UNIT 17 ❑ Art and Architecture & forms and patronage : Maurya

Period
Structure
17.0 Objective
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Art and Architecture in Vedic age
17.3 Origin of Art
17.4 Maurya Period : Perspective
17.4.1 Asokan art : Pillars
17.4.2 Architectural remains
17.4.3 The Stupas
17.4.4 The Caves
17.4.5 Characteristics of the Mauryan Art and Architecture
17.4.6 Foreign influence on the Mauryan art
17.4.7 John Marshall’s view
17.4.8 Criticism
17.4.9 Originality of Mauryan art
17.4.10 Aspects of the Mauryan Art
17.5 Conclusion
17.6 Model Questions
17.7 Suggested Readings

17.0 Objective
● The objective of present unit is to study the charecteristic of Mauryan art and architecture.
● Originality of Mauryan art will be disussed here.
● The Learners may come to know that the foreign influence on Mauryan art from this unit.

17.1 Introduction
The origin and antiquity of art and architecture in India is a very interesting subject and cannot
be discussed here in detail R.P. Chanda held that “the excavations at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro have brought to light ample evidence to show that the worship of images of
human and superhuman beings in yoga postures, both seated and standing, prevailed in the

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Indus Vally in the chalcolithic period”. In fact, many of the numerous terracotta figurines,
unearthed there in course of excavations and tentatively described by Mackay as images of
household gods, are no doubt, bear magnificient signs of art.

17.2 Art and Architecture in Vedic age

The art of poetry was in full bloom as is evidenced by the splendid collection of lyrics known
as the Rik-Samhita, consists of hymns in praise of different gods. A knowledge of the art of
writing has been deduced from references to ashtakarni cows. The epithet ‘astha-Karni’ is
interpreted to mean “having the sign for the number & marked on the ear.” The prevailing
view has been that the Rig-Vedic people did not possess the art of writing, and that the old
script in which the inscriptions of Asoka and his successors are written goes back to semetic,
and not Vedic Aryan origin.
Writing was no doubt practised by the people of the Indus Vally who developed the ancient
culture of Harapppa and Mahenjodaro, but it is significant that the early literature of the
Aryans was transmitted orally.
Arichitecture made some advance in Rig-Vedic India. There are references to mansions
supported by a thousand columns and provided with a thousand doors. Mention is also made
of stone castles and structures with a hundred walls. Allusions to images of Indra possibly
point, according to some, to the beginningsof sculpture.

17.3 Origin of art

The artistic relics of the Pre-historic period consist first, of Neolithic implements and secondly,
of seals, buldings, sculptures and implements of copper and bronze found at Mahenjodaro
and a few other sites.
The most artistic objects at Mahenjodaro are no doubt seal engravings, portraying animals
like the humped bull, the buffalo, the bison etc. Regarding these, Sir John Marshall observes
as follows :
“ In no sense can these objects be regarded as products of primitive or archaic art. Small as
they are, they demonstrate a thorough comprehension of both work in the round and relief, an
exhibit a spontaneity and truthfulness to nature of which even Hellenic art right not have been
ashamed” The same author makes the following remarrks on two stone statues found at
Harappa. “When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were pre-historic; they
seemed so completely to upset all established ideas about early art. Modelling such as this
was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece.”

17.4 Maurya Period : Perspectives

The earliest ruins of Harappa and Mohenjodaro have bbeen assigned to a period not later

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than 2700 B.C. For more than two thousand years after that we possess no ancient monuments
that deserve any serious consideration.
In the historical period we have ruins of monuments that may be referred to as early a period
as 500 B.C.But it is only in the age of Asoka, the great Maurya emperor, that we come across
monuments of high quality in large number which enable us to form a definite idea about the
nature of Indian art.
17.4.1 Asokan art : Pillars
The finest examples of Asokan art are furnished by the monolithic pillars, on which his edicts
are engraved.
Each pillar consists of a shaft or column, made of one piece of stone, supporting a capital
made of another single piece of stone. The round and slightly tapering shaft, made of sandstone,
is highly polished and very graceful in its proportions. The capital, equally highly
polished,consists of one or more animal figures in the round, resting on an abacus engraved
with sculp tures in relief; and below this is the inverted lotus, which is usually, though perhaps
wrongly, called the Persopolitan Bell.
A high degree of knowledge of engineering was displayed in cutting these huge blocks of
stone and removing them hundreds of miles from the quarry, and sometimes to the top of a hill.
Extraordinary technical skill was shown in cutting and chiselling the stone with wonderful
accuracy and importing the lustrous polish to the whole surface. But these pale into insignificance
before the high artistic merits of the figures, which exhibit realistic modelling and movement of
a very high order.
The capital of the Sarnath Pillar is undoubtedly the best of the series. The figures of four lions
standing back to back and the smaller figures of animals in relief on the abacus, all show a
highly advanced form of art and their remarkable beauty and Vigour have elicited the highest
praise from all the art-critics of the world. Dr. V.A Smith made the following observation on
the Sarnath capital.
“ It would be difficult to find in any country an example of ancient animal sculpture superior or
even equel to this beautiful work of art, which successfully combines realistic modelling with
ideal dignity and is finished in every detail with perfect accuracy.” Many other pillars of Asoka,
though inferior to that of Sarnath, possess remarkable beauty. It may be mentioned in this
connection that the jewellery of the Maurya period, also exhibits a high degree of technical
skill and proficiency.
17.4.2 Architectural remains
As compared with sculptures, the architectural remains of the Maurya period are very poor.
Contemporary greek writers refer to magnificient palaces in the capital city of Patliputra, and

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regard them as the finest and grandest in the whole world. Some seven hundred years later the
Mauryan edifices inspired awe and admiration in the heart of the Chinese traveller, Fa-hien.
But these noble buildings have utterly perised. Excavations on the site have laid bare their
ruins, the most “remarkable being those of a hundred-pillared hall.”
The Greek writers have paid glowing tribute, as mentioned earlier, to the Maurya imperial
palace at Patliputra which could excell in splendour the persian palaces at Susa and Ecbatana.
But unfortunately there are no extant remains of the Maurya Palace or residential buildings.
The gildedpillars of the Maurya Palace were adorned with golden vines and silver birds.
Many centuries later the Chinese traveller Fa-hien as described earlier, applauded the
workmanship of the imperial palace with the remark that “the royal palace and halls were all
made by spirits which Asoka employed,” Fa-hien believed that “no human hands of the world
could accomplish this.” Probably there were similar palaces in other cities. All towns were
surrounded by high walls with battlements and ditches with water, bearing lotuses and other
plants and the whole was surrounded by railings.
17.4.3 The Stupas
When Hiuen Tsang visited India long after the reign of Maurya emperor Asoka, he saw
numerous Asokan stupas scattered over the country. But most of the Asokan stupas have not
been survived the ravages of time. The famous stupa of Sanchi is said to have been constructed
by Asoka. Sir John Marshall had described the Sanchi Stupa as a hemispherical dome, truncated
near the top, surrounded at the base by lofty terrace to serve as gate for procession.
The extant archaeological as well as architectural remains consist, besides a small, monolithic
stone rail round a stupa at Sarnath, mainly of the rock-cut Chaitya halls in the Barbar hills and
neighbouring localities in the Patna district. Although excavated in the hardest rock, the walls
of these caves are polished like glass.
Asoka built quite a large number of stupas. The stupa is a solid domical structure of brick or
stone, resting on a round base. It was sometimes surrounded by a plain or ornamented stone
railing with one or more gateways, which were often of highly elaborate pattern and decorated
with sculptures.
Tradition credits Asoka with building 84,000 stupas all over India and Afghanistan but they
have almost entirely perished. Some of them, enclosed and enlarged at later times, perhaps
still exist, the most famous example being the big stupa at Sanchi, referred earlier. The diameter
of the present stupa is 1211/2 feet, the height about 771/2 feet, and the massive stone railing
which encloses it is 11 feet high.
According to Sir John Marshall, the original brick stupa built by Asoka was probably of not
more than half, the present dimensions, which were subsequently enlarged by the addition of
a stone casing faced with concrete. The present railing also replaced the older and smaller
one. A similar fate, has possibly overtaken many other stupas of Asoka.

