Diversity : &

What is taxonomy?
What are the taxonomy
• Classifying and naming species based on natural categories?
1 Domain
features
2 Kingdom
◦ Carolus Linnaeus is the fath
3 Phylum
What is binomial nomenclature? 4 Class
5 Order
• First word: genus name
6 Family
• Second word: name of species (specific) 7 Genus
• We italicize the entire name 8 Species
◦ Homosapiens

What is a domain?
• The highest level of classification in the taxonomic hierarchy
◦ Grouping based on differences in their cellular structure and genetic makeup

What are the three different types of domain?

1 Eukarya:
• Protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
2 Bacteria:
• Bacteria
3 Archaea:
• Like bacteria but don’t need complex conditions to grow
• Archaea

What is a kingdom?
• Major category in the taxonomic hierarchy aht groups organisms based on shared characteristics and
biological traits
◦ Ex. animalia, plantae, and fungi

What are the different kingdoms?

• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia (1 & 2)
What is protista?
1 Animal-like protists AKA protozoa
• 4 groups classified by their movement:
1 Zooflagellates: move using flagellates
2 Sarcodines: extension of cytoplasm
3 Ciliates: using cilia
4 Sporozoans: immobile
What is fungi?
• Structure:
◦ Consists of a mass of branched
▪ Tubular filaments CALLED hyphae
▪ Branch repeatedly into a complicated network called THE mycelium
▪ This makes up the body/thellus
• 4 types of fungal nutrition:
1 Parasitic: absorbs nutrients from the living cells of a host organisms
2 Predatory: soil fungi whose mycelia have specialized structures for trapping prey
3 Mutualistic: have partnerships with other organisms often plants
• Mycelia increase the absorptive surface of the roots to take in more nutrients and give the fungi sugar
4 Saprobial: decomposers whose mycelia absorb nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter

What are the 5 groups of fungi?

1 Fungi imperfecti:
• Reproduce asexually via spores
• Includes many species important for medicine
◦ Ex. penicillium
2 Chytrids:
• Mostly unicellular & mostly aquatic
• Can be parasites or live on decaying plants or insects
3 Zygospore fungi:
• Includes common molds found on food
• Reproduce sexually using spores called zygospores
4 Sac fungi:
• Largest group of fungi
• Develop small finger-like sacs called asci drain reproduction
5 Club fungi:
• Reproduce via spores called basidiospores
• Includes mushrooms and puffballs and can be parasites

What is plantae?
• 3 categories:
1 Non-vascular: use diffusion & osmosis to move substances
• Found in moist environments
2 Seedless vascular: use xylem & phloem that allow for transport of water & nutrients
• Reproduce through spores & can grow larger than nonvascular plants
3 Seed producing vascular: Vascular plant w/ non-enclosed seeds, which is a GYMNOSPERM
• Flowering plants producing seeds within a fruit, which is a ANGIOSPERM

Which type of plants are more likely to survive in dry environments?

• Vascular plants are more likely to survive than non-vascular plants
◦ They have additional specialised structures which help transport water around their system, non-vascular
plants lack these structures & depend on external moisture
What is the difference between monocot and dicot?
• Monocot:
◦ A major cluster of flowering plants that have ONE cotyledon
◦ Also a plant embryo that has one cotyledon
• Dicot:
◦ A major cluster of flowering plants that have TWO cotyledons
◦ A plant embryo that has two cotyledons
What is animalia 1?
• What are the characteristics of animals?
1 Backbone present (vertebrate) or absent (invertebrate)
2 Levels of organization
• Classified by differences in structure, tissue and organ organization
3 Number of body layers
• 1-3
4 Movement
• Active or sessile (stationary)
5 Symmetry and body planes
• Asymmetrical (no plane of symmetry), radial (symmetrical about any plane with a central
axis, or bilateral (symmetrical in one place / mirror image)
6 Segmentation
• Division of body into repetitive sections
7 Body cavity
• Cavity (coelom) present or absent
8 Reproduction
• Asesxual or sexual, internal or external fertilization

What is animalia 2?
• Invertebrates:
◦ Sponges:
▪ Found in marine and freshwater environments
▪ Asymmetrical body
▪ No tissues with only 2 layers of cells
▪ Are able to assemble themselves if squeezed or disrupted
▪ Catch food by trapping food particles through internal channels of their body

What is a dichotomous key?

