Tunnel Lining

Process
Survey Profile

Boring

Drilling Loading Blasting

Initial Short

Mucking

Support
—---- Lattice Girder—---
…. Shotcrete….
—---- Rib —---
Back Filling
-Rock bolt –
Grouting

Phase
Undercut
Anchor bolt
Beam -kicker
Reinforcement
Geotextile
Geomembrane—--- Waterproofing Lattice Girder —---Reinforcement
Gantry Alignment Survey
Bulkhead

Turnbuckles

Tunnel Lining Step

Tunnel lining is the final protective layer installed inside a tunnel after the
excavation is done. It provides:

● Structural support

● Water tightness
 ● Durability

● Smooth internal surface (for transport tunnels)

🔹
Types of Lining

1. Based on Construction Stage

a. Primary Lining
● Installed immediately after excavation

● Provides temporary support

● Helps stabilize the tunnel face

Common materials: shotcrete, steel ribs, rock bolts

b. Secondary Lining

● Installed after the primary lining

● Acts as the final, permanent support

● Provides waterproofing, smooth finish, durability

Material: usually reinforced concrete

 2. Based on Material Used
a. Concrete Lining
● Most common type

● Cast-in-situ or precast segments

● Strong, durable, and fire-resistant

b. Shotcrete (Sprayed Concrete)

● Applied with high-pressure spray

● Good for irregular surfaces or quick application

● Often used as primary lining

 c. Steel Lining

● Used in high-pressure or water flow tunnels (e.g., hydro tunnels)

● Offers high strength and flexibility

● Expensive and corrosion-prone if not protected

d. Brick or Masonry Lining

● Used in older tunnels or small cross-sections

Not common in modern tunnels due to limited strength
 3. Based on Installation Method
a. Cast-in-place Concrete Lining
● Concrete poured and cured inside tunnel using formwork

Suitable for large and complex profiles

b. Secondary Lining
● Installed after the primary lining

● Acts as the final, permanent support

● Provides waterproofing, smooth finish, durability

● Material: usually reinforced concrete

 b. Precast Segmental Lining

● Used with Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs)

● Segments are pre-made, lifted, and placed into position
● Fast and consistent in quality

🔹
4. Special Types

a. Waterproof Lining
 ● Uses membranes or sealing systems between layers

● Critical in tunnels under rivers or high groundwater levels

b Composite Lining

● Combines two or more materials, like shotcrete and concrete

● Balances strength, cost, and waterproofing

Geometrical Differences

1.Invert Lining

2.Overt Lining
1. Survey Profile -Surveying tunnel profiles for blasting involves meticulously
mapping the tunnel's dimensions and alignment to ensure precise and
controlled excavation. This includes determining the tunnel's centerline,
cross-sectional shape, and the location of any obstructions or changes in the
tunnel's path. Accurate surveying data is crucial for designing efficient
blasting patterns and minimizing overbreak, which is the unwanted
excavation beyond the desired profile.

Some pictures of Survey align point for lining

Drilling -Loading: Drilling and loading, a crucial step in railway tunnel
excavation, involves creating a series of blast holes in the tunnel face and then
filling them with explosives. This is followed by controlled detonation,
fracturing the rock and allowing for the removal of excavated material. The
specific drilling pattern and loading design depend on factors like rock type,
tunnel dimensions, and desired fragmentation.
Boring- Boring in a railway tunnel refers to the process of excavating or
drilling a tunnel through the earth to construct a passageway for railway lines.
This is typically done using specialized machinery and engineering
techniques, especially in mountainous or urban regions where open
excavation isn't feasible.
Methods of Tunnel Boring in Railways:
1. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM):
o A TBM is a massive, circular machine that drills through soil and
rock.
o It supports the tunnel as it advances, minimizing surface
disruption.
o Common in urban and long-distance railway tunnels.
o Example: The TBMs used in metro rail and high-speed rail
projects.
2. New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM):
o Uses the surrounding rock mass for stabilization.
o Involves sequential excavation and immediate support (like
shotcrete, rock bolts).
o Suitable for varied ground conditions.
3. Drill and Blast:
o Common in hard rock conditions.
o Involves drilling holes into rock, inserting explosives, blasting,
and then clearing debris.
o Slower but cost-effective for short or rugged tunnels.
4. Cut and Cover:
o Used in shallow tunnel construction.
o Involves excavating a trench, constructing the tunnel, and then
backfilling.

🚇 o Cheaper but more disruptive to the surface.

BLASTING OPERATION IN RAILWAY TUNNEL: COMPLETE OVERVIEW
1. MATERIALS USED
 Explosives:
o ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil)
o Dynamite
o Emulsion explosives (safer and water-resistant)
 Initiators:
o Detonators (electric or non-electric)
o Delay detonators (for sequence control)
o Detonating cords
 Accessories:
o Primers
o Cartridge paper
o Fuses
o Tamping rods
o Explosive proof storage boxes
 2. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
 Drilling Equipment:
o Jackhammers / Rock drills (pneumatic or hydraulic)
o Jumbo drill rigs (for large tunnels)
 Blasting Accessories:
o Tamping rods (wooden or copper)
o Explosive carriers
o Blasting machine or firing device
 Ventilation & Safety:
o Ventilation fans and ducts
o Gas detectors (CO, NOx, etc.)
o Fire extinguishers
o Communication devices
 Mucking Equipment:
o Loaders (LHD – Load-Haul-Dump)
o Conveyor belts
o Dumpers or mine trolleys
 Support Equipment:
o Rock bolt drills
o Shotcrete machines
o Steel ribs and lagging

3. PROCEDURE OF BLASTING OPERATION

Stage 1: Survey and Marking

 Mark the drilling pattern on the tunnel face.
 Check for overbreak’s or weak zones.
Stage 2: Drilling
 Drill holes (typically 1.5–3.5 m deep) according to a specific blast
pattern (burn cut, V-cut, etc.).
 Clean boreholes with compressed air.
Stage 3: Charging (Loading Explosives)
 Place explosives into the drilled holes.
 Insert detonators and connect delay circuits.
 Tamping is done with non-sparking rods to ensure tight contact
between explosive and hole wall.
Stage 4: Wiring and Delay Setup
 Connect detonators using detonating cord or shock tube.
 Set delay timing to control blast sequence and minimize vibration.
Stage 5: Safety Check and Evacuation
 Ensure all personnel are clear.
 Check for misfires or exposed conductors.
 Use warning sirens (3-step system):
o 1st: Warning signal
o 2nd: Blast signal
o 3rd: All-clear signal
Stage 6: Blasting
 Initiate blast using electric or non-electric firing system.
  Standby emergency team remains at safe distance.
Stage 7: Post-Blast Ventilation
 Run ventilation to remove fumes and dust.
 Gas detectors ensure air quality before re-entry.
Stage 8: Inspection and Scaling
 Inspect tunnel face for loose rocks (scaling).
 Mark misfires (if any) and handle safely.
Stage 9: Mucking (Debris Removal)
 Use LHDs or dumpers to remove blasted rock (muck).
 Clear tunnel face for next cycle.
Stage 10: Installation of Support
 Apply immediate support using:
o Shotcrete
o Rock bolts
o Lattice girders or steel ribs

🔁 BLASTING CYCLE TIMING

Operation Time (approx.)
Drilling 2–3 hours
Charging 1 hour
Blasting & Venting 1 hour
Mucking 2–3 hours
Support 1–2 hours


