CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last 30 years wireless communication has deeply changed the human lifestyle; it has
enhanced the exchange of information across the globe quickly and efficiently. Transmission of
audio message wirelessly provides the exchange of information in real time. Wireless audio
transmission involves the transfer of audio (acoustic) energy over a distance through the
atmospheric medium, while maintaining or allowing minimal distortion to the characteristics of
the audio signal, such that the integrity of the information being conveyed is maintained.
An audio signal is a naturally occurring analogue signal with frequencies in the audio frequency
range of roughly 20 to 20,000 Hz. Audio signals (Sound Waves) are mechanical waves
generated from vibrations within a medium. It travels at a relatively slow speed of about 350m/s
and it is also affected by attenuation caused by the medium they travel in, hence limiting the
distance to which they can travel and remain intelligible.
Long range audio message transmission can be achieved with the use of frequency modulation
technique, which involves the process of imposing the audio signal (low frequency signal) onto a
higher frequency signal (carrier signal) by varying the frequency of the carrier wave in
accordance with the audio signal, in order to produce a modulated signal with the characteristics
of an electromagnetic wave, which is more suitable for long range transmission.
This method was pioneered by Edwin Howard Armstrong for FM broadcasting.
1.2 WHY FREQUENCY MODULATION
Audio signals are inherently low frequency signals; and when they are converted into an
electrical signal with the aid of a transducer (e.g. Microphone); they produce low frequency
electrical signals with low amplitudes. At low frequencies radiation is poor and the signals get
highly attenuated, also transmission of low frequency signal requires large antenna sizes.
However, at higher frequencies (> 20 kHz), radiation of electrical signal is efficient and practical
antenna sizes are smaller; hence if the audio signal can be translated to a signal of higher
frequency, then transmission of the audio signal becomes practicable.
Modulation provides the technique by which the audio message can be embedded within a high
frequency signal (i.e. carrier wave); thereby allowing us to take advantage of the benefits of
transmitting at high frequency. The process of modulating an audio signal onto a carrier signal
involves causing a variation in one of the 3 variables (i.e. amplitude, phase, frequency) of the
carrier signal in accordance with the modulating signal while keeping the other two variables
constant.
Modulation of audio signals is commonly achieved using Amplitude Modulation (AM) and
Frequency Modulation (FM). Frequency modulation is achieved by varying the frequency of the
carrier wave with respect to amplitude changes in the audio signal (i.e. modulating signal); while
AM is the variation of the amplitude of the carrier wave with respect to the audio signal. AM
provides wider coverage than FM, but frequency modulation is more resilient to noise and signal
strength variation compared to AM, and this makes FM more suitable for mobile applications.
1.3 FM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
A FM transmission system, primarily comprises 3 basic sub-sections:
a) Microphone
b) Audio Amplifier
c) Modulator
d) RF Oscillator
Microphone
Figure 1.1 BASIC BLOCK OF A FM TRANSMITTER
a) Microphone: A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into electrical
signals. When sound wave is impinged on the microphone, the varying air pressure on the
microphone generates an electrical signal representation of the sound, which corresponds
in frequency to the original signal. This is an essential block in audio processing, because
for the sound wave to be processed it is required to be transformed into an electrical
representation.
b) Audio Amplifier: The electrical signal produced by the microphone has low amplitude
and requires amplification. The audio amplifier section receives the output from the
microphone and increases its amplitude to a desired level before being fed into the
modulator.
c) RF Oscillator: The function of the RF oscillator is to produce a high frequency signal in
the FM range (88 – 108MHz), called a carrier wave. The carrier wave is a sinusoidal
signal with constant amplitude and constant frequency. The frequency at which the FM
transmitter operates, is referred to as the carrier wave frequency.
d) Modulator: The modulator provides the means by which the electrical signal
representation of the sound wave is embedded within the carrier wave. In frequency
modulation (FM), this is achieved by varying the frequency of the carrier wave in relation
with amplitude changes in the modulating signal (i.e. audio signal). The resultant is a
modulated wave of high frequency that contains the audio signal. This is a very important
part of a FM transmission system, because it allows the advantages of high frequency
signal transmission to be exploited such as:
I. Practical antenna length: The Length of the antenna is directly related to the
wavelength of the wave; and the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength. Hence
the smaller the antenna required.
II. Higher Energy Transmission: The energy carried by a wave depends upon its
frequency. The higher the frequency of the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it.
As the audio signal frequencies are small, they cannot be transmitted over large distances
if radiated directly into space..