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17.4.4 The Caves
The Pillars and stupas are not the only artistic achievements of Asokan reign. The rock cut
caves of Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha constructed for the residence of monks are
wonderful specimens of art. The Barbar hill Caves in the north of Gaya donated by Asoka to
the Ajivika monks and the Nagarjuni hill caves, the Sudama caves, the Karna Chaupar cave
etc. are the extant remains of cave architecture in the reign of Asoka. The Gopi cave was
excavated in the reign of Dasaratha in a tunnel like fashion. The caves are chaste and severe
and their interior is polished like mirror and are wonderful monuments of patient skill and
infinite labour.
17.4.5 Characteristics of the Mauryan Art and Architecture
R.C. Majumdar observes “A life of ease and luxury is favourite for the growth of art and
literature, and the period under review witnessed remarkable progress of both.” The Mauryan
art and art and architecture had certain characteristics.
Firstly, in the pre-mauryan art and architecture hardly stone was used as medium.
But the Asokan art was marked by nature use of stone and production of masterpieces. The
Indian art, barring a few cases started its lithic career from the reign of Asoka.
Secondly as R.C Majumdar remarks in India, art has always been a handmaid of religion,
Asoka also used art as a vehicle of preaching his Dhamma.
The sculptors engraved on the stones many Buddhist legends and Asoka particularly engraved
his message on the pillars and rocks.
Thirdly, but the Mauryan art was not purely devoted to religion. It had a secular aspect which
is denoted by the luxurious ornamentation of the Maurya imperial palace at Patliputra. The
religious devotion was lively combined with the joy of life. The Artist did not neglect the
appreciation of the scenes of nature and every scene in the sculpture of Bharhut or Sanchi is
full of the joy of life.
17.4.6 Foreign influence on the Mauryan art
Scholars have postulated various theories about the extent of foreign influence on the Mauryan
art.
17.4.7 John Marshall’s view
Sir John Marshall opines that there were different types of the Maurya sculptures.
The first type is represented in the Prakham statue. It is primitive in style and bears influence
of the indigenous art, second type is represented by the Sarnath capital. It is a product of
developed style without any trace of primitiveness. There is a combitation of wonderful

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naturalism and striking realism and exquisite perfection in it. There are marks of Greek influence
in its modelling; and it is exhotic, alien to Indian ideas. Thus the Parkham statue and the
Sarnath capital represent the alpha and the omega of early Indian art. There are Perso-
Hellenie influence upon them.
Some other scholars have found Persian influence in the bell-shaped capital of the Sarnath
column. It is also suggested that the very concept of Asokan columns is a borrowing from
persian (Achaemenian) style.
17.4.8 Criticism
Mr. Havell on the other hand had rejected the theory of foreign influence on the Maurya art.
He has criticised the theory that the Maurya emperors appointed Persian craftsmen to construct
the columns.
The symbolism used on the capitals are Indian not persian. It is misleading to interpret the
symbol on Sarnath capital as “bell-shaped persian” style.
In reality it is ‘blue lotus of sky’ of God Vishnu, a characteristic of Indian artistic symbol.
17.4.9 Originality of Mauryan art
That the Asokan art had some definite individuality and originality and had much difference
with the Perso-Hellenic school can not be entirely denied.
Firstly, the Persian pillars of Persepolis etc. were structural while those of Asoka were free
standing and monumental.
Secondly, while the Persian pillars were not used for some Independent purpose, the Asokan
pillars were used for religious purpose.
Therefore, it may be assumed that though clearly inspired by foreign models, the Mauryan art
is entirely different and in some respect superior to them.
Although the Asokan monuments owed something to alien models, but the details and executions
were carried by Indian hands with substantial originality. In fact, it was a synthesis of foreign
style adopted to Indian tradition.
17.4.10 Aspects of the Mauryan art
It is quite evident from what has been said in the chapter, that Maurya art exhibits in many
respects an advanced stage of development in the evolution of Indian art. The artists of Asoka
were by no means novices, and there must be have been a long history of artistic effort behind
them. But we don’t know how are we then to explain the almost total absence of specimens
of Indian art before C.250 B.C.
This is the problem which faces us at the very beginning of our study of Indian art highly
finished specimens of art, belonging to such remotely distant periods as 2700 B.C. and 250

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B.C., with little to fill up the long intervening gap.
We are not in a position to solve this problem until more data are available. But it is not
unlikely that the artistic traditions of the Indus Valley continued down to the Maurya period.
The absence of specimens has to be expalined by the supposition that most of the monuments
being made of wood or other perishable materials have left no trace behind. Rare specimens
in stone or other durable materials may yet be unearthed by future excavations. The solution
is prompted by the analogous problem of Indian alphabets.
The earliest Indian alphabets so far known, and from which all the current Indian alphabets
have been derived, are those found in the inscriptions of Asoka. How they came to be evolved
into that finished stage has been a mystery, and attempts have been made to derive them from
various types of alphabets in western Asia. But the numerous seals found at Mohenjo-daro
and Harappa with pictorial writings have induced some scholars to regard these as the origin
from which the Brahmi alphabet of Asoka has been ultimately derived.
In a similar way the artistic traditions of the Asokan period might be ultimately traced to those
of the Indus valley.

17.5 Conclusion
The present unit is an attempt to reconstruct the history of Mauryan art and architecture.
It is interesting to note that, from the end of the Indus Valley civilisation to the beginning of the
reign of Asoka we have no tangible remains of Indian art except some cyclopean masonary
remains at Rajagriha.
It is hard to say whether Indian artistic talent was barren in this age.
However, after the relative unproductiveness of the pre-mauryan period, we have the
unprecedented fertilization in art in the Asokan era.
The Mauryan art, as we have seen, is mainly Asokan and can be viewed under four main
aspects, viz, stupas, pillars, caves and palaces.
We have discussed about the finest examples of Asokan art, furnished by the monolithic
pillars,on which his edicts are engraved. The capital of the Sarnath pillar astonished us most.
Contemporary greek writers as we find, refer to magnificient palaces in the capital city of
Pataliputra.
Fa-hien, the Chinise traveller also regard them as the finest in the whole world and expresses
his admiration after seven centuries later.
When Hiuen Tsang visited India in 7th Century A.D., long after the reign of Maurya emperor
Asoka, he saw numerous Asokan stupas all over India. Here a vivid description has been
made about stupas.
It has already been shown that the pillars and stupas are not the only artistic achievements of

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Asoka’s reign.The rock-cut caves of Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha constructed for the
residence of monks are wonderful specimens of art.
In fact the Asokan art and architecture was marked by nature use of stone. The Indian art
started its lithic career from the reign of Asoka. It has also a religious character. Asoka used
art as a vehicle of preaching his Dhamma.

17.6 Model Questions

a) Discuss about the origin of art.
b) Write an essay on pillars built at the time of Asoka.
c) What do you know about the architectural remain of the Maurya period?
d) Describe the stupas of the Asokan time .
e) Write a note on Asokan caves.
f) Describe the characteristics of the Mauryan Art and Architecture.
g) How do you enumerate the foreign influence on the Mauryan art?
h) Discuss the originality of the Mauryan art.
17.7 Suggested Readings
a) A. Foucher : Beginnings of Buddhist Art
b) V.A. Smith : History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon.
c) J. Fergusson : History of Indian and eastern Architecture,(ed) J. Burgess & R.P. Spiers.
d) Percy Brown : Indian Architacture
e) Stella Kramrisch : Indian sculpture
f) S.K. Saraswati : A survey of Indian sculpture
g) R.C. Majumdar : Ancient India

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 Unit 18 ❑ Art and Architecture & Forms and patronage : Post-
Mauryan Period
Structure
18.0 Objective
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Age of Sungas
18.3 Kushana Art & Architecture
18.3.1 Importance of Kanishka’s reign
18.3.2 Stupas and Railings
18.3.3 Materials
18.3.4 Mathura sculptures
18.3.5 The Gandhara school
18.3.6 Origin of Gandhara school
18.3.7 Contribution of Gandhara Art
18.3.8 Patronage
18.4 Art and Architecture after the Kushanas and before the time of the Guptas
18.4.1 Art and Architecture of Amaravati
18.4.2 Art and Architecture at Nagarjunikonda
18.4.3 Post-Maurya period : A review
18.5 Conclusion
18.6 Model Questions
18.7 Suggested Readings

18.0 Objective
● The Learners may come to know the art and architecture during the Sungas and Kushana.
● The contribution of Mathura sculpture ,Gandhara & Amravati art will be also elaborated
here.
● The other objective of this unit is to gather the knowlwdge about the art and architecture
during the Post - Mauryan period.