✅SAFETY MEASURES
Use certified blasters only.
 Store explosives in approved magazines.
 Always check for misfires—never touch or re-fire immediately.
 Continuous monitoring of air quality post-blast.
 In tunnel blasting, an "initial short" refers to a short, initial Initial Short:
portion of the tunnel face that is blasted to create a starting point for the
excavation process. This is often achieved by blasting specific "cut holes" or
"pilot holes" to develop a void or free face, allowing the tunnel to be advanced
further.
"Mucking" in tunnel construction refers to the
removal of excavated material (also known as
muck) from the tunnel after excavation. It is a
crucial part of tunnel boring, drilling, and
blasting operations. Efficient mucking is
essential for maintaining productivity and
ensuring the safety and progress of the
tunneling process
 Support System In Gantry
Lattice Girder: A lattice girder in a tunnel refers to a structural
support element composed of a network of intersecting steel bars or angles
(often forming a triangulated or lattice pattern), used primarily in the
construction and reinforcement of tunnels. These are commonly used in
temporary or permanent tunnel linings and help support the surrounding
rock or soil, particularly during excavation.
Key Points About Lattice Girders in Tunnels:
 Purpose:
o Provide initial structural support during tunnel excavation.
o Distribute load uniformly and prevent collapse.
o Often used with shotcrete (sprayed concrete), rock bolts, and
wire mesh to stabilize the tunnel lining.
 Design:
o Made from steel sections (often T or angle profiles).
o Triangulated design improves load-bearing capacity while
keeping weight and material use low.
o Installed in segments (often arched) and spaced regularly along
the tunnel.
  Applications:
o Used in NATM (New Austrian Tunnelling Method).
o Ideal in weak ground conditions or where ground support is
critical immediately after excavation.
 Advantages:
o Fast installation.
o Adaptable to different tunnel shapes.
o Can be prefabricated and adjusted on site.

…. Shotcrete….
Shotcrete in tunnel construction refers to concrete or mortar that is sprayed
onto surfaces (typically at high velocity) using a hose. It’s a critical technique used
in tunnel excavation and support, often in combination with lattice girders, rock
bolts, and mesh.

🛠️ Why Use Shotcrete in Tunnels?

Shotcrete is essential for stabilizing the tunnel immediately after excavation,

✅
especially in unstable ground conditions.
Key Functions:
 Initial lining support – Holds back loose rock and soil.
 Reinforcement – Bonds with steel elements like lattice girders and mesh to
form a structural shell.
 Protection – Seals the surface, reducing water ingress and weathering.

🧱 Types of Shotcretes
1. Wet-Mix Shotcrete:
o Premixed concrete is pumped and sprayed.
o Better control over quality and less dust.
 o Common in modern tunnel projects.
2. Dry-Mix Shotcrete:
o Dry ingredients are fed into the hose; water is added at the nozzle.
o More flexible for small jobs or remote areas.
o Used in older or simpler tunnel settings.

—---- Rib —--- 🏗️ What Are Tunnel Ribs?

Ribs are part of the primary support system in a tunnel. They form the
skeleton onto which other support materials (like lagging, shotcrete, or
precast panels) are attached.

📌 Key Features:
 Shape: Usually curved to match the tunnel cross-section (circular,
horseshoe, or elliptical).
 Spacing: Installed at regular intervals (e.g. every 0.5–1.5 meters).
 Materials:
o Steel ribs – Most common, quick to install, often in segments (like
I-beams).
o Cast iron – Used in older shield-driven tunnels (e.g., London
Underground).
o Concrete ribs – Precast segments used in TBM (Tunnel Boring
Machine) tunnels.

🔧 How Ribs Are Used:

1. Tunnel is excavated in small sections.
2. Ribs are installed to prevent collapse and provide shape.
3. Lagging (wood, steel plates, or concrete) or shotcrete is applied
 between ribs.
4. A final lining (e.g., reinforced concrete) is often added later.

🆚 Ribs vs Lattice Girders

Feature Ribs Lattice Girders
Shape Solid curved segments Triangulated steel frameworks
Use Load-bearing frame Combined with shotcrete mesh
Common Method Cut-and-cover or NATM NATM, especially soft ground
Backfilling in the context of concrete tunnel lining refers to the process of
filling the gap between the outer surface of the concrete lining and the
excavated ground or rock. This is especially important in shield-driven or
segmentally lined tunnels (such as those made using a Tunnel Boring Machine —
TBM).

🏗️ Purpose of Backfilling
1. Structural Support: Ensures full contact between the lining and
surrounding ground, reducing deformation.
2. Void Filling: Eliminates gaps or voids behind the lining that could lead to
settlement or water ingress.
3. Load Transfer: Helps distribute ground pressure evenly to the lining.
4. Waterproofing: When combined with grout or sealing materials, prevents
water from seeping around the tunnel lining.

🧱 Common Backfilling Materials

 Cement-based grout (most common)
 Bentonite-cement mixes (for lubrication and sealing)
  Foam concrete or mortar (in some soft ground applications)

🔄 Process (e.g., in TBM Tunnelling)

1. Lining Segments Installed: Precast concrete segments are erected inside
the TBM.
2. Tail Void Created: A small annular space (gap) is left behind the segments.
3. Backfill Grouting:
o Performed through ports in the TBM tail or lining segments.
o A two-component grout (like cement + accelerator) is often used to
set quickly.
4. Curing: The backfill sets and supports the lining.

⚠️ Risks of Poor Backfilling

 Ground settlement above the tunnel
 Segment displacement
 Water ingress
 Reduced tunnel lifespan

 Rock bolt
– A rock bolt is a long anchor bolt used to stabilize rock in tunnels or
underground excavations. It is a crucial component of rock reinforcement
systems, commonly employed in tunnelling, mining, and slope stabilization
projects.
Function in a Tunnel
In tunnels, rock bolts are installed into the rock mass to:
 Prevent rock falls or collapses from loose rock in the roof or walls.
 Reinforce fractured rock by binding it together, converting it into a self-
supporting arch.
 Distribute loads within the rock to reduce stress concentrations.
Types of Rock Bolts
1. Mechanical Anchored Bolts – Expand at the end to grip the rock (like
wedge anchors).
2. Grouted Bolts – Installed with cement or resin grout for better bond
strength.
3. Friction Bolts (e.g., Split Set or Swellex) – Held in place by friction against
the drilled hole walls.
4. Tensioned vs. Untensioned Bolts – Tensioned bolts are preloaded to add
active support; untensioned rely more on passive support.
Installation Process
1. Drill a hole into the rock.
2. Insert the bolt (and grout or expansion mechanism, if required).
3. Tension the bolt (if necessary).
4. Attach a bearing plate and nut to secure it.
 Grouting
Grouting in tunnels is a technique used to improve ground conditions, control
water ingress, and strengthen the surrounding rock or soil. It involves injecting
fluid-like materials (grouts) into voids, fractures, or porous areas around the tunnel
to fill spaces and enhance stability.

🔧 Purposes of Grouting in Tunneling

1. Sealing against water ingress (pre- or post-excavation).
2. Strengthening weak ground or fractured rock.
3. Controlling ground settlement or heave.
4. Filling voids (e.g., around tunnel linings or in abandoned underground
structures).
5. Facilitating safe excavation in unstable or water-bearing ground.

🧪Types of Grouts
1. Cementitious Grout:
o Made from water and cement (sometimes with additives).
o Used for general ground improvement and structural support.
2. Chemical Grout:
o Includes silicates, polyurethanes, epoxies, or acrylics.
o Low viscosity – used for sealing fine fractures and stopping water.
3. Bentonite Grout:
o Clay-based – often used for sealing boreholes or creating
impermeable barriers.
 ⚙️ Common Grouting Techniques
1. Contact Grouting – Fills the space between tunnel lining and surrounding
ground (used in shield tunnelling or segmental linings).
2. Consolidation Grouting – Injected into fractured rock or loose soil to bond
particles and improve strength.
3. Compensation Grouting – Used to control ground settlement by injecting
grout in a controlled manner beneath sensitive structures.
4. Jet Grouting – High-pressure grout erodes and mixes with soil to form a
solidified mass.
5. Permeation Grouting – Allows grout to permeate into porous ground
without displacing soil.