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
The purpose of this project is to design and build a FM transmitter for the transmission of an
audio message wirelessly to a receiver up to 1000 meters apart; for the purpose of
communication or information conveyance.
The objectives of this project are:
I. To generate an electrical signal representation of an audio message using a transducer.
II. To modulate the electrical signal (low frequency signal) generated onto a high frequency
carrier signal using frequency modulation.
III. Transmission of the carrier wave (electromagnetic wave) from the transmitter to the
receiver wirelessly and reproduction of the audio message at the receiver.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT
Transmission of audio message wirelessly provides the exchange of information in real time;
and also transfer of audio signal from one point to another without the use of wired electrical
connections. This has wide applications such as the following:
Transfer of audio sound to loud speakers situated at far corners in large halls, stadia, big open
events without the need to run long cables to them.
Communication between people within a building or offices.
1.6 METHODOLOGY
The FM transmitter will be based on direct frequency modulation technique using a varactor
frequency modulator. The varactor frequency modulator will comprise an active device
(transistor) and a varactor diode in parallel with a LC tank circuit. The varactor diode behaves
like a capacitor when reverse biased; the modulating signal will be applied to the reverse-biased
varactor diode and as the modulating signal voltage varies the fixed reverse bias voltage will be
increased or decreased (i.e varied) in proportion to the varying modulating signal voltage.
Variation in the reverse bias voltage across the varactor diode, will produce a varying varactor
diode-capacitance and consequently produce a varying deviation in the resonant frequency of the
LC tank circuit in proportion to the modulating signal.
This behavior of the varactor diode will be exploited in generating a frequency modulated wave.
A differential LC oscillator will be designed to produce a carrier frequency within the FM range
(88 – 108 MHz), and a suitable varactor diode in parallel with the LC tank circuit will be
selected to produce the required varying frequency deviation within the ±75KHz bandwidth
allowed for FM transmission.
Oscillation in the LC tank circuit is sustained by the negative resistance effect produced by the
cross-coupled BJT transistor. The inductor and capacitor in the LC tank are inherently lossy and
diminish the energy stored in the inductor and capacitor as energy is being transferred between
the inductor and capacitor in the oscillation cycles, without compensating for this loss the
oscillation will decay. In order to sustain the oscillation indefinitely a negative resistance can be
introduced in parallel with the LC tank in order to counter the inherent loss present in the
inductor and capacitor. The negative resistance will be produced with a cross-coupled BJT
transistor design, which is known to give a negative resistance of -2/g m. Where gm is the
transconductance of the transistor.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
This project report consists of five chapters. The chapter one contains Introduction of the project,
chapter two: Literature Review and theoretical background of the project, chapter three: system
design and calculation, chapter four: construction, testing and packaging, and finally, chapter
five: conclusion and recommendation.
CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 ORIGIN OF FM TRANSMISSION
In 1933 Edwin Armstrong, invented a new circuit to improve AM (Amplitude Modulation)
radio. He came up with the first practical system for transmitting radio signals, using FM.
Armstrong generated a frequency modulated signal using a phase modulator in order to
overcome the inherent challenges of frequency-instability in the direct frequency modulation
method. Since the invention of FM by Edwin Armstrong has grown and become the preferred
method of audio transmission through radio signals.
2.2 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) TRANSMITTER
FM signals can be produced by either directly varying the frequency of the carrier oscillator, or
by converting phase modulation to frequency modulation (indirect method). Depending on the
method employed, FM transmitters are classified into 2 types: Direct and Indirect frequency
modulation transmitter.
2.3 DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER
The frequency modulation is achieved by direct variation of the carrier signal by the modulating
signal. The Direct frequency modulation is commonly achieved using the transistor reactance
modulator or the varactor diode modulator approach. The transistor reactance modulator
comprises an active device (transistor) and a RC network in parallel with a resonant tank circuit.
The RC network causes the transistor to present a capacitive or inductive effect at its output
which is a function of the transconductance (gm) of the transistor. The modulating signal applied
at the input of the transistor will cause varying changes in the transconductance (gm) of the
transistor; this variation produces a varying capacitance or inductance which is in parallel with
the
tank circuit; consequently a variation in the oscillating frequency with respect to the modulating
signal is produced i.e a frequency modulated signal is produced. The varactor diode modulator
approach exploits the capacitive property of a reversed-biased varactor diode; the modulating
signal presents a varying reverse-biased on the varactor diode, and consequently frequency
deviation in accordance to the modulating signal is produced. FM signal can also be produced
this way. Fig 2.1 shows the typical block diagram for a direct FM transmitter.