18.1 Introduction
The five hundred years that intervened between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the
Gupta empire constitute a distinct period in the evolution of Indian art.

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So far as we can judge from extant remains, several important schools of sculptures flourished
in different localities during this period- at Bharhut and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, Bodh-
gaya in Bihar, Mathura in U.P,Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda near the mouth of the Krishna
river and Gandhara in West Pakistan.

18.2 Age of Sungas

In the second century B.C. during the reign of the Sungas, a big stupa was constructed at
Bharhut.
Nothing now remains of the stupa itself, but a portion of the railing that surrounded it, and one
of the gateways, are now preserved in the Indian Museum, Kolkata. The railing is made of
red sandstone and consists, as usual, of uprights, crossbars and coping stone. All these have
sculptures engraved on them representing incidents from Buddha’s life, Jataka stories and
many humorous scenes. Short lebels incised below the sculptures enable us to identify the
episodes represents therein.
Taken individually, the human figures do not appear to be well executed and there are obvious
defects in the physiognomy and posture of the bodies. But taken as a mass, the sculptures
represent the religious faith and beliefs, the dress, costumes, and manners, and are executed
with wonderful simplicity and vigour.
We get an insight into the minds and habits of the common people of India, and a keynote of
the joy. Sand pleasures of life seems to pervade them all.
Ancient India, with its robust optimism and vigorous faith in life, speaks, as it were, through
these stones, in a tone that offer a sharp but pleasing contrast in the dark pessimistic views
of life which some of the old religious texts are never tired of repeating. From this point of
view, the art of Bharhut is a great corrective to the impression which we are likely to form
from literature. The construction of the famous Bharhut railings has made the name of the
sungas immortal. Vidisha became the center of an important school of art. According to
Foucher. “it were the ivory workers of Vidisha who carved, one of the monumental gates of
Sanchi.”
Among other well-known examples of sunga art mention may be made of the rock cut viharas
near Poona, a stupa at Amaravati and the Garuda pillar at Besnagar.

18.3 Kushana Art & Architecture

18.3.1 Importance of Kanishka-I’s reign
The reign of Kanishka I, the renowned ruler of Kushana dynasty, is a landmark in the realm of
art and architecture. Four eminent styles of sculpture developed from four centres. Each
schoolof sculpture had a separate style of its own.

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In art, the reign of Kanishka is marked by the growth of two distinct styles, one is Indian and
another is exotic.
In architecture, Kanishka’s reign was also highly creative Numerous monuments, stupas,
columns were built in his reign.
18.3.2 Stupas and Railings
At Bodh-Gaya there is a small railing round the great temple. The railing probably belongs to
about the first century B.C; but the temple is of a much later date. The sculptures on the railing
belong to the same type as a Bharhut, though the individual figures are somewhat better.
Sanchi contains three big stupas and, happily, they are all in a good state of preservation. The
big stupa, originally constructed by Asoka, was enlarged during this period, and four gateways
of elaborate construction were added to the railing, one in each cardinal direction. Although
the railing is quite plain, the gateways are full of sculptures, illustrating the Jataka stories and
various episodes in the life of Gautama Buddha.
The scenes represented are similar to those of Bharhut, and convey more or less the same
ideas, but the individual figures, the method of their grouping mode of expression, and decorative
elements- all show a far higher standard of technical skill and artistic conception. The obvious
defects in the representation of the physique at Bharhut are removed and human figures are
elegantly carved and shown in various difficult moods and poses.
The sculptors of Sanchi are throughout inspired by the far higher sense of beauty, rhythm, and
symmetry and possess the difficult art of telling a conplicated story in the simple lucid way. As
at Bharhut, we find before us a wonderful panorama of scenes of daily life and concrete
illustrations of faith, hope and ideals, though as a rule these are more complex and varied in
character showing a more intelligent appreciation of the facts and views of life.
On the whole, the railings of Bharhut, Bodh-Gaya and sanchi may be regarded as three
landmarks in the gradual evolution of art during the two centuries, 150 BC-A.D. 50. The
Indian artists had now mastered the difficult technique and acquired a highly developed aesthetic
sense. The stone sculptures proved in their hands to be a valuable medium for expressing
faiths and beliefs, and ideas and feelings.
Mathura has proved a large treasure house of ruins of this period.
No big railing, like that of Bharhut or Sanchi, with a continuous series of relief sculptures, has
yet come to light, but we have instead numerous fragments of smaller railings with sculptures,
and quite a large number of images either detached or engraved in very high relief on some
architectural fragments.
18.3.3 Materials
The Mathura sculptures are easily distinguished by the material used-a kind of spotted red

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stone. It is possible to classify the sculptures of Mathura into two chronological periods.
18.3.4 Mathura Sculptures
We have already mentioned the two chronological phases of the sculptures of Mathura. The
earlier ones are rude and rough works, somewhat resembling those of Bharhut, but of a
different style, and do not call for any special remark.
The sculptures of the later period possess one distinguishing characteristic, viz, the
representation of Buddha as a human figure. This is entirely unknown at Bharhut, Bodhgaya
and Sanchi where Buddha is always represented by a symbol such as a wheel, a throne, or a
pair of footprints, and never by any human figure. With the evolution of a human type of
Buddha at Mathura begins a new epoch in Indian art, and for centuries the best artistic efforts
of India were directed towards giving a concrete expression of the spiritual ideals of India
through the images of Buddha and other great beings.
18.3.5 The Gandhara school
The Gandhara school of sculpture has attained a celebrity perhaps beyond its merits. There
was a time when European scholars considered it as the only school in ancient India which
can rightfully claim a place in the domain of art. Many still regard it as the source of all
subsequent development of art in India and the Far east. In spite of the undeniable merit of
Gandhara sculptures, the above views seen to be highly exaggerated.
The Gandhara sculptures have been found in the ruins of Taxila and in various ancient sites in
Afghanistan and west Pakistan. They consist mostly of images of Buddha and relief sculptures
representing scenes from Buddhist texts. Some technical characteristics easily distinguish them
from all other specimens of Indian sculpture.
In the first place, there is a tendency to mould the human body in a realistic manner with great
attention to accuracy of physical details, especialy by the delineation of muscles and the
addition of moustaches, etc. Secondly, the representation of the thick drapery with large and
bold-lines forms a distinct characteristic.
The Gandhara sculptures accordingly offer a striking contrast to what we meet with elsewhere
in India, viz, the smooth round features of the idealised human figures, draped in a transparent
or semi transparent cloth, closely fitting to the body and revealing its outline.
18.3.6 Origin of Gandhara school
The distinguishing characteristics of Gandhara sculptures were undoubtedly derived from
Greek art, or, to be more precise, the Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman empire.
Gandhara art is accordingly knows also as Indo-Greek or Graeco-Roman. There is, also, no
doubt that this art owed its origin to the Greek rulers of Bactria and North West India. But