• Tool used to identify organisms
• Series of two-part choices that lead us to the species name

Bacteria :

Archea Bacteria
prokaryotic unicellular
-
-

extremophile
-

2 types of DNA (chomosomal + plasmid)

harsh mesophiles
-

Can Survive environments

-

-
Obtain food by chemosynthesis ,
-

has protein layer of peptidoglycan

forms Colonies
photosynthesis heterotrophy
-

,
 Types of Archea :

Thermophiles tolerant to heat :

Acidophiles tolerant to acid

:

Habphiles Kelerant to Salt

:

Psychrophiles tolerant to cold :

Thermoacidophiles : tolerant to heat + acid

Structure of Bacterial

1 . Cell Envelope :
-

Cell Wall : Made Of peptidoglycan

Cytoplasm
-

Appendages : Flagella for motility

:

Naming Bacteria :

-
Cocci focus) O
-
Bacilli (Bacillus) - a -

Spirilla (Sprillium) Ms Vibrios Spirilla Spirochetes

-

, ,

Colony
-

Diplo -2
-

Tetrad -Y

Sarcinae-8
-

Strepto-chain
Staphylo-Grape
-
 Binary Fission :
.
What is binary fission?
• Asexual form of reproduction
◦ Used by most prokaryotes and some eukaryotic organelles
• Cells divide into two genetically identical cell

Conjugation :

What is conjugation?
• Transfer of genetic material between 2 cells
◦ Cells end up with new genetic combination and will be better adapted to
changing environments as a result

How does conjugation happen?

• Cells link to each other through a bridge called a pilus
• Genetic material is transferred, then cells undergo binary fission

Virus :

Living :

living ho a
replicateinside
a

Viruses Undergo Mutations +

evolution

NonLiving a host they don't go through metabdic processes

-not cellular (no organelles
don't grow ,
produce
, energy,

Viral Structure :

Polyhedral :
 Many Sided
-

g., Poliovirus Rhinovirus

- e .

Enveloped:
-

Contains Membrane Coat Surrounding Caspid

-

roughly Spherical

Complexi
Combination that usually contains addition structural
Components-

Replication:
What are the methods of reproduction?
• Lytic cycle:
◦ The replication cycle of viruses, usually the host dies
• Lysogenic cycle:
◦ During replication, when viral DNA enters the host cell’s chromosomes
▪ Viral DNA is a part of the cell’s permanently

What is the lytic cycle?

1 Attachment:
• The virus attaches to the body of the cell
2 Entry/injection:
• The virus invades into the host and injects viral DNA or RNA into the host cell
3 Replication:
• Host cell makes copies of new proteins and nucleic acids
4 Assembly:
• New viral particles are put together
5 Lysis and release:
• New viral particles are released into the environments
• Has a quicker incubation period

What is the lysogenic cycle?

• Some viruses can remain dormant inside the cell
• We call these latent viruses
◦ Remain inactive for a long time (years maybe)
• Viral DNA joints the host chromosome and provirus is formed
• Activate to produce new viruses in response to an external signal trigger
◦ They would then enter the lytic cycle
▪ Ex. HIV and herpes
 Litici Lysogenic :

Unit 2 Genetics :

Mitosis : Meiosis

Mitosis:
Interphase : Cell
growth DNA Copy Synthesis
, ,

prophase :

-
chromatin Condenses into chromosome
-
chromosome joined by Centromere
-

Spindle Fibres for by Centrosomes

Metaphase :

Spindle fibres guide chromosomes to equator opce

-

by attatching to Centromere

Anaphase :
-

centromere spilts sister chromatids Separate

,

Spindle Fibre pull chomosomes

to
-

Opposite paes
↑

Telophase:
-
Chemosome Unwind into chromatin

Spindle fibre break down

-

nuclear membrane forms around set of chromosome

-

new

Cytokinesis :