🛠️ Grouting Equipment
 Grout mixer and pump
 Injection packers
 Pressure gauges and monitoring tools
 Lining in Phase
What is an Undercut Set?
 It defines the lower boundary or bottom line of the tunnel cross-section to
be excavated.
 Helps in determining how much rock or soil to cut below the reference level.
 Essential for proper installation of tunnel supports, such as lining or rock
bolts.

🧭 How Surveyors Do This via Machine

1. Use of Total Station or Laser Scanner:
o Measures distances and angles with high precision.
o Sets out reference points on tunnel walls or roof.
2. Robotic Instruments & GNSS:
o Robotic total stations can automatically track prisms mounted on
TBMs or survey poles.
o GNSS (for surface portals) helps with positioning before tunnelling
progresses underground.
 3. Machine Guidance Systems:
o Integrated into TBMs or excavators.
o Receives input from survey data to control alignment in real time.
4. Digital Models (BIM/CAD):
o Surveyors use digital tunnel models to program precise excavation
paths and verify against actual positions.

📏 Why It's Critical

 Avoids over- or under-excavation, which can cause structural issues or
excess cost.
 Maintains tunnel geometry and alignment (especially important for rail,
metro, or sewer tunnels).
 Ensures support systems like invert segments or drainage systems are
installed correctly.
 Anchor bolt
An anchor bolt in tunnels is a crucial element used in rock reinforcement and
support systems during tunnel construction or excavation. Anchor bolts are
specifically designed to provide stability to the surrounding rock or soil, preventing

🔩
collapse, controlling rockfalls, and enhancing the tunnel's structural integrity.
What is an Anchor Bolt?
An anchor bolt is a long metal rod, usually made of steel, that is drilled and inserted
into the rock or soil around a tunnel. The bolt is typically tensioned to create active

🏗️
support by holding the rock mass together.
Types of Anchor Bolts Used in Tunnels
1. Fully Grouted Rock Bolts:
o These bolts are placed in pre-drilled holes and secured with grout
(cement-based mixture), creating a strong bond between the bolt and
the rock.
o They provide enhanced stability in fractured or loose rock.
2. Resin Anchors:
o These bolts use resin-based grout to bond to the rock mass, offering
 fast-setting and high strength.
o Used in soft rock or situations requiring rapid installation.
3. Friction Bolts (Split Set):
o These bolts rely on friction to stay in place. The bolt expands when
inserted into a drilled hole, creating pressure against the rock.
o Common in mines and tunnels with soft or fractured rock.
4. Swellex Bolts:
o Hydraulic anchors that expand when a special fluid is injected into the

🛠️ bolt, forming a tight grip with the rock.

Installation Process
1. Drill the Hole: A hole is drilled into the tunnel wall or roof where the bolt is
to be installed.
2. Insert the Anchor Bolt: The anchor bolt is inserted into the drilled hole.
o For grouted bolts, cement or resin grout is injected into the hole to
secure the bolt.
o For friction or Swellex bolts, they expand inside the hole to grip the
surrounding rock.
3. Tension or Expansion:
o Some bolts are pre-tensioned to provide active support, while others
rely on passive friction or mechanical expansion to lock in place.
4. Anchor Plate: A plate is typically added at the exposed end of the bolt to

💡 distribute the load and prevent local damage to the tunnel surface.
Purpose and Benefits of Anchor Bolts in Tunnels
 Stabilizing Loose Rock: Anchor bolts hold fractured or unstable rock in
place, preventing falling debris and collapse.
 Control Ground Movement: By anchoring the rock mass, the bolt helps
distribute stress and reduce ground movement.
 Support Tunnel Linings: They serve as a primary support system for the
tunnel, especially in early stages of excavation before the permanent lining is
installed.
 Increase Tunnel Safety: Anchoring improves overall safety by ensuring the
tunnel structure is secure and resistant to external forces, such as water

🌍 pressure or seismic activity.

Applications in Tunnel Projects
 Underground Rail and Metro Tunnels: To secure tunnel walls and prevent
ground subsidence.
 Mining Tunnels: To stabilize deep excavation shafts.
 Hydroelectric or Sewer Tunnels: Anchor bolts are used for both structural
support and to prevent water ingress.

Detailed Overview of Anchor Bolt Installation in Tunnels

Anchor bolts play a critical role in stabilizing the surrounding rock or soil and
supporting the tunnel lining. Below is a more detailed breakdown of how they are

🛠️
installed, their benefits, and their role in different tunnel projects.
Step-by-Step Installation of Anchor Bolts in Tunnels
1. Site Assessment & Drilling Plan:
o Before installation, a surveyor assesses the rock or soil conditions.
o A drilling plan is developed based on the geology, tunnel size, and
 safety requirements.
2. Drilling the Hole:
o Using drilling machines (typically drill jumbo machines in tunnels),
a hole is drilled into the tunnel's rock mass.
o The depth and diameter of the hole are determined based on the size
of the anchor bolt and the rock mass's conditions.
o The hole is drilled at specific angles to ensure proper orientation for
the anchor's insertion.
3. Cleaning the Hole:
o The drilled hole is cleaned to remove debris, dust, or loose rock
fragments that could interfere with the bolt's grip.
o Water flushing or compressed air may be used to ensure the hole is
clear.
4. Inserting the Anchor Bolt:
o Grouted Anchor Bolts: The bolt is inserted into the hole, and grout
(usually cement or resin-based) is injected under pressure to bond
the bolt to the surrounding rock.
 This creates a strong bond between the anchor and the rock,
effectively stabilizing the surrounding material.
o Friction Bolts: These bolts are designed to expand when inserted into
the drilled hole, creating friction against the hole's walls to hold them
in place.
o Swellex Bolts: These are expanded by injecting hydraulic fluid into
the bolt, allowing it to swell and firmly anchor into the rock.
5. Tensioning the Bolt (if necessary):
o Some anchor bolts, especially pre-tensioned ones, require tensioning
once installed.
o Tensioning ensures that the bolt creates active support by exerting a
pulling force on the rock, holding fractured sections together.
o Hydraulic tensioning equipment is often used to apply the necessary
force.
6. Securing the Anchor Plate:
o An anchor plate is typically installed at the exposed end of the bolt.
o The plate distributes the load from the bolt over a wider area,
reducing localized stress on the tunnel lining.
7. Monitoring and Testing:
o After installation, the bolts are monitored using instruments that
measure stress and displacement in the rock mass.
o Load tests may be performed to verify that the bolt provides the

🔍 necessary stabilization.
Anchor Bolt Installation in Different Types of Tunnels
1. Underground Rail/Metro Tunnels:
o In metro tunnels, anchor bolts are used extensively during the initial
stages of tunnel excavation to stabilize rock or soft soil.
o These tunnels may require anchor bolts in combination with
shotcrete (sprayed concrete) to provide temporary support until
permanent lining (concrete segments or steel lining) is installed.
o Anchor bolts help control settlement and prevent ground
 movement, which can be problematic near urban infrastructure.
2. Mining Tunnels:
o In mining operations, anchor bolts are used to stabilize deep
underground tunnels. The rock mass in mining tunnels is typically
more fractured and unstable, requiring extra support.
o Fully grouted bolts are preferred in these cases as they provide long-
lasting, stable support to the tunnel walls.
o Mining tunnels often use a mix of resin anchors, mechanical bolts,
and grouted systems depending on the specific geology.
3. Hydroelectric and Sewer Tunnels:
o Hydroelectric tunnels require anchor bolts to support heavy loads,
especially when tunnelling through mountain ranges or unstable
ground.
o These bolts help resist the forces exerted by the surrounding rock,
water pressure, and the weight of the tunnel's structural components.
o Resin-based bolts or fully grouted bolts are typically used to
minimize water ingress and ensure the tunnel lining is secure.
4. Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM):
o Anchor bolts are also used when working with Tunnel Boring
Machines (TBMs). TBMs are large machines that tunnel through the
earth, excavating and simultaneously installing segments of the tunnel
lining.
o Bolts may be used to help hold the tunnel lining sections together and
secure the rock mass around the excavation.

