CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr.

BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES (ECOLOGY)

Definition of some terms
 Ecology: It is a branch of biology which deals with the study of living organisms and how they interact with
themselves and their environment. Ecology can be divided into two categories.
- Autecology (population ecology). It is the study of a single type of species in a population with respect to
their natural habitat.
- Synecology (community ecology). It is the study of many different organisms (a group of organisms)
belonging to different species and communities with respect to their natural habitat.
 Habitat: It is a natural dwelling-place in which an organism is best adapted to live. There are two types; land
(terrestrial) habitat and water (aquatic) habitat.
 Aquatic habitat: made up of water such as ponds, streams, rivers, lakes etc
 Terrestrial habitat: Made up of land such as grassland, woodland, farm land, soil etc.
 Microhabitat: it is a smaller location within a habitat that has its own specific physical conditions (microclimate)
e.g in a pond, there are bottom dwellers and surface dwellers.
 “Carrying capacity” of a habitat. It is the maximum stable population of organisms that a particular habitat can
support based on its resources. This maximum number of organisms cannot be exceeded. When the population
of organisms slightly increases above this number, environmental resistance such as adequate food shelter,
water and mates will set in and the population size will drop.
 Zonation. The distribution of species in space within a habitat caused by physical factors which detect where
each species is able to live.
 Distribution. The way or pattern in which different populations are distributed in the same habitat.
 Carrying capacity. The maximum stable population that a habitat can support.
 Community: This is the collection of different species of organisms living in the same habitat at a given time and
affect each other.
 Ecosystems (Ecological Systems): A collection of living organisms (Biotic factor) and non-living things (Abiotic
factors) which interact with each other to form a stable self-supporting unit. e.g. gardens, forests, lakes, ponds,
rivers etc.
- The living component is called abiotic component (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protozoans and algae) while
the non-living components are called Abiotic component (light, water, wind, temperature humidity etc)
- Living things interact with each other through food chain and food web.
- Living factors interact with non-living factors e.g plants (living factor) use light, Carbon dioxide and water (non-
ling factors) during photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates.
 Environment: Everything around an organism that could possibly influence its activities e.g. a fresh fish’s
environment is water in which the fish lives, feeds, grows, reproduces etc.
 Environmental resistance. It is the sum total of all the factors that tend to limit population growth. It includes
factors like;
- Shortage of food, water, oxygen, etc. competition for these resources becomes severe with a greater
population.
- Lack of light. Particularly important to plants since they need it for photosynthesis.
- Predators. Predators-prey relationship check the growth of a population.
- Lack of shelter. Either to shelter/hide from predators or physical factors like heat, rain etc.
- Diseases. The uncontrolled growth of a population can be checked efficiently by diseases due to rapid spread in
overcrowded areas.
- Accumulation of toxic waste. Accumulated waste tends to limit population growth by intoxicating the
population.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

 Biosphere or ecosphere. This is the collection of all the different ecosystems i.e the ocean, land surface and the
lower part of the atmosphere.
 Biome. It is a region possessing particular climatic or physical conditions that support particular species of
organisms which show adaptations to these physical conditions. E.g desert, savanna, tropical evergreen forest
etc.
 Ecological niche. It is the exact location where an organism lives within a habitat and what it does there, i.e,
behaviour, feeding activities etc.
- There are two types of ecological niche.
 Fundamental niche. This refers to all the factors (biotic and abiotic) needed by an organism to survive under
ideal conditions, that is, in the absence of environmental stressors such as competition for resources (food, light,
shelter, etc), predation, disease, etc.
 Realized niche. This refers to the actual space occupied by a species under real-world conditions. That is, in the
presence of environmental stressors such as competition for resources (food, light, shelter, etc), predation,
disease, etc.
 Species. A group of individuals, similar in all respect which are able to reproduce amongst themselves to
produce fertile offspring.
 Biodiversity. All different kinds (variety) of living organisms present on earth at all levels.
 Extinct species: These are species that cannot be seen in the area that they recently occupied or in any other
habitat on the earth crust.
 Endangered species: These are species which are seriously at risk of extinction.
 Rare species; Thes are groups of organisms that are becoming very uncommon or scarce and few in number but
not at immediate risk of being extinct.
 Vulnerable species: This is a species that is not currently being endangered but faces a high risk endangerment
in the near future due to its fast declining rate or a threat to its natural habitat. They are also species that have
been seriously depleted in the past and have not yet recovered.
 Population: A group of individuals of a particular species living in the same habitat at given time.
Some terms related to population include.
Population size. It refers to the number of individuals of a particular species in a given area.
Population density. It is the number of individuals of a particular species living in a unit area.
Factors affecting the size of a population.
Factors that increase the size of a population.
 Increased reproductive rate. When more offspring with high survival rate are produced.
 Decreased dead rate due to log life span caused by absence of diseases, adequate availability of food, water and
space.
 Immigration. When individuals move into a given area.
Factors that decrease the size of a population
 Reduced reproductive rate. When less offspring are produced with low survival rate due to disease, inadequate
food, water and shelter/space.
 Increased dead rate due short life span caused by disease, inadequate food, water and space.
 Emigration. When individual move out of a given area.
Regulation of a population size.
The population size can be regulated by a balance between the number organisms being added into a population and
those lost from it.
Organisms added in a population depend on two factors.
- Fecundity (birth rate). The reproductive capacity of a population.
- Immigration. Moving of a population into a given area.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Organisms are lost from a population in two ways