Modulating
Figure 2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER
2.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT FM
It is easier to obtain high frequency deviation
It requires simpler circuitry.
2.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT FM
Additional circuitry (i.e. Automatic Frequency Control loop) is required to achieve good
frequency stability.
Requires a Pre-emphasis stage to reduce hiss and high frequency noise.
2.4 INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTER
Indirect FM transmitters produce the FM signal whose phase deviation is directly proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal. With this method the phase angle is varied while the
frequency and amplitude remain constant. i.e. phase modulation. In order to achieve frequency
modulation from phase modulation, the modulating signal must be of the same frequency as the
carrier frequency. This is commonly achieved by first amplitude modulating the modulating
signal in order to produce a constant frequency signal with varying amplitude. The AM signal is
then phase shifted by 900 and then added to the carrier signal, which is usually generated by a
crystal oscillator. Since both the produced AM signal and the carrier signal have the same
frequency the generated output is a FM signal.
2.4.1 ADVANTAGE OF INDIRECT FM
The crystal oscillator can be used; hence there is better frequency stability.
2.4.2 DISADVANTAGE OF INDIRECT FM
There is limited phase deviation; hence low modulation index.
2.5 REVIEW OF PROJECT WORKS ON FM TRANSMITTERS
A quick review of some of the past works done in this field will be evaluated. The results
obtained and the method used will be described.
2.5.1 MULTICHANNEL FM TRANSMITTER BY F. MC_SWIGGAN. [12]
The circuit design of the Portable Miniaturized, Multichannel FM transmitter employed the
direct frequency modulation technique and implemented it using a 2-stage transistor circuit. The
first stage of the circuit was used as a pre-audio amplifier while the 2 nd transistor stage acts as an
oscillator and modulator circuit. The circuit works based on the transistor reactance modulator
concept. The reactance modulator is an amplifier designed so that its output impedance has a
reactance that varies as a function of the amplitude of the applied input voltage. The circuit was
able to provide an effective tuning range of 6 MHz and an effective range of 80 feet. The range
achieved by this circuit is quite small and would limit its applications.
Figure 2.2 PORTABLE MULTICHANNEL FM TRANSMITTER BY F. Mc SWIGGAN
2.5.2 SINGLE TRANSISTOR FM TRANSMITTER BY D. MOHANKUMAR [13]
The single transistor FM transmitter is based on the transistor reactance modulator model. The
circuit is simplified by excluding a pre-amplifier stage, while the modulator and carrier oscillator
stage are implemented on a single 2N3904 or BC547 general purpose transistors. The
modulating effect is achieved by the specific arrangement of the input resistor R 1 = 4k7 and C1 =
1nF capacitor. The single transistor FM Transmitter had a very poor range of about 9 - 15
meters, and also the stability of the circuit was a bit poor, as the frequency often drifted off.
Figure 2.3 SINGLE TRANSISTOR FM TRANSMITTER BY D. MOHANKUMAR
2.5.3 2-WATT FM TRANSMITTER BY SINNER
This 2-Watt FM transmitter is reported to provide over 1 km range in good weather conditions
with a 9V supply. The transmitter can be tuned between 88 – 108 MHz It was discovered that
this FM transmitter provided good quality audio signal, however this FM transmitter was
discovered to consume so much power that a 9V battery cell cannot power it, even when 2 or 3
banks of batteries are combined, the transistor generated excessive heat, and hence cooling fans
would be required to prevent damage to the transistors.
Figure 2.4 2-WATT FM TRANSMITTER BY SINNER
The goal of this project is to build a low-cost FM transmitter with good quality sound output at
the receiver and enough power to transmit over a radius of 1KM. A varactor diode modulator
and a cross-coupled LC oscillator design similar to the design employed by SINNER will be
adopted, as a basis for our design. The cross-coupled LC oscillator presents a relatively lower
phase noise compared to the other designs reviewed. [15]
The following modifications will be made to the 2-watt FM transmitter in order to address the
high collector current in the 2N3533 NPN transistor, which leads to excessive heat dissipation
but still transmit enough power for a 1KM range.
I. The base current will be reduced so that the current drawn by each transistor will be
limited such that a 9V battery will be enough to power the circuit without excessive heat
dissipation.
II. A yagi antenna will be used for increased directivity gain and better transmission range.