-divison Op Cytoplasm
-

finalizes formation up daughter cells

-

begins With clearage frnow

Meiosis :

Interphase :
cells interphase
-

enter
-

replicate chromosomes

Meiosis 1 :
Prophase Di
-

homologous chromosome line up side by side to form

a tetrad /process called Synapsis)
During
Synapsis segments op chromosomes exchanges at
-

,
are
Chiasmata(crossing over
 provides genetic diversity
-

Metaphase 1: pairs op
homologous chromosome line up at

equator Spindle fibres

,
attach to Centermere .

Anaphase & :
homologous chromosome separate and more apart
to apposite poles chromosome don't split
,

Chromosome # is 6 from dipaid to haploid

Telophase 1 :
homologous chromosome uncel
, Cytokinesis occurs,

Meiosis
I

crossing over

Metaphase 2:
-

hapkid #op chemosomes the up as

equator

Anaphase 2 :

Sister Chromatid are pulled apart

Telophase Li
-
nuclear membrane forms

Cytothesis :

-
↑ haploid Cell
 Function Location :

MissionismenReduce
Meiosis
Meios
#itosis
:

-growth of s

Skin Organ , Sperm Cells

I
,

replace dying cells hair cells -

egg Cells

Abnormal Meiosis:

changes in chromosome Structure :

Deletion: piece or chromosome is deleted : Cridu chet

Duplication : Section of chromosome appears 26-Tooth Disease

In version : Section op chromosome is inverted - FG Syndrome

Translocation: Segment or one chromosome attatches elese,

where -
Cukemia

Nadismuti homose par or sister chematic may not separate properare

Anaphase I homologous : chromosome pair do not separate to

opposite poies
Anaphase : Sister chinatio don't separate

Monozany : Che chromosome last

Trisay :
extra chromosome
 Karpotype : Shows persons chromosomes
-
23 pairs of chemoseres

Genetic Disorders :

What is trisomy 21?

autosomes
• Down syndrome
• 1 in 800
◦ Intellectual disabilities, almond-shape, flattened face, short stature

What is trisomy 18?

• Edward
• 1 in 18000
◦ Intellectual and physical disabilities, facial abnormalities, extreme muscle tone, early death

What is trisomy 13?

• Patau
• 1 in 15000
◦ Intellectual and physical disabilities, wise variety of defects in organs, large triangular nose,
early death

What is XXY?

i
• Klinefelter syndrome
• 1 in 1000 males
• Sexual immaturity, breast swelling

What is XYY?
• Jacobs syndrome
• 1 in 1000 males
• Some are taller than average

What is XXX?
• Triplex syndrome
• 1 in 1500 females
• Tall and thin, irregular menstrual

What is XO?
• Turner syndrome
• 1 in 1500 females
• Short and stature, webbed neck, sexually underdeveloped
 Prenatal Testing :

What is pre-natal testing?

• Test performed on baby in the uterus

What is non-invasive testing?

• Blood tests are used to determine chromosomal abnormalities or physical abnormalities
• The blood will contain fetal proteins, which can be analyzed

What is amniocentesis?
• A procedure used to take out a small sample of the amniotic fluid for testing

Terminology :

Genotype genetic : Makeup (Pp)

Phenotype physical traits /green
Homoly pous 2 dominant :
traits
Heterozygous : 1 dominant 1 recessive

True-Breeding : breeding2 homozygous animals

Allele : Stan or short)
variant or version in a
gene
Homologous Chromosome : Chromosomes Similar in shape and Size
Sister Chromatid O reads that turn into chromosome g
:

Chromatin : String like DNA

Monohybrid Cross :

e .

g .. Purple flower is homozygous dominant is crossed

With a white flower .
What are G and Pop
PPpY po

P-purple Do
:
Heterozygous Pp
or
·
Po
-white and are purple
P
Po Pp
 Test Crossi Conducted between parent of Unknown

genotype and a homozygous recessive parents

Dihybrid :