- Mortality. The dead of individuals in a population from whatever cause.
- Emigration. Movement of individuals out of a population from a given area.
The Abiotic or physical environment
- These are the non-living components of the environment which could affect the distribution of living organism
in the environment. e.g temperature, light intensity, wind, rainfall, carbon dioxide concentration, salinity etc.
- They can be classified into three main groups;
a. Physiographic or topographic factors.
- This refers to the nature of the landscape.
- It describes how hilly or level the land is.
- Slopes cause uneven distribution of living organisms.
- Most organisms are found in the level land or at the foot of the hilly area. Just a very few number of organisms
are found at the hill side which is exposed to erosion and land slide such as gradient of slope, height of a place
etc.
b. Climatic factors such as temperature, wind, rainfall, light intensity, humidity pressure etc.
Temperature
- Each organism has its own temperature range within which it can survive. Temperature affects enzyme activity.
Extreme high temperature denature enzymes.
Water
- All organisms require water which form part of the cell protoplasm. Water is also used for seed germination
photosynthesis in plants, transport of gametes, etc.
- Organisms found in dry habitats must develop a special adaptation to conserve water e.g. desert animals such as
camels have long loop of Henle for maximum reabsorption of water back into their system while desert plants
have long roots and thick cuticle to absorbed water and conserved water respectively.
Humidity
- This refers to the amount of water vapor found in the atmosphere. Humidity affects the rate of evaporation.
- High humidity reduces, the rate of evaporation on the surface of the earth, sweating in animals and
transpiration in plants reduces. Therefore, dehydration decreases.
- Organisms will strive well in area where the atmosphere is humid than where it is less humid or very dry.
Light
- This is the main source of energy in the universe.
- Light energy from the sun gets into living organisms through plants during photosynthesis.
- Light is also needed in plants for phototropism, photoperiodism, reproduction and migration of gametes in
certain plants.
- In animals, light is required for vision. Some animals are active in the presence of light and are called diurnal
organisms while others are active at night are called nocturnal organisms
Air or wind current
- Air movement affects the distribution of organisms.
- Plants growing in areas of strong wind current have deep strong roots, often short with smaller leaves.
- Wind velocity also affects the rate of transpiration, seeds and spores’ dispersal.
- The habitats of certain organisms are affected by the effect of wind velocity.
Water current
Organisms living in rivers, streams usually avoid strong water current
Salinity
- This refers to either fresh water or marine water. Salinity influences the distribution of aquatic organisms.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- Those that can survive in fresh water are referred to as fresh water organisms while those that can survive in
marine water are called marine water organisms.
c. Edaphic factors includes factors associated with the soil and its nature which affect the survival and distribution
of the living organisms. They include.
Soil texture. Soil texture influences the water-holding capacity of the soil. Soils with high water-holding capacity favor
plant growth.
Soil pH
- It refers to the alkalinity or acidity of an environment. pH affects the distribution of plants in the soil and water.
- Each plant grows well in soil with a particular pH. Some plants grow well in acidic conditions, others in neutral
condition and a few grow well in a basic condition.
- Animals that depend on these plants for their survival will also be affected indirectly by pH. These animals will
be found only where these plant species are found in abundance.
Mineral salt
- Mineral salt present in the soil affects the distribution of plants.
Soil organisms,
- Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi decompose organic matter releasing nutrients such as nitrogen,
carbon dioxide etc which are used by plants.
- Earthworms drag leaves into the soil increasing the humus content that improves soil fertility.
- Their burrows also help to aerate the soil permitting air to get to the roots for respiration.
Effects of abiotic factors on plants and animals. (See form one notes).
Adaptations of plants in aquatic life.
- Plants living in fresh water are called hydrophytes and are adapted as follows.
- Presence of little or no lignified tissues (strengthening tissue).
- Submerged plants lack a protective tissue against water loss.
- Very reduced root system with little or no root hairs that functions mainly for anchorage.
- Leaves are often large and divided to reduce resistance and maximize light absorption.
- Chloroplast containing chlorophyll are restricted only to the upper surface of leaves.
- Leaves contain air spaces for buoyancy.
Adaptations of plants to dry habitats.
Plant that live in dry habitats are called xerophytes, and have the following adaptations.
- They possess thick waxy waterproof cuticle, which prevents excess water loss.
- Some plants have fewer stomata to prevent excess water loss.
- Since transpiration also occurs through the lenticels, some plants have fewer lenticels.
- Some plants have sunken stomata in the leaves where there is a layer of moist air between the stomata and the
atmosphere thus reducing transpiration.
- Many xerophytes have needle-like leaves to reduce surface area for transpiration.
- They have an extensive root system that grow deep into the soil for water absorption.
- Many survive drought periods as seeds or spores.
- Some possess water storage tissues (succulent plants) in the leaves and stems. e.g cactus.
- Shedding of leaves.
- Those exposed to windy area are always dwarfs and small with closely arranged leaves to limit excessive water
loss.
- Some plants open their stomata instead and night and close them during the day.
- Some leaves have fine hair covering on their surfaces which reduce water loss by transpiration. e.g. maize plant
leaves
- Some plants curl (fold) their leaves to reduce water loss.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Adaptation of HALOPHYTES to their environment