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though the technique was borrowed from Greece, the art was essentially Indian in spirit, and
it was solely employed to give expression to the beliefs and practices of the Buddhists.
With a few exceptions, no Greek story or legend, and no Greek art motif if has been detected
among the numerous specimens of the Gandhara sculpture. The Gandhara artist had the hand
of a Greek but the heart of Indian.
18.3.7 Contribution of Gandhara Art
The most important contribution of Gandhara art was the evolution of an image of Buddha,
perhaps an imitation of a Greek God like Apollo. Fine images of Buddha and Bodhisatta, and
relief sculptures illustrating various episodes of Buddha’s present and past lives, are remarkably
execute in a kind of black stone.
For a long time it was believed that the Gandhara Buddha image served as the model for
those executed at Mathura and other centres. But it is now recognised that the Buddha image
was evolved independently at Mathura and Gandhara.
There is a striking difference between the Buddha images of Gandhara and those of the Indian
interior. The former laid stress on accuracy of anatomical details and physical beauty, while
the latter strove towards imparting a sublime and spiritual expression to the figure. The one
was realistic and other idealistic, and this may regarded as the vital difference between western
and Indian art. The rich and varied contents of Gandhara sculpture, like those of Sanchi and
Bharhut, hold before us a mirror, as it were reflecting ancient life and ideals.
18.3.8 Patronage
It must be mentioned that both the schools of Mathura and Gandhara flourished under the
lavish patronage of scythian kings. The portrait-statues of the Kushana kings add a novel
feature to the art of this period.
The Kushana art, particularly that of the Gandhara school, spread through Chinese Turkestan
to the Far East and influenced even the arts of China and Japan.
18.4 Art and Architecture after the Kushanas and before the time of the Guptas
Somewhat later than the flourishing period of the schools of sculpture, beautiful stupas were
erected in the lower valley of the Krishna river, at Amaravati, Jagayyapeta and Nagarjunikonda.
Not only were the railings of the Amaravati stupa made of marble, but the dome itself was
covered with slabs of the same materials. It must be have produced a marvellous effect, when
intact. Unfortunately, the entire stupa is in ruins, and the fragments of its railings have been
removed, partly to the British Museum, London, and partly to the Government Museum at
Chennai.
The sculptures of all the stupas resemble one another and are marked by striking differences

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in style from those of Northern India. Hence they are classed as belonging to a new school,
viz. that of Amaravati.
18.4.1 Art and Architecture of Amaravati
The figures at Amaravati are characterised by slim, blithe features and they are represented in
most difficult poses and curves. But the scenes are mostly overcrowded, and although there is
a distinct charm in individual figures, the general effect is not very pleasing. Yet there is no
doubt that the technique of art had reached a high degree of development. The plants and
flowers, particularly the lotuses are most admirably represented in this school.
The image of Buddha occurs here and there, but the Blessed one is often represented by a
symbol. It thus points to the period of transition between Bharhut, Bodhgaya and Sanchi on
the one hand and Mathura and Gandhara on the other.
18.4.2 Art and Architecture at Nagarjunikonda
At Nagarjunikonda, important relics of the period have recently been discovered as a result
of excavations made by the Archaeological survey of India. The finds include a stupa, two
chaityas and a monastery.
Near the stupa were found slabs of limestone illustrating scenes from Buddha’s life. The panel
represents the nativity and seven footprints of Buddha on the piece of cloth held by the details,
who were present to welcome the arrival of the Blessed one.
18.4.3 Post-Maurya period : A review
The period under review (C.200 BC to A.D. 320) is not so rich in architecture as in sculptures.
There were, of course, beautiful temples and monasteries, and the famous tower of Kanishka
1 at Purushpur(Peshawar) was one of the wonders of Asia. But all these have perished without
leaving any trace behind. There is only one class of buildings which merit serious attention as
works of art. These are the caves hewn out of solid rock of which hundreds have been found
in different parts of India.
The caves of the Asokan period were plain chambers, but now the addition of pillars and
chambers and sculptures made them beautiful works of art. Some of the caves were used as
monasteries i.e. residences of the monks. A chaitya was a fine work of art. The fully developed
specimen consisted of a long rectangular hall. Two long rows of pillars divided the hall into a
nave(big central part) and two side aisles. A small stupa, called a dagoba,stood near the
apsidal end.
There are many such Chaitya caves at Nasik, Bhaja, karle and other places in modern Mumbai.
The Karle cave is unanimously regarded as the finest specimen, on account of the beauty of
the sculptures on the front wall, the remarkable rows of pillars inside the hall and the fine
proportion of the different parts of the building.

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In addition to the pillars inside these caves, we have also several free-standing pillars, as for
example that at Besnagar which was dedicated as a Garudadhvaja by the Greek ambassador,
Heliodoros. They are in many cases monoliths but they lack the wonderful polish, the fine
proportions and the grand capitals which characterise the best pillar of Asoka. In this respect
there was undoubtedly a decline.
But in sculpture and the constriction of stupas and caves there was wonderful progress.It is
perfectly true that the fine figures of certain animals which we see on the pillar of Asoka have
no parallel in subsequent times, but the loss is made up by the delineation of human figures and
the evolution of the wonderful image of Buddha, It is evident from the discourse that Indian art
continued more or less under the foreign tutelage long after Asoka, until a full-fledged Indian
art was developed under the imperial Guptas. That is the another epoch of history on art and
architecture.

18.5 Conclusion
We have started the unit from the great development in art during the Sunga period. The stone
railings of the Sunga period replaced the Maurya wodden railing in the Buddhist stupas.
Vidisa became the centre of an important school of art. Among other well- known examples
of Sunga art mention may be made of the rock cut viharas near Poona, a stupa at Amaravati
and the Garudha pillar at Besnagar.
Kanishka’s reign is a landmark in the realm of art and architecture. Four Eminent styles of
sculpture developed in this period and subsequent ages before the advent of the Guptas. Each
school of sculpture had a seperate style of its own. The Gandhara school had a significant
progress in his reign, in art, the reign of Kanishka is marked by the growth of two distinct
styles, one Indian and another exotic, The Indian style is represented by the headless statue of
Kanishka at Mathura and the image of Buddha found in Sarnath. The exotic school known as
Gandhara art was the Graoco-Roman art applied to Buddhist subjects found in Gandhara
region.
In architecture Kanishka’s reign was also highly creative. Numerous monuments, stupas,
Columns were built in his reign, The great relic tower of Peshwar was constructed by Agesilus
at his command. This tower was made chiefly of wood. It was 400 ft. high. It was known
throughout the Buddhist world.
Kanishka built many other monasteries at Kashmir, Mathura and Taxila, He also beautified the
cities of Taxila, Mathura in addition to his own capital Peshwar. In the 5th century A.D. Fa-hien
observed numerous chaityas, viharas, Buddha-images of the Kushana period in the Gandhara
region.

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18.6 Model Questions
a) Write an essay on the art and architecture of the age of the Sungas.
b) What do you know about the stupas and railings built during the time of Kanishka I ?
c) Discuss the characteristics of Mathura sculptures.
d) Enumerate the importance of Gandhara school with special reference to it’s origin and
development.
e) Describe the contribution of Gandhara art.
f) Write a note on art and architecture after the Kushanas and before the time of the Guptas.
g) What do you know about the art architecture of Amaravati.
h) Give a brief account on the art and architecture of the post Maurya period.

18.7 Suggested Readings

a) A. Foucher : Beginnings of Buddhist Art.
b) V.A. Smith : History of fine Art in India and ceylon.
c) J. Fergusson : History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (ed) J. Burgess & R.P. Spiers.
d) Percy Brown : Indian Architecture
e) Stella Kramrisch : Indian sculpture.
f) S.K. Saraswati : A survey of Indian sculpture.
g) R.C Majumdar : Ancient India

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 Unit 19 ❑ Art and Architecture & Forms and patronage :
Gupta Period

Structure
19.0 Objective
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Images and Divinities of the Gupta Period
19.3 Excellence of Metallurgy
19.4 Art of Painting in the Gupta Period : Caves
19.5 Sculptures
19.6 The Bengal Sculpturas of the Gupta age
19.7 ‘‘Eastern Trend’’ on Gupta Art : Examples
19.8 Terracottas of the Gupta Period from Bengal
19.9 Perspectives
19.10 Terracottas of our period of study
19.11 Temple Architechture of Bengal during the Gupta Period
19.12 Gupta Architechture and Sculpture : Comparative Observation
19.13 Gupta Coins : Artistic Value
19.14 Conclusion
19.15 Model Questions
19.16 Suggested Readings

19.0 Objective
● The objective of present unit is to study the meaning of " classical phase " in the Ancient
India.
● The Learners may come to know about the conception of images, divinities, sculpture,
and terracotta in Gupta period with special reference to Bengal.
● Art and painting of caves in Gupta period will be discussed in this unit.
● The learners may also come to know some ideas about the comparative observation about
Gupta architecture and sculpture.
● Artistic value of Gupta coins -will be elaborated here.