Parents AAbby AABb

AbAb ABAb
AbAb ABAb

Ab Ab Ab Ab

AB AABb AABb AABb ABD

Ab AAbb AAbb AAbb AAbd
Als AABb AABb AABb AAB

Ab AAbb AAbb AAbb AAbb

Incomplete dominance:
-
neither alleles completely males Other trait
AKA mixing
. Cobers

Cu gu

I
White : Chi gu
Red : Ch CR
orCrowCrow al ha
 Co-dominance
-
both alleles are fully expressed
-

Room
cre gue

I
Lis goph grigh
(jggw

Multiple Alleles (blood type)

** T -

Type A FBFB-typeB
I
etype
-
B

Iti
TBAB Bi
i It ii

Sex Linked'
-

Controlled by a
genc
located in X or y chromosome
-
Males are hemizypors because they have only I allde
for Cc-linked Chemosannes
XnY
* X*xo X Y
&

*
X X x XY
What is autosomal dominant?
• Trait appears in every generation
• Both males and females are equally affected
• Affected individuals have 50% chance of passing it on
◦ Ex. Huntington disease

What is autosomal recessive?

• Trait can skip generations
• Both female and males are equally affected
• Heterozygous parents have 25% chance of having an affected child
◦ Ex. Cystic fibrosis

What is X-linked dominant?

• The trait is more commonly expressed in females than males
• An affected father will pass the trait to all daughter but not sons
• An affected mother will have a 50% chance of passing the trait to both daughters and
sons
◦ Ex. Rett syndrome

What is X-linked recessive?

• Male are more affected than females
• Affected males cannot pass the trait to their sons but will pass it to all daughters
• Carrier female have a 50% chance of having affected sons and 50% chance of having
carrier
◦ Ex. Hemophilia A

Pedigree :

legend :

male identical
j'Honidential
on
- -

o of
Female
-

unknown dad a

Da unaffected parents, Producingo

affected
offspring who are

Autosomal
Recessive
-one affected , or carrier

Parent's carry
Fibrosis
g ., Cystic
e .
 Autosomal Recessive
ta

·
i

Physiology
Digestive System :

Function :

breake down macromolecules

absorb minerals
·

nutrients Vitamins ,
,

transport body toServe multiple

-

nutrients around purposes

↑ Stages
Ingestion
-

Digestion
-

Absorption
-

Elimination

Mechanical :
·
Teeth chew food to create more surface area

· involves churning and

gnashing
·

Food Combines WithSaliva to create boks /Mouth)

Imouth Stomach) ,

Chemical :

Salivary glands release Saliva which Chemically

break down and lubricate food
(mouth Stomach) ,
Morthi
-

mechanical + chemical digestion turn food

into bous
-

Longue helps more food around to make bolus

-

Wula located in back covers hasen passage when

Swallowing
.
Epiglottis : flap of tissue that closes airway
-

to trached

Stomach :
Cardiac Sphinctor : top of stomach , contelling
what enters

pybric sphincter: bottom of stomach Controlling What exits

,

Ruage ridges
: that produce Gastric surces

-
presence of fod in Stomach Stimulates Cens
in stomach lining to release pastrin initiates release
->

of HCI in Stomach
He activates pepsinoge into pepsia
pepsin : break doln
proteins into polypeptides
Mucous : Coats stomach to protest
Small Intestine :
Villi : Ginger like projections thatM Surface area
for more absorption .