These are plants that grow in salty or saline environment. Because the concentration of this water is high, the plant
tends to lose water out of their tissues.
- Their tissues tend to concentrate more salts than the surrounding water in order to prevent loss of water by
osmosis.
- The plant equally shed their leaves to prevent water loss.
- Some of the plants have fleshy stem whose epidermis are covered a thick cuticle.
- Plants like mangrove show a particular adaptation such as having stilt root which resemble props root but with
no main root.
- Respiratory roots found above the water to take in oxygen.
- Generally, the plants are vivipary i.e. seeds germinate on parent plants while still attached on the parent plant
Biotic environment.
- This involves all living organisms and their activities with their environment.
- In the biotic environment, living organisms interact with each other in the following ways.
a. Predation.
- It is a feeding relationship in which one organism (predator) obtains energy from another organism called the
prey either by capturing and killing it before eating it or feeding on it while still alive.
- A predator is an organism that feeds on another organism called prey. E.g cat feeding on a rat, goat feeding on
grass.
- A predator gains energy from a prey while a prey loses energy to the predator.
Differences between predator and parasite
Predator Parasite
Normally kills its prey Does not usually kill its host.
Usually may be relatively larger than the its It is usually relatively smaller than its host.
prey.
Usually has many species of its prey Usually has a single host or a single host at each stage in its life
cycle.
Takes in undigested food. Takes in mostly digested liquid food
Not symbiotic It is symbiotic

b. Competition.
- It is a situation where living organisms scramble for the same resources in their environment such as food, light,
habitat, water, mates, etc.
- Competition can limit the size of a population since it can lead to the dead of some species as only the best
adapted species are able to survive.
- Plants compete for light, to be used for photosynthesis, mineral salts, e.g nitrates and phosphates, water, space,
etc.
- Animals compete for food, space (territory), and mate and also avoid being eaten by predators.
- This competition can be
 Intraspecific, that is competition among organisms of the same species, or interspecific, competition
between organisms of different species.
- Two different species can never occupy exactly the same ecological niche, stronger one will eliminate or out
power the weaker one. This is known as competitive exclusion principle.
c. Symbiosis.
- It is a close association between two or more organisms of different species which may or may not be beneficial
to all of them involved.

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The following symbiotic relationship exist.

i. Mutualism.
- A symbiotic relationship in which two organisms of different species live together and benefiting from each
other. E.g Nitrogen fixing bacteria living in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
- The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable form by plant and in turn obtain food produced by the
plant. Other examples include bacteria in herbivore gut, wood eating termites and zooflagellate, clown fish
and sea anemone, honey bee and a hibiscus flower, etc.
ii. Commensalism.
- A relationship between two organisms of different species in which only one of them benefits and the other
neither gains nor loses anything. E.g trees and epiphytes, Remora fish and shark.
- Epiphytes grow on trees and obtain shelter from the tree but the tree gains or loses nothing from it.
iii. Parasitism.
- A symbiotic relationship between two organisms of different species in which one organism (parasite) lives in or
on another organism (host) obtaining food and shelter from it while harming the host.
- Parasites living inside the host are called endoparasites, while those living on the body surface are called
ectoparasites.
Adaptations of parasites to their parasitic mode of life
- Some endoparasites show a degeneration or total loss of unwanted organs. Such as sense organs or alimentary
canal.
- Gut parasites have protective devices such as thick cuticle, secretion of much mucus, against the host’s digestive
enzymes.
- They have suckers or hooks to attach themselves to the walls of the host.
- Some parasites have penetrative devices that enable them to get into the body.
- Some produce chemicals that protect them against the host’s defense system.
- Most produce a large number of offspring to enhance survival.
- Some have intermediary host to increase chances of survival.
iv. Amensalism.
- An ecological relationship between two organisms of different species in which one negatively affects the other
but gains or loses nothing. Two types exist.
 Competition e.g a goat and grasshopper in the same niche feed on grass and the goat deprives the
grasshopper from grass by eating much of the grass.
 Antibiosis. That is one organism secretes chemical that harms the other but remains unaffected. Eg fungi
secretes penicillium against different bacteria.
Ecosystem.
- A collection of living organisms (Biotic factor) and non-living things (Abiotic factors) which interact with each
other to form a stable self-supporting unit e.g. aquarium (artificial ecosystem) gardens, forests, lakes, ponds,
rivers etc (natural ecosystem).
- Living organisms interact with each other through food chains and food webs, which involves the flow of energy.
- The source of energy in an ecosystem is the sun.
- There is also interaction between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem e.g sunlight is need by plants for
photosynthesis.
Biotic components of an ecosystem.
They can be grouped into; producers, consumers detritivores and decomposers
i. Producers.
- These are autotrophic organisms such as green plants, algae and some blue-green bacteria.