📊 Benefits of Anchor Bolts in Tunnel Construction

 Ground Stabilization: Anchor bolts prevent the collapse of loose or
fractured rock, reducing the risk of accidents or injuries in the tunnel.
 Prevents Rockfalls: By securing the tunnel lining and surrounding rock,
anchor bolts significantly reduce rockfalls and the associated hazards.
 Support for Lining: They provide the initial support for the tunnel's
permanent lining (such as concrete segments or shotcrete), ensuring the
tunnel is stable during excavation.
 Cost-Effective Solution: Installing anchor bolts is a relatively cost-effective
solution compared to other stabilization methods, such as full-scale rock
excavation or installation of steel ribs.
 Long-Term Durability: With appropriate installation and material selection,
anchor bolts offer long-term durability and performance.
 Beam kicker
A beam kicker in tunnels is a specific type of temporary support structure used in
tunnelling operations. It is typically a concrete beam or steel beam placed near the
bottom or on the sides of a tunnel to provide initial stability and support before
the permanent tunnel lining or other structural elements are put in place.
The term beam kicker often refers to the beam’s role as a base or starting point
for more permanent structural elements, and it's designed to hold the tunnel in

🛠️
place during the early stages of construction.
Function of Beam Kickers in Tunnels
1. Temporary Stabilization: Beam kickers provide initial stability to the
tunnel during the early stages of excavation when the surrounding rock or
soil is not yet stabilized.
2. Support for Tunnel Lining: These beams provide a foundation for the
installation of temporary or permanent tunnel linings (e.g., shotcrete,
concrete segments, or steel segments), helping the tunnel to hold its shape.
3. Load Distribution: Beam kickers help to distribute the load of the tunnel
structure to the surrounding ground, preventing local subsidence and
reducing the risk of collapse.
4. Alignment Control: Beam kickers help maintain the alignment of the tunnel
during excavation, especially when using Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs)
or drill and blast methods.

🔧 Construction of Beam Kickers in Tunnels

1. Placement: Beam kickers are typically placed at the bottom or sides of the
tunnel cross-section, often along the invert (the tunnel floor) or near the
tunnel arch.
2. Materials: Beam kickers can be made from precast concrete beams, steel
beams, or reinforced concrete. These materials are chosen based on factors
such as the type of tunnel, the surrounding ground conditions, and the
required load-bearing capacity.
3. Connection to Tunnel Lining: The kicker beams are usually connected to
other tunnel components, such as rock bolts, mesh, or shotcrete, which
help stabilize the surrounding ground until the permanent lining can be
installed.
4. Beam Size and Shape: The size and shape of the kicker beam depend on the
tunnel's geometry, the type of ground, and the expected loads. Beams may be
rectangular or wedge-shaped to fit the tunnel profile and the necessary
clearance.

🌍 Application of Beam Kickers in Tunnel Construction

1. Hard Rock Tunnelling: Beam kickers are used when tunnelling through
hard rock, particularly in shield tunnels or TBM operations, where they
provide initial stabilization and a base for the lining.
2. Underground Rail/Metro Tunnels: In metro and rail tunnels, beam
kickers are essential for stabilizing the tunnel structure during early
excavation stages, especially in areas with soft ground or water-bearing
strata.
3. Mining Tunnels: In mining tunnels, beam kickers help stabilize the tunnel
 during initial excavations to ensure safe working conditions before installing
more permanent rock support or tunnel linings.
4. Sewer and Hydroelectric Tunnels: Beam kickers are also used in
hydroelectric projects or sewer tunnels, where large cross-sections are
needed, and the surrounding rock may be unstable or fractured.

🚧 Importance of Beam Kickers in Tunnel Construction

1. Safety: They provide temporary support and reduce the risk of tunnel
collapse, which is critical for the safety of workers during the construction
phase.
2. Cost-Effectiveness: Beam kickers are relatively low-cost solutions that
provide necessary support without requiring complex or expensive
equipment.
3. Ease of Installation: They are relatively quick and easy to install, which is
important in the early phases of tunnelling when speed is essential.
4. Flexibility: Beam kickers can be easily removed or modified if needed when
transitioning to more permanent tunnel linings.

💡 Difference Between Beam Kickers and Other Kicker Types

While beam kickers are primarily used for initial support and alignment, other
types of kickers (such as concrete kickers or rock kickers) may simply be
concrete wedges or blocks placed temporarily at the bottom or sides of the tunnel
to support the excavation until the permanent lining is installed.
Definition:
Reinforcement
Reinforcement in tunneling and underground structures refers to the materials or
elements that are used to enhance the strength, durability, and stability of the
tunnel lining or support system. Reinforcements may include various types of
metallic and non-metallic materials such as steel bars, wire mesh, fiber-reinforced
polymers (FRP), glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP), and carbon-fiber
reinforced polymers (CFRP).
Uses/benefits:
 Enhancing the strength and load-bearing capacity of tunnel linings or
support systems.
 Reducing the risk of structural failure due to ground movements,
earthquakes, or other external forces.
 Increasing the durability and longevity of tunnel structures, especially in
harsh or corrosive environments.
 Providing support and stability to the tunnel during excavation and
construction.
 Facilitating the installation and maintenance of tunnel lining or support
systems.
 Allowing for the construction of longer and deeper tunnels by improving the
structural performance of the tunnel.
Specifications:
The specifications for reinforcement in tunneling and underground structures may
vary depending on the specific requirements of the project, including the design
load, ground conditions, environmental factors, and the type of reinforcement
material used. Some common specifications may include:
 Material type, including the grade, quality, and composition of the
reinforcement material.
 Dimensions, such as the diameter, length, and spacing of the reinforcement
elements.
 Installation method, including the technique and equipment used to place
and secure the reinforcement within the tunnel lining or support system.
 Testing and quality control requirements to ensure the strength, durability,
and performance of the reinforcement material.
Types:
 Steel reinforcement: includes steel bars, wire mesh, and other steel elements
that are commonly used in tunnelling and underground construction due to
their high strength, durability, and versatility.
 Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP): includes composites made from fibers such
as glass, carbon, or aramid, combined with a polymer matrix, which offer
high strength, durability, and corrosion resistance, as well as lightweight and
easy installation.
 Glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP): a type of FRP reinforcement that
uses glass fibers as the reinforcing material.
 Carbon-fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP): a type of FRP reinforcement that
uses carbon fibers as the reinforcing material.
Reinforcement is an essential component of concrete structures that provides added
strength, durability, and resistance to natural disasters. The type and specification
of reinforcement used in a project depend on the specific structural requirements
and project design.

