m.e/100g

Solution
Ca2+ = 100ppm implies that 1000ml of solution contains 100mg of Ca2+
200ml = 200 x 100
1000
Equivalent weight of Ca2+ = 40/2 = 20
M.e of Ca2+ in 20g soil = 200 x 100 x 1
1000 20
100g soil = 200 x 100 x 1 x 100 = 5m.e Ca2+/100g
1000 20 20
Calculate for Mg (2.5m.e/100g), K+ (2m.e/100g) and Na2+ (1m.e/100g)
2+

ii) Total bases = 5+2.5+2+1 =10.5m.e/100g soil

% base saturation = Total bases x 100 = 10.5/15 x 100 = 70%
CEC

Example 3
The cation exchange capacity of a given soil is made of 0.06g Mg2+, 0.054g NH4+, 0.078g
K+, 0.08g Ca2+ and 0.08g H+
a) Express the CEC In m.e/100g soil
b) Calculate total exchangeable cations in m.e/100g of soil (CEC)
c) Calculate the percentage base saturation

50
d) Calculate exchangeable acidity in m.e/100g of soil

Solution
Change the grams to mg
0.06 x 1000mg Mg2+ = 60mg
Equivalent of Mg2+ = 24/2
M.e/100g = 60/12 = 5m.e/100g of soil
K+ = 2m.e/100g
Ca2+ = 4m.e/100g
H+ = 8m.e/100g

b) Total cations = 5+3+2+4+8 = 22m.e/100g

c) Percentage base saturation = total exchangeable cations x 100

CEC
Total bases = 5+3+2+4 = 14
= 14/22 x 100 = 63.64%

d) Total exchangeable acidity

8/22 x 100 =

IONS IN THE SOIL SOLUTION

Forms of elements used by plants
-There are two general sources of readily available nutrients in the soil
 Nutrients adsorbed on the colloids
 Salts in the soil solution
-In both cases the essential elements are present as ions
-Cations are mostly adsorbed by colloids where as the negatively charged ions (anions)
are found in the soil solution.
-The most important ions present in the soil solution or in the soil colloids are;
 Nitrogen NH4+, NO2-, NO3-
 Phosphorous HPO42-, H2PO4-
 Potassium K+
 Iron Fe2+, Fe3+
 Calcium Ca2+
 Magnesium Mg2+
 Sulphur SO32-, SO42-
 Zinc Zn2+
 Chlorine Cl-
 Boron BO33-
 Copper Cu+, Cu2+
 Manganese Mn2+, Mn4+
 Molybdenum MoO42-
 Water H+, OH-

51
-Nutrient availability is markedly affected by root exudates and by microbial activity in
the vicinity of the roots (the rhizosphre)

Soil buffer capacity

This is the ability of the soil to resist change in pH.
-The buffering capacity depends on percentage of clay and organic matter. The higher the
clay/organic matter the higher the buffering capacity
- The CEC gives the soil most of its buffering capacity
-The colloids contain basic and acidic cations adsorbed on their surfaces of clay and
organic colloids
Adsorbed H+, Al3+ soil solution active acidity leads to increase in basic ions
-This will cause equilibrium to shift to the right. The bases will neutralise acidity leading
to more ions to move to the soil solution from adsorbed surfaces. There will be little
change in pH until enough calcium ions has been added to deplete reserve acidity.

SOIL ACIDITY
The presence of Al3+ and H+ are responsible for soil acidity. The ions can be in soil
solution or adsorbed on soil colloids.
-Total soil acidity is the total quantity of H+ that may be produced in soil when
equilibrium is continually shifted by introduction of hydroxyl (OH-) ions to end point
-Total acidity consists of active acidity and reserve acidity
-Residual acidity is the acidity that remains when active and reserve acidity are removed
Reserve acidity Active acidity
H+, Al3+ (colloids) replaces
Adsorbed on ion colloids ions of Al3+, H+ in solution
-Active acidity arises due to the presence of Al3+ and H+ in solution
-Reserve acidity (exchangeable) arises due to Al3+ and H+ adsorbed on soil colloids

Sources of soil acidity

i). Hydration of aluminium ions
Al3+[micelle] Al3+ + [micelle]
Adsorbed Al3+ soil solution
-Aluminium is hydrolysed by combining with water to form aluminium hydroxyl ions
and aluminium hydroxide

Al3+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+

Al(OH)2+ + H2O Al(OH)2+ + H+
+
Al(OH)2 + H2O Al(OH)3 + H+
H+ + H20 H30+
3+ +
-The Al and H are able to generate acidity that can make soil strongly acidic (pH 3.8-
5.2)
ii). Microbial acid production
Nitrification of organic matter or ammonium ions applied through fertilizers by bacteria.
-Nitrification is the process of enzymatic oxidation by bacteria. Autotrophic bacteria
obtain energy by these chemical reactions