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- Some contain chlorophyll (photosynthetic pigment) which traps sunlight energy for photosynthesis e.g green
plants and algae.
- Others obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic molecules such as H2S for chemosynthesis e.g
nitrosomonas, sulphur bacteria, and nitrobacter.
- Microscopic algae and cyanobacteria are the main producers in aquatic ecosystem and are called
phytoplankton.
- Producers form the base of food chain.
- They are the only means through which the sun’s energy is made available to all living things.
ii. Consumers.
- They are heterotrophs which cannot manufacture their own food and feed on other organisms. They are equally
divided into;
 Primary consumer which feed exclusively on producers (herbivores) eg goat, grasshopper etc.
 Secondary consumers which feed on primary consumer (carnivores) eg lion.
 Some consumers feed on both plants and animals and are called omnivores eg, Man, pig etc.
iii. Detritivores or detritophages or detritus feeders.
- They are animals that feed on dead decaying solid organic matter called detritus (plants and animal remains
including faeces). Eg earth worm, millipede, woodlouse etc.
Importance (role) of detritivores.
- Detritivores help in nutrient recycling such as CO2, Nitrogen etc.
- Detritivores also act as scavenger by clearing debris in the environment.
- They act as a link in the food chain as they are consumed by other organisms e.g birds and fish
- They help to aerate the soil through their burrowing action e.g earthworm.
- Their burrowing activities also facilitate the penetration of root into the soil.
- Worm cast helps to increase soil fertility.
- The dragging of leaves into their burrow increases soil humus thus fertility.
iv. Decomposers.
- These are organisms that breakdown dead and decaying organic matter. E.g saprophytes like bacteria and fungi.
 Decomposers differ from detritivores in that they break down organic matter externally using enzymes while
detritivores eat and digest organic matter internally e.g earthworm, millipede, woodlouse, spring tails, dung
flies etc. They carryout extracellular digestion.
- They are also scavengers.
- They also play and important role in nutrient recycling.
- They also increase soil fertility.
Compare decomposers and detritivores.
Similarities
- Both are scavengers.
- Both play a role in the recycling of nutrients.
- Both feed on dead organic matter.
- Both are heterotrophs.
- Both improve soil fertility.

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Differences between detrivores and decomposers.

Detrivores Decomposers
Break down organic matter through oral Break down dead organic matter through extracellular
ingestion. digestion.
Example earthworm, millipede, Example Bacteria and fungi.
Only multicellular Can be unicellular or multicellular.
Take in undigested food. Take in already digested food
Take in liquid food Take in mostly solid food
Food chain.
- It is a linear transfer of energy from green plants through a series of animals, with each organism feeding on the
other, and providing food for the succeeding one.
- The primary and the ultimate source of energy in a food chain is the sun.
- A food chain always begins with producers.
- Each level in a food chain is called a trophic level.
- Each organism has only one source of food in a food chain and is being eaten by only one organism.
- The death of one organism disrupts the whole food chain.
- A food chain is a simple relationship involving few organisms.
- It hardly exceeds five links because energy reduces as it flows in an ecosystem.
Producer primary consumer secondary consumer tertiary consumer
Direction of flow of energy
Example:
Green grass grasshopper frog snake
Lettuce caterpillar grass bird kite

SUN
1st Trophic Level 2nd Trophic Level 3rd Trophic Level 4th Trophic Level
Green grass grasshopper frog snake

Producers primary secondary tertiary

Consumers consumers consumers
There are three types of food chain.
 Grazing or pasturing or predator food chain.
- It starts with producers passing through primary, secondary, tertiary consumer etc and is directly dependent on
the influx of solar energy.
 Saprophytic or detritus food chain.
- This starts with dead organic matter (DOM) and is less dependent on solar energy.
 Parasitic food chain.
- In this food chain, either the producer or consumer is parasitized, thus, energy flows from a larger organism to a
smaller organism.
Trophic level (Feeding level)
- It is a position in a food chain, food web or ecological pyramid that is occupied by a group of organisms having a
similar mode of feeding.
- The first trophic level is composed of producers (photosynthetic organisms), e.g green plants algae, etc.
- Each trophic level represents an energy transfer level.
- The second trophic level is occupied by primary consumers (herbivores) and canivores occupy the third trophic
level.

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- Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi may occupy the last trophic level.
Food web.
- A food web is composed of a number of interconnected food chains.
- The first organism in a food web is a usually a green plant.
- Each organism in a food web may have more than one food source.
- The death of one organism does not disrupt the web since organisms have more than one food source.
- The sun is the primary or ultimate energy source in a food web.
- A food web is a more complex feeding relationship than food chain

Lizard

Praying mantis predatory bug

moth Grasshopper herbivorous bug

Cabbage
Food web

Vulture

snakes lizards

snails caterpillars

green plants
Food web

Similarities between food chain and food web

- Both involve the transfer of energy
- Both are feeding relationship
- Both involve the transfer of matter.
- The sun is the primary source of energy in both.
- Plants occupy the first trophic level in both

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Differences between food chain and food web

Food chain Food web
Linear arrangement of organisms Combination of many food chains
Less complex feeding relationship Complex feeding relationship
Each organism is eaten only by one type of organism e.g Each organism is being eaten by more than one
a rat being eaten by a snake. organism e.g being eaten by a snake, a cat, etc.
Dead of one organism will disrupt the whole chain each Dead of one organism does not disrupt the whole web
organism in the food chain has only one source. since each organism has more than one source.
Each organism has a single food source. Each organism has more than one food sourc e.g lion
feeding on deer, antelope, zebra etc.
How energy flows in an ecosystem.
- The sun is the ultimate/primary source of energy.
- The energy flows in a linear manner i.e, only in one direction and never returns to the ultimate source.
- The flow of energy through an ecosystem occurs along a food chain.
- Energy enters the food chain at the level of the producers and flows to the consumer and the decomposers.
- Green plants capture sunlight energy using chlorophyll during photosynthesis and covert the energy into
chemical energy and stored as carbohydrate eg starch.
- Only 1% of the solar energy is used by green plants during photosynthesis
- Most of the energy (99%) is lost as follows
 Some light rays are reflected by dust, plane surface etc.
 Some are absorbed by clouds.
 Some rays fall where there are no producer eg deserts.
- Primary consumers eg goat eats the producers eg maize.
- Only about 10% of the energy in the producers is passed to the primary consumer.
- 90% of the energy in the producer is lost as follow.
 Some food (energy) is not eaten eg roots, some of the food eaten is not digested, some of the energy is lost as
heat during respiration.
- Only 10% of the energy in the primary consumer is passed to secondary consumer eg lion.
- 90% of the energy in the primary consumer is lost as follows.
 Some food (energy) is not eaten by the lion eg bones, hair/horns/hoof, some is not digested, some is lost as heat
during respiration, the primary consumer also uses up some of the energy from respiration for its own activities.
- Consequently, as energy flows through a food chain it reduces