Geotextiles
Geotextiles in tunnel construction are synthetic materials used to improve the
performance of tunnels in various ways, particularly in terms of soil stabilization,
waterproofing, and reinforcement. They play a crucial role in ground support,
drainage systems, and sealing of the tunnel, helping to enhance both the safety

🧩
and efficiency of tunnel construction.
What is Geotextile?
A geotextile is a permeable fabric made from synthetic materials, often polyester,
polypropylene, or nylon, that is used in construction for reinforcing soil or other
materials. They come in various forms, such as woven, non-woven, or knitted,

🏗️
depending on their intended function.
Uses of Geotextiles in Tunnel Construction
1. Reinforcement:
o Geotextiles are often used to reinforce soils or other materials
surrounding tunnels, increasing their strength and preventing ground
settlement.
o They help to distribute loads evenly across the tunnel’s surface,
reducing the risk of collapse or deformation.
2. Waterproofing:
o Non-woven geotextiles can act as a waterproof barrier in tunnel
construction to prevent water ingress from surrounding soil or rock.
o They help maintain the integrity of tunnel linings by keeping water
away from the structure, reducing the risk of corrosion or erosion
over time.
3. Drainage:
o Geotextiles are commonly used in drainage systems within tunnels.
They allow water to flow through while filtering out sediments,
ensuring that the tunnel remains dry and structurally sound.
o Geotextiles help direct water to proper drainage systems, preventing
water buildup and potential water pressure on tunnel linings.
4. Separation:
o Geotextiles are often used to separate different layers of materials
(e.g., soil, gravel, or rock). In tunnels, they can separate the tunnel
lining from backfill material, preventing soil or gravel from
infiltrating the structure and compromising its stability.
5. Soil Stabilization:
o When tunneling through soft or loose soils, geotextiles provide
essential stabilization by reinforcing the surrounding soil to prevent
movement.
o Geotextiles are also used in areas with high water tables or where
the surrounding ground is prone to shifting or settling, helping to
maintain the tunnel's alignment and stability.
6. Slope Protection:
o In some tunnel projects, geotextiles are used on the tunnel’s exterior
to provide protection against soil erosion or landslides. This is
particularly useful for cut-and-cover tunnels or tunnels built near
slopes or hills.

🛠️ Types of Geotextiles Used in Tunnels

 1. Woven Geotextiles:
o Made from interwoven synthetic fibers.
o Commonly used for reinforcement and separation purposes,
especially in areas of high traffic or heavy loads.
2. Non-Woven Geotextiles:
o Manufactured by bonding fibers together through heat, chemicals, or
mechanical means.
o Often used for drainage, filtering, or waterproofing applications in
tunnels.
3. Knitted Geotextiles:
o Constructed from interlocking loops of yarn.
o Typically used for reinforcement in soft soils or unstable ground.

🌍 Applications of Geotextiles in Tunnel Projects

1. Drainage Tunnels:
o For tunnels used for water conveyance (such as drainage or sewer
tunnels), geotextiles act as a filter to prevent clogging of the drainage
system by particles or sediments.
2. Hydroelectric Tunnels:
o In tunnels built for hydroelectric power plants, geotextiles help
control water flow and prevent water ingress into the tunnel system,
which could lead to potential flooding or erosion.
3. Mining Tunnels:
o In mining tunnels, geotextiles can be used for soil stabilization,
especially in areas with loose or unstable rock and soil conditions.
They help maintain tunnel stability and improve worker safety.
4. Underground Rail and Metro Tunnels:
o Geotextiles can be used in tunnels for underground rail systems or
metro tunnels to provide reinforcement and drainage. They are
also used to reduce vibrations and noise from the trains.
5. Cut-and-Cover Tunnels:
o For tunnels constructed by the cut-and-cover method, geotextiles
provide separation between soil layers, drainage, and stabilization
during the construction phase.

🚧 Benefits of Using Geotextiles in Tunnel Construction

1. Improved Ground Stability:
o Geotextiles reinforce the surrounding ground, providing better
stability and load distribution, preventing soil movement and
tunnel collapse.
2. Enhanced Drainage:
o They ensure effective drainage within the tunnel, reducing the risk
of water accumulation that could lead to erosion or structural
damage.
3. Reduced Erosion:
o Geotextiles protect the tunnel from erosion due to water, preventing
degradation of the surrounding materials and ensuring the tunnel
remains intact.
 4. Cost-Effective:
o The use of geotextiles can reduce construction costs, as they provide
temporary or permanent solutions for drainage, stabilization, and
waterproofing that would otherwise require more complex, expensive
materials or systems.
5. Easy Installation:
o Geotextiles are lightweight and easy to install, reducing construction
time and making them ideal for use in tight or hard-to-reach areas of
tunnels.

🌟 Summary
Geotextiles in tunnels serve a variety of critical roles, from reinforcement and
waterproofing to drainage and soil stabilization. They help maintain the
structural integrity of the tunnel, prevent water ingress, and reduce the risk of
erosion, making them an essential component of modern tunnel construction. Their
cost-effectiveness, ease of installation, and versatility make them invaluable in both
temporary and permanent tunnel applications.

Geomembrane & Waterproofing

A geomembrane is a synthetic membrane material used in tunnel construction for
waterproofing, sealing, and controlling the movement of water around the
tunnel structure. It is often used in combination with other materials like
geotextiles or grout to provide a robust system for preventing water infiltration,

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which can be a major challenge in underground structures.
What is a Geomembrane?
A geomembrane is a thin, flexible sheet made from synthetic polymers, such as
polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM) rubber. Geomembranes are designed to be impermeable,

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meaning they prevent the passage of water, gases, or liquids.
Role of Geomembranes in Tunnel Construction
In tunnels, geomembranes are primarily used to control water ingress and ensure
the waterproofing of the tunnel, which is crucial for protecting both the tunnel
structure and the environment surrounding it. Below are the main uses of
geomembranes in tunnel construction:

🌊 Waterproofing and Sealing

1. Prevent Water Infiltration:
o Geomembranes are used as waterproof barriers that prevent water
from entering the tunnel, especially in areas where the tunnel passes
through water-bearing strata or aquifers.
o Waterproofing is critical for protecting the tunnel structure, as it can
prevent damage from erosion, corrosion, or mold growth that can
occur when water seeps into the tunnel.
2. Protecting Tunnel Linings:
o Geomembranes are installed between the tunnel lining (e.g., concrete,
steel) and the surrounding soil or rock. They help shield the tunnel
from water damage, which could otherwise weaken the tunnel lining
over time.
3. Gas and Liquid Barriers:
o In certain projects, geomembranes also act as gas or liquid barriers,
preventing the passage of potentially harmful gases (e.g., methane in
mining tunnels) or chemicals from surrounding soil into the tunnel
environment.

🏞️ Environmental Protection
1. Prevent Contamination:
o Geomembranes help to prevent contamination of the surrounding
groundwater or soil by stopping the migration of harmful chemicals
or water from entering the environment. This is especially important
in sewage tunnels, hydroelectric tunnels, or tunnels passing
through contaminated sites.
2. Mitigating Groundwater Flow:
o In tunnels constructed under rivers, lakes, or wetlands,
geomembranes act as a critical layer that minimizes the risk of tunnel
flooding and limits groundwater flow into the tunnel.

🔨 Installation of Geomembranes in Tunnels

 1. Pre-Installation Planning:
o The installation of geomembranes begins with an assessment of the
groundwater and geological conditions surrounding the tunnel to
ensure that the geomembrane selected is suitable for the project.
o A design is developed that determines where and how the
geomembrane will be installed (e.g., as a continuous layer across the
tunnel lining or in sections).
2. Placement:
o Geomembranes are typically placed over the surface of the tunnel
lining or within the backfill material. They may be suspended or
attached to the walls or floor of the tunnel.
o For waterproofing, they are often applied to the invert (floor) and
the side walls of the tunnel.
3. Sealing the Edges:
o The geomembrane edges are sealed using special welding
techniques or adhesive strips to create a continuous, impermeable
barrier.
o Seams and joints must be meticulously sealed to prevent water from
penetrating through gaps or overlaps.
4. Protection:
o After the geomembrane is installed, it may be covered with a layer of
geotextile or other protective material to avoid damage during
construction or tunnel use.