52
NH4+ + 3O2 2NO- + 2H2O + 4H+ + Energy
Nitrosomonas
The hydrogen ions formed during this reaction will increase soil acidity
-Use of certain fertilizers will lead to increased acidity e.g. ammonium sulphate, urea and
DAP which have acidic residues in the soil
iii). Kind of soil forming materials
Materials like pyrite can undergo weathering by oxidation to form sulphuric acid
4FeS2 + 5O2 + H20 Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2SO4 (pH <3.8)
Pyrite
-Soils formed from silica become acidic under humid conditions (argillic clay)
-Other materials include acidic igneous rocks. The materials can affect acidity and
intensity of the acid
iv). Decomposition of organic matter
The acidity can arise from decomposition and composition of leaves and plant parts
(plants like pine, oak are acidic). Micro-organisms under favourable conditions act on
organic matter during decomposition giving rise to organic and inorganic acids (H2SO4,
HCl, HNO3 and –COOH which are moderately acidic)
-Strong organic acids are formed by processes like podzolizations (humus, coniferous
vegetations). Fungi aid in decomposition of organic matter
v). Ionization of carboxylic groups of organic matter
Organic matter contains soil colloids that have carboxylic groups (COOH) and phenolic
groups on central unit of humus
O O
R-C-OH R-C-O- + H+ (pH 5.2-6.5)
-The ionization of carboxylic groups and phenolic groups yields H+ (acidity)
vi). Formation and ionization of carboxylic acid
-Carboxylic acid is formed from reaction between water and carbon dioxide
H2O + CO2 H2CO3
Carbonic acid ionizes to produce H+
H2CO3 CO32- + 2H+
-The acid is weak but can contribute to soil acidity directly and indirectly. H + can lead to
solution of bases and leaching. This acidity from carbonic acid however account for low
pH values.
NB: Processes like leaching/high rainfall contribute increased soil acidity. Bases are
removed through leaching. The percolating water removes basic elements from the soil
leaving behind Al3+, H+ thus low base saturation.

SOIL REACTION
This refers to the degree of soil acidity, alkalinity or neutrality. The soil can be classified
as acid, neutral or alkaline depending on amount of H+ or OH-. This can be measured by
pH.
-pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution
pH = -Log [1/H+] log [H+]
-Hydrogen ions are concentrated at near colloidal surfaces and become less numerous on
the outer portions of water films
OH- vary in numbers inversely with H+

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i.e. at pH 7 OH- = H+ = 10-7
-pH ranges for soils is between 3.5 and 10. Humid regions have soils with pH ranges of
5-6 while arid soils have pH of 6-9.
-Soil colloids are involved in controlling soil reaction e.g. the relative proportion of Al3+,
H+ and exchangeable bases indicate percent base saturation
-The low PBS indicates acidity while high PBS (>80-100) indicates alkalinity or near
neutral. This depends on different micelles/colloids. Organic colloids have strong acid
site thus low pH, low PBS (ionization is rapid with pH 4.5-5.0
-Iron and aluminium hydrous oxides have low dissociates of adsorbed H+ thus high pH
of 6-7
-Silicate clays are an intermediate between organic colloids and aluminium iron
hydroxides with pH of 5.2-5.8.
-Type of adsorbed bases influence the pH of the soil, sodium saturated soils have higher
pH than those accumulated by calcium and magnesium. The bases can arise from
weathering (releases cations from minerals making them available in solution-
adsorption), addition of fertilizers/lime, through irrigation water. Increases in
exchangeable bases contribute to high pH values. The bases contribute to increases in or
high pH values by generating hydroxides
Ca[micelle] + H2O 2H+[micelle] + Ca2+OH-
-The increase in alkalinity is favourable by conditions like arid and semi-arid, low
precipitation (less leaching), weathering bases which replace Al3+, H+ fr4om the soil
solution.

Importance of soil pH on plant nutrition

 pH influences plant nutrient absorption and growth. It affects solubility,
exchangeability of nutrients to plants for absorption
 It affects availability of plant nutrients. Most plant nutrients are available at pH of
6.0-7.0. phosphorous is available at pH of 6-7 but become fixed acidic Ph
H2PO4
Al(OH)3 + 2H2PO4- Al-H2PO4 + 2OH-
OH
Other nutrients whose availability is affected by pH include;
Nitrogen is available at pH above 5.5
Calcium and magnesium are available at 6-8.5
Potassium and molybdenum at 6-9
Boron at 5-7
 At pH below 5.5; aluminium, iron, manganese, zinc, cobalt and copper are found
in quantities that are toxic to plants. These elements are found in high
concentration. At low pH soils are also poor in bases like calcium, magnesium,
potassium due to leaching
 At very high pH bicarbonates (HCO3-) are present in high concentration that can
interfere with uptake of other ions. This is detrimental to plants growth. At high
pH phosphates are also precipitated thus insoluble.
 Low pH (below 5.5) will also affect soil micro-organisms like bacteria and
actinomycetes

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Measurement/determination of soil pH
 Electrometric method- makes use of standard glass electrode with pH meter
where H+ is determined. This method is accurate.
 Dye method- it involves use of indicators and accompanying colour chart. The
method is less accurate.

Factors affecting measurements

 Fertilizer applications
 Seasonal variations

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