19.1 Introduction
With the Gupta period, we enter upon the “classical phase” of Indian art, architecture and
sculpture. By the efforts of centuries techniques of art were perfected, definite types were
evolved, and ideals of beauty were formulated with precision. There was no more groping in

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the dark, and no more experiments.
A through intelligent grasp of the true aims and essential principles of art, a highly developed
aesthetic sense, and a masterly execution with steady hands produced those remarkable
images which were to be the ideal and despair of the Indian artists of subsequent ages.
The Gupta sculptures not only remained models of Indian art in all times to come, but they
also served as much in the Indian colonies in the far East. The sculptures of the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, Vietnam, Combodia etc South-Eastern countries bear the indeliable stamp of
Gupta art.

19.2 Images and Divinities of the Gupta Period

The most important contribution of Gupta art is the evolution of the perfect types of the
divinitie both Buddhist and Brahmanical. A large number of Buddha images have been unearthed
at Sarnath near Benaras, and one of them is regarded as the finest in the whole of India.
Stone and Bronze images of Buddha have also been found at Mathura and other places. The
images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest panels
of the deogarh temple and also occured elsewhere. These images are the best products of
Indian art. They present a beautiful figure, full of charm and dignity, a graceful pose and a
radiant spritual expression.
In general, a sublime idealism, combined with a highly developed sense of rhythm and beauty,
characterises the Gupta sculptures, and there are vigour and refinement in their design and
execution.
The intellectual element dominates Gupta art and keeps under control the highly developed
emotional display and the exuberance of decorative elements which characterise the art of
succeeding ages.

19.3 Excellence of Metallurgy

The art of casting metals reached a degree of developments which may well be regarded as
wonderful.
Hiuen Tsang saw at Nalanda a copper image of Buddha, about 80 ft. high. The Bronze
Buddha, found at Sultangunj, is 7/1/2 feet high and is a fine piece of sculpture.
The iron pillar of Delhi, near the Qutab Minar, is a marvellous work belonging to the early
Gupta period. It would have been difficult, even for the best Europeon foundry, to manufacture
a similar piece made of wrought iron.

19.4 Art of Painting in the Gupta Period : Caves

The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendour in this age. The fine fresco-
painting on the walls and ceilings of the Ajanta caves have extorted the anstinted admiration of

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the whole world of the twenty-nine caves, sixteen contained paintings which survived, to a
greater or less extent, even at late as 1879. Most of these have been destroyed and the rest
are also gradually crumbling to dust. Although some are as old as the first century A.D., most
of them belong to the Gupta age. A fine conception, brilliant colour and admirable drawing
invested these paintings with an unique charm which we can only faintly realise in their present
ruined condition.
In addition to decorative designs “ as varied and graceful as they are fanciful” and “executed
with masterly skill”, they depict sacred objects and symbols, the figures of the Buddha and the
incidents of his life (including past lives described in the Jataka stories). Those known as “The
Dying Princess”, “ The Mother and the child”, etc, have won the highest admiration. The
fresco-paintings at Sigiria in Ceylon, executed towards the close of the fifth century A.D.,
show a close resemblance to those of Ajanta and are in a better state of preservation. Some
fresco paintings of high merit also adorn the caves at Bagh.

19.5 Sculptures
The transition from the Kushana to the Gupta style of sculpture is well-marked, and the
characteristic differences between the two are easy to define, on the basis of the images of
Buddha and Bodhisatta of the two styles. The heavy solidity and earthliness of the Kushana
images offer a striking contrast to the “ delicate, reposeful and intensely spiritual type of
Buddha in the Gupta period.” The Gupta sculpture is presented in its best form in the Buddha
images of Sarnath as we have seen as products of the classical age with highest grade of
excellence. It is also regarded as the best exponent of the artistic conception of the highest
spiritual ideals in India. Its chief characteristics are not only delicacy and refinement of form
and a relaxed attitude, indicated by the calmness of the face, the disposition of the two hands
avoding harsh angles at the elbows noticed in the Kushana images, and, generally speaking,
graceful pose of the body in place of the erect posture. In the words of R.P. Chanda “The
Median line instead of being perpendicular and dividing the body into two exactly equal
halves, bends into a graceful curve by the inclination of the torso to one side and throwing the
weight of the body on one leg, so that one hip is slightly higher than the other. This imparts to
the form a degree of litheness and movement in refreshing contrast to the columner rigidity of
the images of Mathura of the Kushna period.’’

19.6 The Bengal sculptures of the Gupta age

The Bengal sculptures of the period concerned were inspired by the ideals of Sarnath artists,
but it is evident that they imparted to it something of their own, probably derived from earlier
traditions which have left no visible trace. This modification is described by art critics as the
“Eastern trend” of the Gupta art “distinguished by a vivacious emotion.” Stella Kramrisch
describes this as a “ the eastern version of the classic idiom of Sarnath. It is characterised by

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an emotional feeling which even the sublimity of the Sarnath inspiration fails to suppress.
There is, at the same time, a subtle change in plastic content and the figures aquire thereby a
sensuous import, hardly be expected in the spiritual and impersonal creations of Sarnath.”

19.7 “Eastern Trend” on Gupta Art : Examples

So far as Bengal is concerned this “Eastern Trend” is illustrated by several examples:
1. Standing image of Buddha from Biharail (Rajshahi dt). It is executed in Chunar sandstone,
the material used in Sarnath, and so closely resembles the images of Buddha found at that site
that it may be mistaken for the latter. It may be assigned to the beginning of the fifth centuryA.D.
The emotional trait marks its appearance in the two Surya images from Kasipur (24 pgn) and
Deora (Bogra dt.)
2. The gold-plated bronze image of Manjusri from Mahasthan(Bogra dt), now in the Museum
of VRS. Rajshahi, also shows definite marks of Gupta style.This graceful and exquisitely
modelled figure is one of the best specimens of the Bengal school of sculpture of this period.
Artistically viewed, it presents several features of special importance. Its simple naturalism
and the paucity of ornaments offer a refreshing contrast to the inordinate taste for over-
ornamentation and complexity of design which became prominent factors in all artistic attempts
of the later period.
On these grounds the image has been referred to the sixth century A.D. The image is of great
interest for its gold-plating which shows an advanced skill in the casting of metal images. This
is the earliest know gilt bronze so far discovered not only within the limits of Bengal but even
in eastern India. It is almost certain that there were earlier specimen for otherwise it is difficult
to explain the state of perfection reached by this image, as evidenced by the fact that its gold-
plating, though “Thinner even than an egg shell” still sticks to the surface (though it has peeled
off in many places).
These figures mentioned above, practically represent all that we know of the sculptures of
Bengal exhibiting the idiom of Gupta art, namely a combination of the sublime spiritualism and
the emotionalism of its eastern version, as Stella Kramrisch puts it.

19.8 Terracottas of Gupta period from Bengal

It may be easily taken for granted that terracotta art must have flourished in hoary antiquity in
the riverain plains of Bengal, where all kinds of clay suitable for good type of terracotta are
within easy reach of everybody.

19.9 Perspectives
Tamluk has proved to be a rich quarry for ancient terracottas. A terracotta female figurine
found there has been tentatively assigned to the Maurya age. Another male figure, assigned to
the Sunga period with two wings on the shoulders, has been found there. He holds two stalks
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with lotus blossoms and wears ear-studs, a heavy neck collar and bracelets. Other beautiful
and typical terracotta figurines of 3rd 2nd century B.C. are also magnificent pieces of art.