🌍 Applications of Geomembranes in Tunnel Projects

1. Hydroelectric and Dams:
o In hydroelectric tunnels, geomembranes are critical for controlling
water flow and protecting tunnel linings from erosion due to high-
pressure water.
o They are also used in dam construction and reservoirs where water
containment is essential.
2. Sewer and Drainage Tunnels:
o Geomembranes are used in sewer tunnels to prevent water
contamination and reduce the risk of sewage leakage into
surrounding soil or groundwater.
o They also play an essential role in drainage tunnels, providing
waterproofing while allowing for proper drainage.
3. Underground Rail and Metro Tunnels:
o In metro and rail tunnels, geomembranes are used to prevent water
infiltration from surrounding soil or groundwater, ensuring a dry
environment for train operations and protecting tunnel structures
from corrosion.
4. Mining Tunnels:
o Geomembranes are used in mining tunnels to reduce the infiltration
of groundwater or other unwanted fluids into the mine, which could
affect the working conditions or mine structure.
5. Cut-and-Cover Tunnels:
o In cut-and-cover tunnels, geomembranes can be used as part of the
 construction process to prevent water from entering the tunnel
before the tunnel is covered with earth or other materials.

🚧 Benefits of Geomembranes in Tunnel Construction

1. Waterproofing:
o Geomembranes provide an effective waterproofing solution,
reducing the risks of water damage, corrosion, and erosion inside
tunnels.
2. Durability and Longevity:
o Geomembranes are highly durable and have a long lifespan, offering
reliable performance for decades, even in challenging conditions such
as high groundwater pressure or chemically aggressive environments.
3. Easy Installation:
o Geomembranes are lightweight and easy to install, saving time and
labor costs compared to other waterproofing systems, such as full
concrete barriers.
4. Cost-Effective:
o Geomembranes are a cost-effective solution for waterproofing
tunnels, as they reduce the need for complex and expensive concrete
or steel systems while offering long-term protection.
5. Environmental Protection:
o Geomembranes prevent leakage and contamination, ensuring that
the surrounding ecosystem remains safe and that the tunnel
construction complies with environmental regulations.

💡 Summary
Geomembranes are an essential component in tunnel construction for
waterproofing, sealing, and protecting the tunnel from groundwater,
contamination, and erosion. They provide a reliable, cost-effective solution that
enhances the tunnel's longevity and performance. Whether for hydroelectric,
sewer, mining, or rail tunnels, geomembranes offer key benefits in terms of
waterproofing, environmental protection, and cost-effectiveness.
A fter the installation of a geomembrane in tunnel construction, the next

step often involves adding reinforcement elements to the structure to provide

strength, stability, and load-bearing capacity for the tunnel. One such
reinforcement method is the use of a lattice girder system.
A lattice girder is a type of structural reinforcement often used in tunnels to
support the tunnel lining, help distribute loads, and enhance overall structural
integrity. It consists of a grid-like framework made of steel bars or rods, and it is

🛠️
typically installed within the tunnel lining to strengthen the tunnel structure.
What is a Lattice Girder in Tunnel Construction?
A lattice girder is a type of steel reinforcement that is made up of a series of
interconnected steel bars or rods arranged in a lattice pattern. This type of girder
provides strong structural support while allowing for flexibility in adjusting to
various tunnel sizes and conditions. Lattice girders are often used in combination
with other reinforcement systems, such as shotcrete (sprayed concrete) or
concrete linings, to form a complete tunnel support system.

🏗️ Function of Lattice Girders After Geomembrane Installation

1. Structural Reinforcement:
o The lattice girder is used to provide structural support to the
tunnel's lining. After the geomembrane is placed to create a
waterproof barrier, the lattice girder adds the required strength to
withstand both the internal and external loads on the tunnel.
o This reinforcement ensures that the tunnel remains stable under
pressures from the surrounding soil, rock, and water.
2. Load Distribution:
o Lattice girders help distribute loads evenly across the tunnel lining,
preventing concentrated stress points that could lead to failure. This
is especially important in tunnels that face high traffic loads, ground
movement, or water pressure.
3. Flexibility:
o Lattice girders offer flexibility compared to solid beams or traditional
forms of reinforcement. Their grid-like design allows them to
accommodate various tunnel shapes and dimensions, making them
ideal for use in curved tunnels or tunnels with irregular geometries.
4. Supporting Tunnel Lining:
o The lattice girder forms an integral part of the support system for the
tunnel lining (whether shotcrete, precast concrete, or cast-in-place
concrete), helping to transfer the tunnel's load to the surrounding
rock or soil.
5. Interaction with Geomembrane:
o The geomembrane installed previously provides waterproofing,
while the lattice girder provides the structural integrity needed to
ensure that the tunnel lining remains secure and stable, especially in
 soft ground or highly fractured rock.
o The two elements work together to create a comprehensive system
for maintaining the tunnel’s integrity and safety.

🔨 Construction Process Involving Lattice Girders

1. Preparation:
o Once the geomembrane is in place, the tunnel's inner surface may be
prepared for the installation of the lattice girder system. This often
involves cleaning and securing the geomembrane to ensure it stays
in position.
2. Placement of Lattice Girders:
o Steel lattice girders are typically manufactured off-site and delivered
to the tunnel location. They are then installed by lifting and
positioning them along the tunnel’s walls or invert (floor).
o Lattice girders are often placed in the invert, sidewalls, and
sometimes the roof of the tunnel to provide comprehensive
reinforcement.
3. Attachment to Tunnel Structure:
o Lattice girders are connected to the tunnel’s primary support system
using welding, bolting, or tie-down methods. These connections
help secure the girders to the surrounding tunnel structure.
4. Concrete Lining and Shotcrete Application:
o After the lattice girders are installed, shotcrete or concrete linings
are often applied over the lattice grid to form the permanent tunnel
lining.
o Shotcrete (sprayed concrete) is typically applied in layers, ensuring
the lattice girder is completely encased, and the concrete bonding
reinforces the structure.

🌍 Benefits of Lattice Girders in Tunnel Reinforcement

1. High Load-Bearing Capacity:
o The lattice girder’s structure offers an excellent balance between
strength and lightweight, making it ideal for distributing high loads
and pressures in tunnels.
2. Efficient Use of Materials:
o The lattice design is highly efficient in terms of material use. It offers
high strength-to-weight ratios by maximizing the effectiveness of
the material without excessive bulk.
3. Flexibility in Design:
o Lattice girders can be customized and adapted for various tunnel
shapes and dimensions, offering flexibility in design. They are
especially useful in tunnels with irregular cross-sections or those
that need to withstand dynamic loading (e.g., from traffic or seismic
activity).
4. Quick and Easy Installation:
o Lattice girders are typically pre-fabricated, which speeds up
installation and reduces construction time. Their lightweight nature
makes them easier to handle and place compared to solid girders or
 beams.
5. Corrosion Resistance:
o Lattice girders are often made from steel or corrosion-resistant
materials to ensure longevity, especially in wet environments or
tunnels that may experience water ingress.

🌟 Applications of Lattice Girders in Tunnels

1. Metro and Rail Tunnels:
o In metro and rail tunnels, lattice girders provide critical
reinforcement to ensure the tunnel can withstand the constant
dynamic loads generated by trains passing through.
2. Sewer and Drainage Tunnels:
o For sewer tunnels or drainage tunnels, lattice girders support the
tunnel lining while preventing deformation from water pressure and
heavy backfill loads.
3. Hydroelectric Tunnels:
o In hydroelectric projects, lattice girders help provide stability to
tunnels that may experience high water pressures or seismic
activity.
4. Mining Tunnels:
o Lattice girders are often used in mining tunnels to provide
stabilization and prevent the collapse of the tunnel structure in
fractured rock or weak soil conditions.