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Ecological pyramids.
- An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation in the form of pyramid that shows the relative number of
organisms or relative amount of energy or the relative amount of biomass (organic matter) present/ contained
within each trophic level in a food chain or food web.
- Each trophic level is represented by a rectangle, and the length of the rectangle represents the number of
organisms or energy or biomass at that trophic level.
- There are three types of pyramids that can be used.
 Pyramid of numbers, based on the number of organisms at each trophic level.
 Pyramid of biomass, based on the dry mass (weight) of organisms at each trophic level.
 Pyramid of energy which monitors the energy content of the organisms at each trophic level.
- Pyramids of energy are the most important since they deal directly with the basis of food chains which is the
flow of energy.
Pyramids of numbers
- A pyramid of numbers is the representation of the number of organisms present at each trophic level in a food
chain.
- Each trophic level is represented by a rectangle, and the length of the rectangle represents the number of
organisms or energy at that trophic level.
- The pyramids of number show that there is a decrease in the number of organisms as we move from the lower
to the higher trophic levels.
- It shows that the number of producers are more than the number of consumers and that consumers at the
higher trophic level are less numerous compared to those of the lower trophic level.
- It also indicates that the size of the producers is smaller but the number is greater while the consumers show a
progressive increase in size with a decrease in number.
- The producers are placed at the base, followed by the primary consumers, secondary consumer etc.
- Considering the food chain below.
Green grass grasshopper lizard snake hawk
In an abandoned school garden, there are fewer hawks than snakes, fewer snakes than lizards and fewer lizards than
grasshoppers. Whereas the size of these organisms get progressively larger, the number reduces. Therefore, an
inverse relationship does exist between the number of organisms and the size of the organisms. Such relationship is
represented by a chart or diagram called the pyramids of number. In such pyramids, the length of each triangle is
proportional to the number of organisms present in that trophic level.

Pyramids of numbers.
Draw backs/disadvantages or difficulties of the pyramid of numbers
- This pyramid fails to distinguish the size of the organisms in each trophic level as trees and algae are each
counted as producers.
- The range of number of organisms in a given ecosystem may be too great that it becomes difficult to have the
head count of all members in a given trophic level.

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- It may be difficult to ascertain the trophic level of an organism e.g. it is difficult to state if a pig is an herbivore or
a carnivore i.e. trophic level 2 or 3.
- Single individuals are usually difficult to distinguish, especially when many are combined e.g moss plants.
- No account is made for the juveniles and other immature forms of the species whose diet may be different from
that of the adult. This means that the nymph of a grasshopper is counted just like the adult.
- It may be difficult to choose a good scale because of the great differences in the numbers at each trophic level.
- In the case of parasites, there can be many consumers than producers e.g. from the inventory carry out in a
large Orchard in Ndian Division of the south west region, there were 40 orange trees, 16000 swallow tail
butterfly larvae (caterpillars) on the orange trees, 5000 lizards and 4 hawks visit the orchard from time to time
thus given an inverted pyramids of numbers as below. The inverted pyramids indicate that at times there are
more consumers than producers.

Pyramid of biomass
- Biomass is the total dry mass of living matter present in an organism.
- The pyramid of biomass gives the amount of biomass present at each trophic level.
- This pyramid shows that the biomass tends to reduce as we move from producers to consumers. This is because
not all the biomass at the lower trophic level are transfer to those at the higher trophic levels. Some of the
biomass are loss as in the form of undigested food, and send out as feces while some biomass is used up during
respiration. From this pyramid, producers have the highest biomass followed by herbivores (primary
consumers), carnivores (secondary consumers), etc.
- The biomass present at each trophic level at each given moment is called the standing biomass or standing crop
biomass.
- The relative biomass present at each trophic level is represented by a rectangle, and the length of the rectangle
is proportional to the amount of biomass present at that trophic level that is the higher the biomass, the longer
the rectangle.
- Consider the food chain below.
Palm tree caterpillars palm birds parasites on birds

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Draw backs or difficulties of the pyramids of biomass