19.10 Terracottas of our period of study

The terracottas assigned to the 3rd- 4th century A.D., showing Kushana and Gupta influence,
and the lower part of superb terracotta figurine characterized by a graceful modelling and
transparent drapery of the early Gupta period have also been found at Tamluk. A terracotta
female figurine like that of the Maurya period, mentioned earlier, at Tamluk, has been found at
Pokharna in Bankura district. A few other terracottas including yakshinis and a plaque depicting
a damsel dancing before a throned personage have also been found at Tamluk.
The Gupta period may be assigned an unique terracotta plaque representing a richly adorned
dancing male figure. Terracottas of the typically Gupta period include an unique piece in the
round with applied eye-balls, pinched-up nose and ears and outspread ornamented short
hands shown up to the waist. Some terracotta moulds and an inscribed seal also belong to this
period.Terracottas have been found in many other places in Bengal, In addition to Yakshas
and Yakshinis, other divine beings and mithuna are also represented on terracotta plaque.
More interesting are the numorous plaques containing narrative reliefs, some of which have
been identified with well-known stories like the hunting scene of Dushyanta, immortal used by
Kalidasa in his drama Abhijnana Sakuntalam and Jataka stories.
The terracottas of the Gupta period are comparatively much fewer in number, and some of
them fully exhibit all the refined traits of the Gupta plastic tradition, but the style is more human
and less hieratic and the spiritual experience is less intense. A terracotta sealing with the legend
‘Sri Bhadrasya’ in late Gupta characters and a terracotta Jain figurine have been found at
Tilda in Midnapur district.

19.11 Temple architecture of Bengal during the Gupta Period

The actual remains of buildings found in Bengal do not convey an adequate idea of the state of
things in ancient Bengal.Both epigraphic records and accounts of foreign travellers testify to
the existing of numerous temples and monasteries all over Bengal, and some of them, must
have been magnificent structures.
Here reference may be made to the ruins of a big temple at Chandraketugarh (Berachaampa,
North 24 pgns) of the Gupta period and the Panchayatan temple- complex at Rajbadidanga
(Murshidabad dt) of the same or slightly later period, exposed by the excavations at these
two places.
But beyond the idea of their massive character, and a few details of the general plan nothing
more can be said of them. The massive temple at Chandraketugarh had a large square sanctum
cella with projections on three sides and a covered ambulatory passage. The bigger square

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was preceded by a rectangular covered vestibule with a rectangular open porch in front,
complete with a flight of steps. Around the large square, the vestibule and the porch, was a
rectangular structure with projections on three sides, corresponding to those of the inner
square. Rising from the same level as that of the main temple, its facade and the two sides up
to the vestibule were decorated with shallow niches, possibly plastered with stucco, and
embellished with rounded offsets and striking course of dentils made of mouldedbricks.
Each side of the square of the cells was 63 ft. long and the vesibule attached to the middle of
the northern side was 45 ft. square. There were also massive brick buttresses and open
ambulatory passages.
Nearby are the remains of miniature replica of the temple and the basement of a votive stupa
flanking the stairway.
The Panchayatana temple- complex at Rajbadidanga consists of a rectangular enclosure wall,
four square shrines at the four corners, main temple of triratha plan, the rectangular mandapa
on the north, surki rammed platform etc. The compound wall, measuring 20.87 m. in length
on its western side and having several offsets at the plinth level on its southern face, contained
beautiful niches and decorated and moulded cornices on its exposed southern and northern
faces. The rectangular main temple had projection on three sides, leaving northern side open
for the entrance, thereby giving a triratha shape. The inner area of the main shrine was surki -
rammed and over it were laid bricks to form the platform. the rectangular mandapa was built
subsequently on the northern side of the main shrine. The south of this temple there was
another oblong temple complex consisting of walls, platforms and ardhachandra entrance
platform on a rectangular basement.

19.12 Gupta architecture and sculpture : Comparative observative

Compared with sculpture, Gupta architecture, to judge by the extant remains, must be regarded
as poor.
The stone temple at Sanchi, like that Deogarh, is very small, but exhibits refinement in style.
The brick temple at Bhitargaon is large but ruined. Remains of stone temples of this period
have also been found at Nachna-ki-Talai and other places. These temples are well-designed,
and consist of a square chamber, a shrine and a portico or veranda as essential elements.
They are decorated with fine sculptured panels, but the decoration is properly subordinated
to, and is in full harmony with the architectural plan of the buildings. There is no doubt that
magnificient temple of large dimensions were constructed during the Gupta age, but they have
been completely destroyed. High and elaborately- worked towers or shikharas which
surmounted the roofs of temples in later age shad not yet made their full appearance, but the
beginnings of this development are seen in the Bhitargaon temple and the miniature
representations of temples on relief sculptures of the Gupta period.

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19.13 Gupta Coins: Artistic Value
The artistic excellence of the Gupta period also found expression in the rich variety of Gold
coins issued by the wealthiest and mightiest monarchs of the age.
According to some scholars,foreign influence is clearly traceable in this series, but the engravers
who produced them were no mere imitators of the work of others. They gave free and
spontaneous expression to their own ideas, and skillfully assimilated alien models with their
own national tradition. The masterly execution of these coins is only matched by the elegance
of their design and they are justify regarded as among the finest examples of Indian art.
The silver coins of the imperial Gupta monarchs are also marked by refinement and elegance
representing a high water mark of Indian coinage. Chandragupta 1 showed a considerable orginality
in casting his coins. The goddess Lakshmi is seated on a lotus than on the throne. He also introduced
Horseman type, Lion type coins. He introduced silver coins for the first time.

19.14 Conclusion
The present unit has given a vivid description about the art and architecture of India during the
time of the Imperial Guptas.
We have seen that in architecture, sculpture, painting and other arts the Gupta age is a golden
period of Indian history. The age under review heralded a new epoch in the history of temple
architecture. For the first time permanent materials like brick and dressed stone were used
instead of perishable materials.
The Gupta sculpture had outgrown the foreign influences of Gandhara school and attained an
unprecedented excellence in national style. The style originally developed at Mathura was
carried to perfection in Sarnath, where Buddha first turned the wheel of law. The pivot of
Gupta sculpture is human figure with plastic modelling. The faces of figures glow with wisdom,
knowledge of the inner meaning of life, their eyes look into the heart with drooping eyelids
instead of looking into the world.
The relice of Gupta sculpture are found in the Siva-Parvati relics at Kosam, in the Ramayana
panel at Deogarh and also at Sarnath, Garhwa.
The Gupta painting assumed a secular character and was the most popular art among the rich
and poor.
The aristocratic families had their pratimagrihas or chitra-salas or picture-galleries. Among the
common people painting on linen scrolls (Yama-patta) was in vogue. The remains of the
painting of the period are few in number, some traces are found in the caves of Bagh, Ajanta
and Badami.
The imperial Gupta gold and silver coins are marked by refinement and elegance representing
a high water mark of Indian originality in casting his coins. The Goddess Lakshmi is seated on

225
a lotus than on the throne. The introduction of horseman type, lion type and the silver coins is
a rare characteristic of the Gupta period.

19.15 Model Questions

a) What do you mean by “classica phase” of Indian history?
b) Write a note on images and divinities of the Gupta period with special reference to Bengal.
c) Describe the art and painting of caves in the Gupta period.
d) What do you know about the sculpture of Gupta period with special reference to Bengal.
e) Enunerate the ‘ Eastern Trends’on Gupts art with references.
f) Describe the terracottas of Gupta period from Bengal.
g) Describe the comparative observations of Gupta architecture and sculpture.
h) Discuss the artistic value of Gupta coins.

19.16 Suggested Readings

a) A. Foucher : Beginnings of Buddhist art.
b) V.A. Smith : History of Fine art in India and Ceylon
c) J. Fergusson : History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (ed) J. Burgess & R.P Spiers
d) Percy Brown : Indian Architecture
e) Stella kramrisec : Indian sculpture
f) S.K. Saraswati : A survey of Indian sculpture.
g) R.C. Majumdar : Ancient India
h) R.C Majumdar : History of Ancient Bengal.