💡 Summary
After installing a geomembrane in a tunnel to provide waterproofing and sealing,
lattice girders are used as reinforcements to provide structural integrity and load
distribution. These girders are an essential part of the tunnel’s support system,
helping to prevent tunnel collapse, manage water ingress, and support the tunnel
lining. Their efficient design, high load-bearing capacity, and flexibility make them
suitable for a wide range of tunnel construction projects, including metro, rail,
sewer, and hydroelectric tunnels.
 Type of Rock in Tunnels
In tunnel construction, the type of rock through which a tunnel passes plays
a significant role in determining the method of excavation, the
reinforcement required, and the safety measures taken during
construction. Rocks are classified based on their mechanical properties and
behavior under stress, which influences the tunneling method and the
design of the tunnel’s support system.
Classification of Rocks in Tunnel Construction
The classification of rocks in tunnels typically falls under a rock classification
system known as the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) or the Q-system. However, a
simpler classification can also be made based on rock type (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic) and their properties (hardness, fracturing,
stability, etc.). Below is a classification based on rock types and their
characteristics, along with how they are treated in tunnel construction.

1. Hard Rocks (Good Rock Conditions)

Characteristics:
 Strong and durable with low permeability.
 These rocks are typically rigid and not prone to rapid weathering.
 They often require specialized tunneling methods, like TBMs (Tunnel
Boring Machines) or drill-and-blast methods.
 Tend to have fewer fractures and more consistent properties, making
them suitable for tunneling with fewer complications.
Types of Hard Rocks:
1. Granite
o Properties: Very hard, dense, and strong.
o Behavior: Excellent tunnel support and minimal ground
movement.
o Tunneling Method: TBM or drill-and-blast.
2. Basalt
o Properties: Dense, strong, and resistant to weathering.
o Behavior: Tends to have good self-supporting properties.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, sometimes TBM.
3. Limestone (massive)
o Properties: Hard and crystalline with a low porosity.
o Behavior: Can be quite stable, though localized fractures may
occur.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, TBM.
4. Quartzite
o Properties: Extremely hard, dense, and abrasive.
 o Behavior: Typically very stable when properly supported.
o Tunneling Method: TBM or drill-and-blast.
Tunneling Considerations:
 Support: Minimal, as hard rocks provide natural stability.
 Excavation Rate: Slow due to high rock strength.
 Groundwater: Low permeability, so water ingress is usually minimal.

2. Medium to Soft Rocks (Moderate Rock Conditions)

Characteristics:
 These rocks are more fractured or weathered, leading to a lower
bearing capacity compared to hard rocks.
 Tunneling in these rocks may result in ground deformation, requiring
additional support and more careful monitoring.
 Tunneling methods often involve a combination of drill-and-blast and
mechanized methods like roadheaders.
Types of Medium to Soft Rocks:
1. Sandstone
o Properties: Soft to moderately hard, porous.
o Behavior: Can be stable but may experience swelling or
sloughing when wet.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, roadheaders.
2. Shale
o Properties: Soft to medium hard, prone to weathering and
cracking.
o Behavior: Shale is often weak and can cause significant
deformation and water leakage.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, often requiring extra
support like rock bolts and shotcrete.
3. Dolomite
o Properties: Medium hardness, tends to fracture easily under
stress.
o Behavior: Moderately stable but may require frequent
monitoring.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, roadheaders.
4. Marble
o Properties: Generally soft to moderately hard but can be very
brittle.
o Behavior: Tends to fracture, requiring significant support.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, occasional TBM.
Tunneling Considerations:
  Support: Increased need for ground support systems like rock bolts,
shotcrete, or lattice girders to stabilize the tunnel.
 Excavation Rate: Moderate to fast, depending on the rock’s condition
and fracture patterns.
 Groundwater: Higher permeability, meaning increased risk of water
ingress.

3. Soft Rocks and Soils (Poor Rock Conditions)

Characteristics:
 Soft rocks and soils are typically fractured, weathered, and saturated
with water.
 Tunneling in these conditions is challenging due to the lack of natural
stability, high permeability, and risk of collapse.
 Excavation often requires heavy reinforcement and monitoring.
 Special techniques like shotcrete for lining, grouting to improve
stability, and continuous support (e.g., steel ribs or segmented
concrete lining) are required.
Types of Soft Rocks/Soils:
1. Clay
o Properties: Soft, plastic when wet, and often water-saturated.
o Behavior: Highly unstable, prone to swelling and deformation.
o Tunneling Method: Tunnel boring machine (TBM) or drill-and-
blast with significant support systems (e.g., shotcrete, rock
bolts).
2. Loose Sand
o Properties: Highly granular and unstable when wet.
o Behavior: Can lead to collapse or ground subsidence during
excavation.
o Tunneling Method: TBM (if possible) or traditional drill-and-
blast, followed by grouting and reinforcement.
3. Marl
o Properties: A soft rock that is typically a mix of clay and
limestone.
o Behavior: May be unstable and water-saturated, requiring
significant support.
o Tunneling Method: Drill-and-blast, roadheaders, or even hand
excavation in extreme cases.
4. Tuff
o Properties: Soft, porous volcanic rock.
o Behavior: Can be very unstable and prone to collapse.
 o Tunneling Method: Requires extensive reinforcement and
stabilization with steel supports and shotcrete.
Tunneling Considerations:
 Support: Extensive use of reinforcement, such as shotcrete, steel
ribs, grout injection, and steel mesh.
 Excavation Rate: Very slow due to instability and risk of collapse.
 Groundwater: High permeability, leading to high water inflow and
requiring active drainage systems.

4. Mixed Ground Conditions

Characteristics:
 Tunnels often pass through mixed ground conditions, where hard
rock and soft rock layers alternate.
 Such conditions may require flexible tunneling methods and
customized solutions to handle different types of ground.
 TBM or drill-and-blast methods can be used, but tunnel design must
account for variations in strength, groundwater, and stability.
Tunneling Considerations:
 Support: The use of a combination of reinforcement types tailored to
each ground condition is required.
 Excavation Method: Can involve both mechanized methods (TBMs)
and conventional techniques (drill-and-blast), depending on the type
of rock encountered.
 Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of ground behavior and water
ingress is essential for safety.

Summary of Rock Types in Tunnel Construction

Rock Type Properties Tunneling Method Support Needs
Hard, dense, and TBM, Drill-and-
Granite Minimal support
durable blast
Dense, strong,
Drill-and-blast,
Basalt resistant to Minimal support
TBM
weathering
Soft to medium hard, Drill-and-blast, Moderate to
Sandstone
porous roadheaders significant support
Soft, weathered, Drill-and-blast, Significant support
Shale
prone to cracking roadheaders (shotcrete, rock bolts)
Soft, plastic, water- TBM or drill-and- Extensive support
Clay
saturated blast (shotcrete, grouting)
Loose Granular, unstable, Drill-and-blast, Extensive support
Rock Type Properties Tunneling Method Support Needs
Sand highly permeable TBM (grouting, TBM)
Soft, porous volcanic Drill-and-blast,
Tuff Extensive support
rock roadheaders

This classification helps determine the most suitable tunneling method, the
type of reinforcement needed, and ground control strategies for each type
of rock encountered during construction.

In the context of tunnel construction, rocks are typically classified into different
classes based on their mechanical properties, stability, and suitability for excavation.
This classification helps engineers and tunnel designers to select appropriate methods
for excavation, support systems, and safety precautions. A common classification
system used in tunnel construction is the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, but for
simplicity, I’ll provide a general classification based on rock hardness, behavior, and
stability that is typically used in tunnel construction. This will include class types such
as Class I, Class II, Class III, etc., based on the conditions encountered.
Rock Classification by Tunnel Condition (Class Type)

Class I – Very Good Rock Conditions (Stable)

Characteristics:
 Strong, intact rock with little or no fractures.
 Very stable with no significant deformation during excavation.
 Low permeability (water ingress is minimal).
 Rarely requires significant reinforcement.
Examples of Rock Types:
 Granite
 Basalt
 Massive Limestone
Tunneling Method:
 Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) or drill-and-blast methods can be used.
 Minimal ground support is needed, often just rock bolts or shotcrete as a
safety measure.
Support Needs:
 Very low support requirements—natural rock stability.