Duodenumi responsible for digestion

Jesunami digestion is completed
Ilern : responsible for absorption
-

The major function of the small intestine is

absorption micro-molecules into circulatory system

When chyme enters doodeum Secretin is released ,

into blood fromSmall I

-

this Stimulates release of pancreatic Juices

which have enzymes to break down macromolecules

Contains
-

bicarbonate to neutralize put OpHa

Large Intestine :
Sparks :

-
Cerum

Ascending Colon
-

Transverse Colen
-

descending coln
-

Sigrid Colon

Function: -absorb Vitamins and minerals into blood

-

forms feces
B12
-

Forms

Liver :
-produces bile to digest fat
-Secrets substances through hepatic duc
 Gan bladder :
-
Stores bile
-Concentrates bile -
> bile salts

pancreas
-responsible for releasing 28 chemicals into

body
·
en Zyrne
= Enzyme Location Site Reaction
hormone

I I
Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands Oral Cavity breaks down Starch
into glucose
breaks down proteins into
Pepsin Stomach Stomach
Polypeptides
into amino acids
breaks down long peptides
Trypsin Pancreas Small Intestine into shorter peptides
further digestion of starch
Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Small Intestine to simple sugars
breaks down maltose into
Maltas e Small Intestine Small Intestine glucose
breaks down Peptide into

Erepsin Small Intestine Small Intestine amino acids

activates trypsinogen and

Enterokinase Small Intestine Small Intestine converts it into trypsin

converts lipids into glycerol
Lipase Pancreas Small Intestine + fatty acids
breaks down peptide bonds
Peptidase Pancreas Stomach into amino acids
intakes release of It
Gastrin Stomach Stomach in Stomach
Stimulates release of
Secretin Small Intestine blood Pancreatic Jucies and neutralizes pl

Insulin Small Intestine blood ↓ bloodSugar

Glucagon Pancreas blood ↑ blood Sugar

Cholecystokinin Small Intestine Small Intestine release's bile salts .
 Respiratory :

Functions :
. More Fresh On
1
into your body while they remove Waste gas (CO2)

Tracheai carry air in and out op lings

Branches : Carry air in and our lands
Branchise : Cary air to alvedi
Alvedi : exchanges 82 + CO2 With capillaries

Gas exchange :

inhaled oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries, and
carbon dioxide moves from the blood in the capillaries to the air in the alveoli.

Brain Contr Respiratory System :

The brain controls breathing through the medulla and pons:

• The medulla sets the basic breathing rhythm.
• The pons helps adjust the breathing rate and smooths the
transition between inhale and exhale.

Circulatory System :

Function :
. Transport Gasses
1

.
2
Regulate internal temp
3
. and disease
protection agaisnt blood loss from injury
 Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls to handle high
pressure. The largest artery is the aorta.
Veins: Carry blood back to the heart. They have thinner walls and often have valves
to prevent blood from flowing backward.
Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels that connect arteries and veins. They are where
oxygen and nutrients are exchanged with tissues.

goott D D
. Ventricle
R -
Pulmonary -
Pulmonary pulmonary
y

ex p e r t
Value Trunte Arteries
g
ba
L Ventricle
. ? Bicuspid-L . Atrium " Pulmonary Lungs
ob Valve
Dea Xy
Veins

Aortic Aura
Body R-Atrium
Tricso is
Y
value

b
R Ventricle
.
 Oxygen Transportation :
Red Blood Cells: Most oxygen binds to a protein called hemoglobin in red
blood cells. These cells travel through the bloodstream and deliver oxygen
to tissues.
Plasma: A small amount of oxygen is also dissolved directly in the blood
plasma (the liquid part of blood), but this is much less compared to what’s
carried by hemoglobin.

Evolution:
Evolution is the process by which living things change over
time. Over many generations, species gradually develop new
traits or characteristics that help them survive in their
environment. These changes happen through small variations,
and the ones that help an organism survive are more likely to
be passed on to the next generation. Over long periods, these
changes can lead to new species.

Adaptation
structure
,
behaviour or physiological process helps Organisms to survive +

reproduce Viable offspring

a) structural :

physical features
-

miniary : When prey copy resemble predators thru color/structure

Camoflage : allows spieces to blend into surroundings
-

b) physiological :

Camels produce concentrated pee for loss prevention

-

water

organisms carry out physical functions needed

-

C) Behavioural :
-

an adaptation that involves activites that did in survival

-

Geese migrate

Adaptations are developed over many generations

as species respond to environmental pressures through natural
Selection :
 ,

Natural Selection-natural selection deals with the

environment taking it's course and the natural processes.