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 Unit 20 ❑ Art and architecture & forms and patronage : Post-Gupta

Structure
20.0 Objective
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Styles of Architecture
20.3 South India
20.4 The Upper Deccan
20.5 Images of Bengal
20.6 Architecture of Bengal
20.7 Sculptures of Bengal
20.8 Paintings of Post-Gupta period Bengal
20.9 Terracotta of Post-Gupta period
20.10 Conclusion
20.11 Model Questions
20.12 Suggested Readings

20.0 Objective
● The objective of present unit is to study the diffarents forms of art & architectur, sculputure
of post - Gupta period.
● The learners may also come to know some ideas about the art & architectur, sculputure e
of south India & Upper Deccan from this unit.
● The objective of present unit is an attempt to throw a light on the images , architecture,
sculpture & painting of Bengal during this period .
● The diffarent types of terracotta art found in Post - Gupta period - will be also discussed
here.
● The diffarent types of terracottaart found in post- Gupta period will be elaborated here.

20.1 Introduction
The period that followed the Gupta age, architecture gradually assumed the more important
role in the evolution of Indian art. It was during this age that the different styles of architecture
were evolved and led to the construction of the magnificient temples which we see all over
India.

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20.2 Styles of Architecture
Broadly speaking, there were two important styles of architecture Indo-Aryan or North-
Indian and Dravidian or South Indian. Two differences lies mainly in the shape of the sikara or
the high tower-like slleper structure which now almost universall surmounts the cella or the
shrine containing the image of the deity.
The North Indian sikhara has the appearance of a solid mass of curvilinear tower, bulging in
the middle and ending in almost a point. The South Indian sikhara looks like a pyramid made
up of successive storeys each smaller than and receding a little from, the one beneath it. This
also ended in a small round piece of stone as its crowning member. Both types of sikharas
were minutely carved with decorative sculptures.

20.3 South India

The history of architecture, art and sculpture in the South Indian peninsula begins with the
Pallava temples, and here for the first time, we meet with the Dravidian style. In addition to the
temples in the capital city, Kanchi or Conjeeveram, and other places, some of the rock-cut
temples, known as the seven pagodas or rathas of Mamallapuram, are built in the style which
may therefore be justly called the Pallava style. The latter are small temple, each of which is
cut out of a single big rock-boulder. They lie near the sea-beach and Puram or Mahabalipuram,
founded by the great Pallava king, Narasimhavarman (7th Century AD)
It is now an insignificant place and its only attraction is provided by these wonderful monolithic
temples and a series of fine sculptures on rock walls. The temples or pagodas are named after
the five Pandava brothers and there common spouse Draupadi (Dharmarajaratha, Bhimratha,
Draupadiratha etc.)
These monolithic temples, wrought out of massive stone, are complete with all the detalis of
an ordinary temple and stand today as an undying testimony to the superb quality of Pallava
art. Among the sculptures one large composition has obtained great celebrity. The scene
represented is usually described as the penance of Arjuna, but this is very doubtful. There are
also many rock-out caves belonging to the Pallava period.
It is important to note that the earlist specimens of Pallava art already exhibit a fairy advanced
stage of development. Although we have no remains of an earlier epoch, we must presume its
existence. For the men who built the temples at Kanchi or Mamallapuram or wrought the
sculptures on the rocks at the latter place, were no novices in their art, and must have been
trained in schools with art traditions of centuries and generations at their back. The problem is
analogous to that offered by the finished art of the Maurya period, and its probable solution
has been already discussed. But the theory that foreign artists were imported to do the work
can hardly be maintained in this case. We must hold, therefore that earlier artists mostly
worked in wood or rather perishable materials and hence their work has entirely disappeared,

228
though chance or luck might some day restore a few relices of it.
The stey style of Pallava architecture not only set the standard in the South Indian Peninsulah,
but also largely influenced the architecture of the Indian colonies is the South-east Asia. The
characteristics Pallava or Dravidian type of sikhara is met with in the temples of Java, Combodia
and Vietnam. But there are important differences between them and the South Indian temples.
The pillars which form such an important adjunct to the latter are altogether absent in the
former.

20.4 The Upper Decean

Between North India and the Far South, which had evolved two independent styles of
architecture, lay the Deccan plateau where both the styles in pure or slight modified form,
known as Chalukya and the Rastrakutas who ruled in this region were great builders. Near
the Chalukya capital, Badami, we find a number of cave-temples which are dedicated to
Brahmanical gods, and contain a number of fine image and good sculptures. There are also
many stone temples at Badami and various other places constructed in the ordinary way.
Most of these show the Pallava or Dravidian style. The same style was also largely adopted
by the Rastrakuta and the world famous Kailasha Temple at Ellora is a marvellous specimen
of the Dravidian style. It was constructed during the reign of Krishna I, slightly later period of
our study, in the latters half of the eighth century A.D.
The process of construction employed in the case of the Mamallapuram rathas was repeated
here on a much bigger scale. An entire hillside was first demarcated and separated from a long
range of mountains, and then a huge temple was cut out of it in the same way as each Ratha at
Mamallapuram was cut out of a rock-boulder. The big temple, standing in an open court, now
appears like and ordinary one, but it is merely the remnant of a solid mass of stone that once
formed a part of the hill which now surrounds the temple on three sides.
The temple has a Dravidian sikhara and is elaborately curved with fine sculptures. Caves,
excavated in the sides of the hills round it, contain big halls decorated with finely wrought
pillars and images of varoius Brahmanical divinities. The Kailasha temple at Ellora is a splendid
achievement of art, and considering the technical skill and labour involved, is unequalled in the
history of the world.
The hill at Ellora contains a number of rock-cut caves with in a short distance of the famous
temple.
The caves generally resemble those of the earlier period at Nasik and Karle, but the facade of
the Visvakarma cave shows a pleasing modification.

20.5 Images of Bengal

Reference may be made to some images which belong to the period of transition from the

229
Gupta to the period of fully developed Bengal school of sculpture which took a definite shape
during the Pala Sena period.
First in point of date are two octo-alloy images unearthed together from Deulbadi (Tippera
dt) and probably belong to the same period. The first is an inscribed image of Sarvani of the
time of the Khadga dynasty ruling in this region in the 7th century A.D. It may thus be definitely
dated–a rare thing in history of sculptures in Bengal.
It is and eight-armed deity, standing in sampada-sthanka pose on the back of a lion couchant
on a double lotus and a triratha pedestal, accompanied by two chowry-bearing female figures;
the hands carry conch-shell, arrow, sword discus, sheild, trident bell and bow. The image
though described as Sarvani in the inscription, closely follows the description of the goddess
with such names as Bhadradurga, Bhadrakali, Ambika etc, given in the Sarada-tilakatantra.
The sceond is a miniature of Surya in the Dacca Museum, showned as seated, a rare specimen
rather.
Another metal image of the same style is the image of Siva standing erect, found at Manir Tat,
24 Parganas. The image standing erect on a lotus placed over a pedestaland distinguished by
urdha-linga and Jata-mukuta which bears a crescent moon. Behind the head is an oval,
decorated aureole on a lintel supported by two struts. A trisulisa (over which probably placed
the left hand of the God) stands on the pedestal which has the figure of a full on one side, just
below the trisula. The image is regarded as the ‘Hara’ aspect of Siva described in the Hayasirsha
Pancharatra.
To the same period also probably belongs the Vishnu image found at Kakadighi and somewhat
later, the Vishnu-Vamana image found in west Dinajpur.
A small seated image of Tara of about seventh century has been found amid the ruins of a
Gupta temple at Karnasuvarna. These images indicate, in their plastic form and content, an
intermediate stage between the domination of the Gupta idiom of art and the growth of a
distinct school of sculpture in which the regional stage trends and tendencies are clearly traceable.
The marks of transition are thus described by S.K. Saraswati.
‘We find in the stiff and erect Sarvani a likely antecedent of the conventional Pala image. The
surrounding rim to which the hands of the Goddess and other ill-filling decorative devices
serve as struts anticipates the stela composition of Pala sculpture. The Siva image from Manir
tat, as well as Vishnu from Kakadighi foreshadow also the composition of the conventional
type of Pala images. The Surya image with its composite elements of attendants, charioteer,
horses etc, represents not a very distant approach to the full fledged stela composition of Pala
art. Some critics may condemn a Pala sculpture as being stiff, rigid and conventional. But one
should not forget that the more rigid lines of the main figure in this composition seem to the
consciously constructed with the flowing rhythm of the attendant figures, the vigour of the
animal mount and of the decorative motifs. ...they should be better termed as Pre-Pala.’