Class II – Good Rock Conditions (Moderately Stable)

Characteristics:
 Moderately hard rock with some fractures.
 Stable, but may experience minor deformation or localized rock failure.
 Low to moderate water ingress.
 Reinforcement required at certain intervals but generally manageable.
Examples of Rock Types:
 Hard Sandstone
 Strong Shale
  Dolomite
Tunneling Method:
 TBM or drill-and-blast.
 Reinforcement such as rock bolts, shotcrete, and steel ribs may be required for
stability.
Support Needs:
 Moderate support may be necessary, especially in areas with significant
fractures or joints.
 Reinforcement like rock bolts and shotcrete.

Class III – Fair Rock Conditions (Unstable)

Characteristics:
 Weaker rock with extensive fractures or jointing.
 Moderate to significant deformation expected during excavation.
 Water ingress may be an issue, requiring grouting and careful water
management.
 Tunnel lining support and stabilization will be more critical.
Examples of Rock Types:
 Shale (fractured, weathered)
 Soft Sandstone
 Marble (brittle)
Tunneling Method:
 Drill-and-blast is commonly used.
 Roadheaders or mechanized methods may be used where TBMs are
impractical.
 Requires significant reinforcement, such as shotcrete, steel mesh, rock bolts,
and possibly grouting.
Support Needs:
 Heavy reinforcement is required, including shotcrete, grouting, rock bolts, and
steel ribs.
 Ground stabilization techniques like jet grouting or freeze-shielding may be
necessary in some cases.

Class IV – Poor Rock Conditions (Highly Unstable)

Characteristics:
 Very weak, highly fractured rock, or soil-like material.
 Severe deformation likely during excavation.
 High water ingress that may require active drainage or grouting techniques.
 Tunnel construction may need frequent adjustments to ensure stability.
Examples of Rock Types:
 Claystone
 Loose Sand
 Marl
 Soft Shale
 Tuff (soft, porous volcanic rock)
Tunneling Method:
 Excavation often requires a mix of drill-and-blast and mechanized tunneling.
 Shield TBMs or slurry TBMs may be used in very soft ground.

 Excavation must be closely controlled to minimize risks of tunnel collapse.
Support Needs:
 Heavy support is necessary, such as steel ribs, shotcrete, grouting, and lattice
girders.
 Constant monitoring for deformation and water inflow is essential.
 Ground freezing or grouting may be used for stabilization.

Class V – Very Poor Rock Conditions (Extremely Unstable)

Characteristics:
 Soil-like or very soft, disaggregated rock that is extremely unstable.
 Severe, continuous deformation and potential collapse during excavation.
 Extensive groundwater inflow that can significantly affect the stability of the
tunnel.
 Tunnel may require continuous reinforcement and active stabilization
measures.
Examples of Rock Types:
 Soft Clay (highly saturated)
 Loose Silts
 Very weathered soft shale
 Quick Clay (unstable when disturbed)
Tunneling Method:
 Requires highly specialized excavation techniques, such as soft ground TBMs
(slurry, earth pressure balance TBMs) or cut-and-cover methods.
 Pre-excavation grouting and ground stabilization are essential.
Support Needs:
 Constant reinforcement with steel ribs, shotcrete, grouting, and possibly piping
systems for water management.
 Active ground control through grouting or pre-support systems such as ground
freezing.

Summary of Rock Classes for Tunnel Construction:

Class
Rock Condition Examples Tunneling Method Support Needs
Type
Very Good Granite, Basalt, TBM, Drill-and- Minimal to no
Class I
(Stable) Massive Limestone Blast support
Good Hard Sandstone, Moderate
Class TBM, Drill-and-
(Moderately Dolomite, Strong reinforcement (rock
II Blast
Stable) Shale bolts)
Class Soft Sandstone, Drill-and-Blast, Heavy reinforcement
Fair (Unstable)
III Marble, Shale Roadheaders (shotcrete, bolts)
Drill-and-Blast,
Class Poor (Highly Claystone, Loose Extensive support
Mechanized
IV Unstable) Sand, Tuff (grouting, ribs)
Methods
Class Very Poor Soft Clay, Loose TBM (Soft Ground), Continuous
V (Extremely Silts, Very Cut-and-Cover reinforcement and
Class
Rock Condition Examples Tunneling Method Support Needs
Type
Unstable) weathered shale monitoring

Gantry
A tunnel gantry, also known as a tunnel formwork, is a specialized travelling formwork
system used in tunnel construction to cast walls and slabs in a single operation. It's
essentially a frame, often made of steel, with form panels attached, and it moves along
rails to progressively shape the tunnel lining.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
 Purpose:
Tunnel gantries are used to construct the inner lining of tunnels, providing a stable,
durable surface for the tunnel's walls and ceiling.
 Function:
The formwork is moved along rails or tracks, allowing concrete to be poured and cured
in sections as the gantry advances.
 Components:
 Form Panels: These are typically made of steel and designed to create
the desired shape of the tunnel lining.
 Frame: A rigid steel structure that supports the form panels and the
hydraulic system.
 Hydraulic System: Controls the movement and alignment of the gantry.
 Benefits:
 Faster Construction: Tunnel gantries allow for quicker and more efficient
tunnel lining compared to traditional methods.
 Cost-Effective: By streamlining the construction process, gantries can
reduce labor costs and construction time.
 Improved Quality: The consistent use of formwork ensures a high-
quality, uniform lining.
 Safety: Gantries can improve worker safety by providing a stable
platform and minimizing the need for manual labor inside the tunnel.
 Applications:
Tunnel gantries are commonly used in the construction of various types of tunnels,
including:
 Hydroelectric projects.
 Road and rail tunnels.
 Underground pipelines and utilitie
Tunnel gantries are specialized formwork systems used in tunnel
construction to cast walls and slabs efficiently. They come in various
types, including hydraulic, mechanical, and self-propelled, each suited for
different tunnel shapes and construction methods. Common types
include horse-shoe, D-shaped, and circular formwork
gantries. Additionally, specific types like invert formwork and precast
tunnel lining segment erectors are also used.
Types of Tunnel Gantries:
 Hydraulic and Mechanical Gantries:
These types utilize hydraulic or mechanical systems for moving and
positioning the formwork. They are commonly used for horseshoe and D-
shaped tunnels.
 Self-Propelled Hydraulic Tunnel Formwork:
This type allows for automated movement and operation, speeding up
 the construction process.
 Horse-Shoe Tunnel Gantry:
Designed for tunnels with a horseshoe-shaped cross-section, often used
for road and rail tunnels.
 D-Type Tunnel Gantry:
Suitable for tunnels with a D-shaped cross-section, frequently used in
underground construction.
 Circular Tunnel Gantry:
Used for tunnels with a circular cross-section, common in underground
mining and utilities projects.
 Invert Formwork:
Specifically designed for constructing the bottom or invert section of the
tunnel.
 Precast Tunnel Lining Segment Erector:
Used for erecting precast concrete segments that form the lining of the
tunnel.
 Specialized Gantries:
Including bellmouth gantries for tunnel entrances and gantries for
precast tunnel segments.
 Pocket tunnel gantry
junction tunnel gantry
Y junction tunnel gantry
Bellmouth tunnel gantry
 Station Cavern Gantry
 MT Gantry
 Single Traveler – Double Shutter Gantry
 Overt Gantry
 360 Degree Remote Gantry-Cross Passage-
End Wall
 Triple Shutter – Single Traveler Gantry