Artificial Selection : the human selection of particular

traits to modify a population

Sexual Selection : Sexual selection is a type of evolution where certain traits help an organism
attract a mate, even if those traits don’t directly help with survival. These
traits can be physical (like bright colors or large antlers) or behaviors (like
elaborate mating dances). If a trait makes an individual more likely to
reproduce, it gets passed on to future generations, even if it’s not the best
for survival.

Lamarch's Theory :

Inheritance of acquired traits

Organisms would become better adapted to environment

e .

g .,
Girates stretched their necks to reach food and over time over time it become longer
and passed that off to offspring.

Darwin's Theoy :
-

Theory of natural selection where

:
living organisms adapt to environment

and pass thrap trait on to offspring

-

Descent With modification : ofp be different to parents

pring will because of naturals .

Mechanisms :

5 Factors :
-

Mutation
-
Gene Flou
-
Non-random mating
-

Genetic Dript
-

Natural Selection
Mutation : changes that happen in DNA of individual

Gene Flow : movement up an allele from one population

to another
-

genetic diversity
-white duck goes to brown duck population and has babies

Non-random mating : mate selection on

particular
Phenotype
-mate selected due to wanted traits.
blan Male + female
Phenotypic hipperance
Dimorphism :
.

Sexual
allele

Genetic Drift : change infrequencies due to random events.

under effect : Change in gene flow when individuals

Start isolated population

Bottleneck : changes in
gens distribution that result
from rapid decrease in population Size

Natural Selection: 3 types :

I .

Stablizing :

favors intermediate phanotype

A
 G
Directional
favours one extreme over other

At
.
3 Disruptive

M
-

favours both extreme

- intermediate eliminated

Anatomy :

homologous structures : Structures with similar structure cements ,

#

Origin ,
but different functions

Analogous structures : Structures that don't have similar look but have

Similar function (wing vs .

leg)

Vestigial structures-reduced version of a structure that was

functional in organism ancestors /whales that had limbs

Speciation : How species are formed this is a Continuous

process

Microevolution : Small changes within a species

Macroevolution :
bip changes that can crean new species
 Sympatric Speciation : populations wh same geographical areas diverge
and become reproductively Isolated
Altopatric Speciation Popularia:
Split into goops by geographical
barrier

Adaptive Radiation :

rapid evolution op diverse species from ancestor

pre-Zygotic : before Zygote

: After
Post-Zypotic Zypoke

Pre-Zygotic :

Habitat : species live in

nearby areas but dipp habitats
Temporal : timing of mating
Behavioural : mating rituals that are specific
Mechanical reproductive organs that don't fit
:

Gametic : gametes Can't fase to make a Zygote

Zygore Mortality : Inbreed species may stop developing

hybrid Faviability : First
gen is viable but not second pen
hybrid Infertility hybrids : Can't reproduce

Divergent : species once similar to ancestor

Convergent : Similar traits arise to differen species having

to adapt independently .
 Plants :

Anatomy of plant :
Leaf Structure + Function
*
preform photosynthesis within Chloroplass
-

in
guard Cells
-

-
Blade + Stem-blade is the flat portion that attaches t stem
by petiole

cuticle: layer on epidermis op leaf-responsible for perfection

through keepingmeistere .

Mesophyll : falls between Upper + lower epidermis

·
Palisade Messphyll : Apeof parenchyma cen contains

charoplast .
Most photosynthesis take splace here

Tissue Systems:

Monocot US . Disot

-
A cotyledon is the embryonic lear of the seed

-
A dicot Contains 2 Seed leaves
eig Sunflowers
.

-
A lear
monocot contains one seed
-

grass or grass-like plants

 -

Xyle + Phloem
Xylemi transports from roots -> leaves Cupancy
Phlemi everywhere lup and down)

Arranged different in Monocat US . Dicot

Monocoti Xylem forms a

ring , Philem Surrounds Xylem
Dico :
Xylem forms X
,
Phoen cells are in between and around