- It is impossible to measure to scale the exact biomass of all individuals in an ecosystem.
- The time of measurement of the biomass may affect the results e.g. the biomass of a plant measured during the
rainy season will be different from that measured during the dry season.
- To obtain the dry mass, the organism must be killed
Pyramid of energy
- This is a pyramid that shows the amount of energy present in organisms in each trophic level.
- It is the ideal way of representing relationships between organisms in different trophic levels.
- Producers which occupy the first trophic level have the highest amount of energy. They are the only group of
energy that can convert solar energy into chemical energy and stored as food e.g carbohydrate.
- The pyramid of energy takes into account the rate of production, in contrast to pyramid of numbers and
biomass which portray the steady states of organisms at a particular moment in time.
- It therefore shows the amount of energy required to supports life in a given trophic level. It shows that the
energy reduces as we move from lower to higher trophic levels.
- The pyramid of energy considers the energy flow through a food chain. Though the data is more difficult to
obtain, it makes it easier to accurately compare the different trophic level
- It allows for the efficiency of energy transfer between each trophic level to be studied.
- It allows for comparisons of pyramids for different ecosystems to be made.
- Each value of each organism is determined by burning a known mass and measuring the heat produced. This is
expressed in energy unit per unit area per given time e.g KJ-2year-1
- The relative energy present at each level is represented by a rectangle and the length of the rectangle is
proportional to the amount of energy present at that trophic level. That is, the higher the energy, the longer the
length of the rectangle.
- The length of the producer bar is proportional to the solar energy used yearly for photosynthesis. The other bars
show the amount of energy that passes from one trophic level to another.
- Since only part of the energy at a lower trophic level is passed to a higher trophic level, pyramids of energy are
never inverted.

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Draw backs or difficulties of the pyramids of energy

- It is sometimes difficult to burn a given fuel in order to obtain its energy value.
NB: one most important problem faced by all the ecological pyramids is that dead organic matter (DOM) are often
omitted from the pyramids. However, from the flow of energy in the ecosystem, these set of organisms constitute an
important role in the ecosystem
Trophic efficiency.
This is the efficiency at which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. The values differ from one
ecosystem to another, with some of the highest values of about 40% occurring in the oceanic ecosystem.

Biological productivity or bioproductivity.

It is the rate or the amount of organic mass in dry mass produced by an ecosystem.
Primary productivity.
It is the rate of production of new organic matter in an ecosystem by autotrophs (photoautotrophs and
chemoautotrophs. The organic matter contains stored energy available for use by plants and organisms which feed on
plant.
Gross primary productivity (GPP).
This is the total amount of new organic matter produced by plants during photosynthesis.
Net primary productivity (NPP).
This is the total amount of organic matter left in a producer after the other organic matter has been used to fuel its own
metabolic activities such as respiration and the rest. That is, NPP= GPP-energy lost for respiration and metabolism
Efficiency of primary productivity. It the amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface that is converted by
autotrophs into chemical energy and stored. This is approximately one percent.
Secondary productivity. It the amount of biomass (organic matter) made by consumers from other organic matter and
stored in their bodies and is available to make new tissues.
How to conserve an ecosystem.
- Creation of national parks e.g the korup and Waza national parks.
- Encouragement of reforestation programs.
- Protecting their habitats of organisms.
- Prohibiting trade on endangered species.
- Protecting endangered species and assisting them in breeding as in the case of Zoos and botanic gardens.
- Establishing sperm banks and seed reserves to maintain a full range of genetic diversity of species
- Use of natural manure instead of artificial fertilizers.
- Practice of responsible farming methods such as crop rotation, contour ploughing etc.
- Education of the public on the importance of the ecosystem.
- Legislations should be put in place to regulate deforestation and prevent poaching.

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- Biological control of pest should be encourage instead of the use of pesticides.

Importance of conserving the ecosystem.
- It creates a reservoir for genotypes.
- It preserves the diversity of organisms.
- It ensures a balance between gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- It provides useful products such as medicinal plants, timber food etc

Biochemical cycles. A Biochemical cycle is a cycle in which matter moves through the biotic and abiotic part of the
ecosystem in different forms.
The Carbon cycle.
- Carbon is present in the atmosphere as CO2.
Carbon dioxide is added into atmosphere by;
- Volcanic eruption.
- Decay of dead plants and animals by saprophytic bacteria and fungi.
- Respiration of plants and animals.
- Burning of fossil fuels.
- Reaction of Calcium carbonate with acid rain.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by;
- Photosynthesis by green plants to form Carbohydrate, protein and lipid.
- Carbon dioxide is dissolved in water to form acid rain.
- Formation of Calcium carbonate deposits, fossilization (coal, fuel).
- Animals obtain carbon by feeding on plants.
- When plant, animals and other living things die, saprophytes cause their decay releasing Carbon dioxide back
into the atmosphere.

The Carbon cycle.

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE.