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20.6 Architecture of Bengal
Stupa : Though the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims indicate the existence of serveral structural
stupas of varying dimensions, they have disappeared with the passage of time.
The votive stupas of Bengal are made of either bronze, or brick, the only stone example being
that of Jogi-gupha. The bronze variety is illustrated by the specimens coming from Ashrafpur,
(Dacca), Paharpur and Jhewari (Chitagang). The seventh century Ashrafpur votive stupa
consists of a cylindrical drum and a hemispherical dome standing on a lotus over a high and
slightly sloping square basement the latter having on offset projection on each place. The
dome bulge a little towards the top. At the centre of the squre harmika rises the shaft of
chhatravali, only one of its discs now surviving. The unique feature of this specimen lies in the
square turret of the harmika which has each of its sides adoraed with a figure of the Buddha.
From the Ashrafpur bronze stupa of Khadga dynasty as illustrated above, it is, however,
reasonable to believe that the stupa architecture was characteristically affiliated to Buddhism,
and hence it received impetus from the Buddhist rulers of the pre-Pala periods.
Viharas :
In course of excavations carried out by the department of Archarology of Bangladesh in
1973-74 at Bhasu-Vihara (Po-Shi-po of Hiuen Tsang’s ‘Travels’) at Mahasthan (8 miles due
north of the Bogra town) have laid bare the remains of two comparatively small monasteries
and a semi cruciform temple.

20.7 Sculptures of Bengal

Specimens of sculptutal art upto 6th century A.D. found in Bengal and Bihar demonstrate that
artists of Eastern India were following the traditions of the great art centres of India. With the
decline of and exhaustion of the classical Gupta school in the seventh century A.D. local
traditions and ideas began to assert themselves and paved the way for the rise of what may be
described as the Bengal, or for that matter, Eastern Indian School of art.
The excavations at Mainmoti and Mahasthan have brought to light several sculptures, in relief
as well as in the round. The earliest of them belonging to the sixth-seventh century are carved
in soft grey stone and in the relief (mostly damaged) In subject-matter they are entirely Buddhist.
Buddha or Bodhisattva being the dominent central figure in the panels. The classical Gupta
tradition which persisted in easterns India till the seventh century is also apparent in the delicacy
of the limbs, the roundness of the forms and the refined expressions of these Buddha Bodhisattva
figures. An elegant image of Buddha found at Mahasthan may be furnished as a representative
example of the perpetuation of the Gupta idiom. Yet these earliest Mainamoti stone sculptures
articulate and idiom of their own : they exhibit a harmonious blending of physical charm with
spiritual vision and experience as well as a spontaneity in appear to have been approaching
the Mainamoti terracottas and conception.

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A few sculptures which are assigned to the eight century, still exhibit the soft modelling of the
last phase of Gupta sculpture. From about eight century A.D. a few dated images are available
and they have helped us to trace the evolution of the Pala art.

20.8 Paintings of Post-Gupta period Bengal

Though any specimen of painting belonging to Pre-Pala period of Bengal is yet unknown, we
are told by Fa-hien “that the pictorial art flourished well in Bengal, particularly in Tamralipti
during the beginning of the 5th century A.D. It is quite probable that the age-old folk art of
patachitra, dhuli-chitra etc, was not unknown in Bengal and that the monsteries in Bengal
were embellished with paintings.The important illustrated manuscript of the Pala period are
mentioned hereunder in a chronological order. Most of them bear dates in the regnal years.
Most of them bear dates in the regnal years of the Pala kings of Bengal and Magadha; 1)
Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita 2) pancharaksha 3) Manuscript of a sacred text 4) A Dharani
manuscript etc.”

20.9 Terracotta of Post-Gupta period

Apart from the few well-known terracottas from Mahasthan and Tamralipti i.e. the amourous
couple plaque and pancha-chuda Yakshini of the Pre-Pala period, the art of clay sculpture
seems to have been in comparatively flourishing state in the Pala culture epoch.
The treeacotta plaques dicovered at Mainamoti and Mahasthan deserve special mention.
Among the Mainamoti pieces have been noticed the typical dharmachakra and triglyph symbols,
the latter occuring on a number of coins recovered from the same site. One of them depicts a
richly jewelled person, perhaps a Bodhisattva of the Deva period (first half of the eighty
centruy A.D.), while another piece portrays a crowned person, probably an early member of
the Deva dynasty, holding a bow. Besides these plaques, a few terracotta human and animal
figurines and architectural and decorative terracottas (carved and ornamental bricks) have
come to light.
The most interesting among the Mahasthan serious are a half-man and half-fish, a half-flower
motif and a panel showing an archer aiming at an elephant with a cobra behind him in striking
pose. According to a scholor who has brought these objects to light, the terracotta finds from
Bhasu Vihara at Mahasthan, appear to be somewhat different from the others in general
character, refinement, style and workmanship, probably because they may be somewhat later
in date.
The terracotta plaques and figurines constitute on unusually attractive and distinctive school of
art, all dating from about the second half of the seventh century A.D. onwards. They represent
an indigenous idiom practically unrelated with similar objects found in the other regions of
India.
A slightly different type of material is found used in the embelishment of a number of the late
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Gupta and Post-Gupta monuments in Nalanda. In fact, stucco decoration became a
characteristic feature of the said structure. Stucco seems to have found favour with the artists
of Bengal also. Stucco art of Bengal is represented, among other, by heads from Tejanandi
(Rajshahi) and Rangamati (Murshidabad Assignable to the Pre-Pala Period, both of them are
characterised by a soft and refined modelling and a felicity of expression.
Terracotta plaques and figurines have been discovered from other places like Tamluk, Bangarh,
Harinarayanpur, Deulpota etc, all in West Bengal;)

20.10 Conclusion
A review of the progress and development of Indian art during Post-Gupta Period and earlier
times, such as we have attempted in several modules, in necessary for the proper understanding
of the high culture and refinement of the ancient Indians. For true art a architecture is an
inerring expression of mind, and a national art is a true reflex of national character. Great
nations of the world have left behind them unmistakable evidence of their greatness in their
works of art. The nature and excellence of art constitute a sure means by which we can
understand the essential characteristics of a nation and make a fair estimate of its greatness.
Judged by the standard of art, Indian Civilization must be regarded as occupying a very high
place indeed among those of antiquity. It exhibits not only grace and refinement but technical
skill and patient industry of a very high order. Taken in a mass, Indian art offers the most vivid
testimony to the wonderful resources in men and money possessed by the rulers, and the
religious spirit, occasionally reaching to a sublime height, that dominated the entire population.
It shows, as the national ideals, the subordination of ideas of physical beauty and material
comfort to ethical conceptions and spiritual bliss.
Amid the luxuries and comforts of worldly life, the thought of the world beyond ever ceased
to exercise a dominant influence. The changes in spiritual ideas and ideal, from the sublime
purity of early Buddhism to the less pleasing form of the Tantric cult, are also reflected in art,
Its meaning and significance for the correct interpretation of ancient Indian life must be clearly
grasped by every student of History.

20.11 Model Questions

a) What do you know about the styles of architecture in Post-Gupta period?
b) Write a note on variation of style in architecture of the upper Deccan.
c) Describe about the images of Bengal in the Post-Gupta Period.
d) Give a short note on the architecture of Bengal in the Post-Gupta Period.
e) Discuss the excellence of sculptures found in the excavations of different sites.
f) What do you know about the paintings of Post-Gupta Period.

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