- It is a biogeochemical process which converts the inert nitrogen in the atmosphere to a more usable form for
living organism.
- It involves the following processes; Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay, putrifaction or
ammonification.
Nitrogen fixation
- It is the conversion of inert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by nitrogen fixing bacteria called Azotobacter and
Clostridium (free living) and Rhizobium mutualistic bacterium in root nodules) into usable form (ammonia).
- Nitrogen fixation can also occur by atmospheric fixation- which involves lightning (which breaks the nitrogen
into nitrogen oxides and is then used by plants) or industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under high
temperature and pressure condition.
Nitrification
- This is conversion of ammonia into nitrites (NO2-) by symbiotic bacteria called Nitrosomonas in the soil.
- Nitrites are later converted into nitrates (NO3-) by Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia
gas is toxic for plants.
4+ nitrosomonas
2NH + 3O2 2NO2- + 4H+ + 2H2O
2NO-2 + O2 Nitrobacter 2NO3-
Absorption/Assimilation.
- Plants absorb nitrogen compounds from the soil through their roots, in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions,
nitrate enters the food chain/web when the primary consumers eat the plants.
Ammonification/putrefaction.
- When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back into the soil in the form
of ammonia or ions or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins.
- This is carried out by decomposers, (bacteria or fungi).
Denitrification
- Denitrification is the process by which nitrogen compounds such as nitrate (NO3-) are converted back into the
atmosphere as gaseous nitrogen (N) by denitrifying bacteria called Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus nitrificans.
- This is the final stage of the nitrogen cycle and it occurs in the absence of oxygen, which will process nitrate to
gain oxygen and gives out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.
Importance of Nitrogen Cycle
The importance of the nitrogen cycle are as follows:
- Helps plants to synthesize chlorophyll from the nitrogen compounds.
- Helps in converting inert nitrogen gas into a usable form for the plants through the biochemical process.
- In the process of ammonification, the bacteria help in decomposing the animal and plant matter, which
indirectly helps to clean up the environment.
- Nitrates and nitrites are released into the soil, which helps in enriching the soil with the necessary nutrients
required for cultivation.
- Nitrogen is an integral component of the cell and it forms many important compounds and biomolecules.
- Nitrogen is also cycled by human activities such as the combustion of fuels and the use of nitrogen fertilizers.
These processes, increase the levels of nitrogen-containing compounds in the atmosphere.
- The fertilizers containing nitrogen are washed away in lakes and rivers and results in eutrophic

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N2 in the
atmosphere.

Feeding
Animals Plants.

Nitrites/Nitrates
Ammonia/ammonium
in the soil
ions in the soil.

The Nitrogen cycle

Differences between the nitrogen and the carboncycle.

Criteria Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle
Types of organisms removing gas Photosynthetic microorganisms Nitrogen fixing bacteria such as
from the atmosphere. green algae, phytoplankton, azobacter, clostridium and
photosynthetic bacteria and green rhizobium.
plants
Gases present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrogen (N2)
Process by which organisms return Respiration by animals and Denitrification by pseudomonas and
gas to the atmosphere. microorganisms produces CO2 and Thiobacillus nitrificans.
decay by bacteria and fungi
Main human impact on the cycle. Deforestation by man causes an Deforestation by man causes soil
increase in the atmospheric CO2 since erosion and leaching of nitrates
there will fewer plants to carryout needed for plant growth.
photosynthesis.

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The phosphorus cycle.

- The phosphorus cycle is a sedimentary cycle. That is, it is a cycle that occurs in sediments, rocks and soil.
Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere and so does not have atmospheric forms, it usually transported in
water.
- On land, weathering of rocks makes phosphate ions (PO43- and HPO42-) available to plants, which take up the
phosphate from the soil.
- Human use of phosphate containing fertilizers also add phosphate into the soil which is used up by producers.
- Some of this phosphate runs off into aquatic ecosystems where algae take it up from water before it becomes
trapped in sediments.
- The phosphate in sediments only becomes available when the sedimentary rocks are exposed weathering
conditions.
- The phosphate taken up by producers is incorporated into a variety of organic molecules, including phospholipid
and ATP neoclotide that become part of DNA or RNA.
- Animals eat producers and incorporate some of the phosphate into teeth, bones and shells that do not
decompose for very long time.
- The death and decay of all organisms and also decomposition of animal wastes also make phosphate ions
available for producers again.
- Since available phosphate is generally taken very quickly, it is a limiting inorganic nutrient in an ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION.
- Ecological succession is the establishment or a serial change/replacement of a plant community in a habitat,
over a period of time resulting in the establishment of a stable community called climax community.
- Succession occurs in stages called seres or seral stages. Each sere has its own community of organisms and can
be identified by the type of plant it contains.
- In succession, the plants present at each stage alter the environment in such a way that new organisms can
move in.
- As changes occur in vegetation, changes also occur in the animals present, e.g as shrubs and trees grow up, birds
and squirrels come in. over time, a complex ecosystem is established.
- A climax community is made up of animals as well as plants with the animal species being determined by the
plant species available.
- Within a climax community, there is usually a dominant plant or animal species (species with the highest
population and greatest biomass) or sometimes two or three codominant species (species having the same
number of population and same biomass).
- There are two types of succession, that is, primary and secondary succession.
Primary succession.
- It is the establishment of vegetation on a newly formed land e.g solidified magma or lava where living things
have never existed.
- Primary succession initiated in water or wet (waterlogged) environment is called hydrosere, while the one
initiated on land is called xerosere.
- Primary succession takes place in stages. The first stage is called the ecological void when the land surface is
basically inorganic because there is no organic matter except for bare rocks and a layer of weathered materials.
- Next there is the colonization of this hostile environment by a pioneer community composed of lichen.
 A pioneer community is the very first community of vegetation that colonizes an area that has never
been colonized before.
- As the lichen grows, the process of soil formation begins.
- As some of the lichen die, they decompose and nutrients can be formed which can support other plants.

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- Mosses are the next in the succession which are then followed by ferns.as the amount of organic matter
increases, and rocks continue being eroded, a thick layer of soil is built that can now support small flowering
plants such as grass, then shrubs and finally trees.
- The seeds of these plants are brought in various way e.g by wind, birds and other animals or washed in by river
or sea.
- Herbaceous plants first colonize the environment after fern which then improve the soil conditions for woody
plants can then follow.
- Over time the vegetation progressively becomes richer in species and more complex in structure and final,
equilibrium is reached.
- At equilibrium, the association of plants and other organisms remains stable until another disturbance takes and
is then described as climax vegetation.

Secondary succession.
- It is the development of vegetation on an area that was previously occupied by organisms but has been
disturbed or altered by natural disaster (volcanic eruption, earthquake etc) or human activities (bush fire,
deforestation, etc.)
- It occurs faster than primary succession.
- Spores, seeds and organs of vegetative propagation may remain viable in the soil and there may be an influx of
animals by migration and some plants by dispersal from nearby areas.
- Pioneer community might be made up of organisms from different successional stages.
- Sometime human activities prevent the establishment of a climax community.
- An area of grass may gradually be replaced by shrubs, over time, the shrubs are replaced by woody plants if the
area is undisturbed.
- If animals are allowed to graze in the environment, they eat up young woody plants which will be unable to
establish themselves.
- When succession is continually being disturbed by grazing animals, it remains at the grassland stage and this is
referred to as deflected succession and the resultant sub-climax is called plagioclimax.
Differences between pioneer and climax community
Pioneer community Climax community
Little stability Great stability
Biomass increasing Biomass stable
Fluctuations common Fluctuations do not usually occur
Some nutrients lost Nutrient recycling
Low species diversity High species diversity
Energy consumption inefficient Energy consumption efficient
Harsh environment Most favorable environment

Degradation of Man’s Environment

Man’s environment is undergoing many different changes, which result to many negative effects to the
environment. Such factors include:
1. Bush Fires: Wild bush fires burn all the covering vegetation and some soil organisms like earthworms and
bacteria. This exposes the soil to all forms of erosion and renders the soil infertile and non-productive.
2. Deforestation: This is the removal of the free vegetation of the earth’s surface.
- This exposes the soil to erosion.
- It destroys the plants which serve as a regulatory mechanism that controls the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere.

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- This leads to the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere, which causes global warming.
- The CO2 concentration also pollutes the atmosphere, making it not suitable for breathing by animals.
3. Global Warming: This is the general increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, due to increase in
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases form a thermal blanket
which allows powerful sun rays to penetrate and heat up the earth’s surface, but prevent the heat from
escaping into space.
4. Effects of Overfishing.
- Reduces fish population.
- Affects fish distribution.
- Disrupt food webs due to increase plankton following the reduction of fish predators.
- Fish predators such as seals decrease in number due to shortage of fish (food).
- May lead to extinction of fish.
5. Effects of radioactive materials on the environment.
- When exposed to radioactive substances, it can leads to diseases like cancer, leukaemia, cardiovascular diseases,
etc.
- It causes mutation in cells.
- It can lead to dead of an individual when exposed to high radiations.
- It leads to soil infertility.
- Causes burns on human body
- Hinders reproduction in plants.
How to prevent radioactive pollution.
- Radioactive waste isolation in remote areas.
- Waste containment should be in radiation shielded containers buried underground.
- Banning of nuclear test.
- Use of alternative energy sources
6. Effects of Pesticides:
- Pesticides are chemicals used to control pests that destroy crops. Some pesticides are non-biodegradable i.e.
not being able to be broken down by natural means.
- They therefore can accumulate in living systems and find their way in man through food chains e.g. chlorinated
hydrocarbon (DDT), which kills many organisms indiscriminately.
- These compounds can be accumulated and finally breaks the equilibrium position in the ecosystem by
destroying some useful organisms.
Biological control. This is the control of pest using biological means such as;
- Introducing a control agent that feeds on the pest directly or its larvae.
- Introducing a control agent that acts as a parasite on the pest which later kills the pest.
- Introducing a control agent that causes disease to the pest that later dies of the disease.
- Making the pest infertile.
Advantages of biological control
- The predator kills the prey.
- Predators are usually specific to the pest.
- Predators can breed in the environment so no need to constantly reapply them.
- Agents are unlikely to harm humans.
- It does not pollute the environment.
- Usually much cheaper.
- Pest do not become resistance to the biological agent.
- It results to a permanent balanced equilibrium between prey and predator.

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Disadvantages of biological control.

- It is slow.
- At times the predator might become a pest if proper studies were not carried out.
- The control agent may not kill all the pest.
- The control agent may even die before locating/killing the prey due to environmental factors.

Differences between biological control and chemical control.

Biological control Chemical control.
It involves the use of the natural enemy of the pest to Involves the use of harmful chemicals to eliminate
eliminate the pest. pests.
No damage to the ecosystem. Damages the ecosystem
Specific. Can kill only the pest Not specific. Other organisms are killed alongside the
pest
Slow natural enemy might need time to locate prey Action is fast. Pest is killed immediately pesticide gets
(pest) in contact with prey
Cheap. Cost of breeding predator is is low High cost of buying chemicals and high cost of
application for equipment and personnel
Highly is effective Less effective

POLLUTION
- Pollution is the introduction/release of substances or energy in the environment in harmful concentration by
Man’s activities that cause harm to living organisms and their environment.
- Pollutants are substances or energy that can cause adverse changes (harm) to the environment when released
in high concentration and long duration. Eg. CO2, CO, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), sound, plastics, bottles, inorganic fertilizers, sewage household refuge, radioactive
substances smoke, dust, etc
Types of pollutants based on persistence.
 Biodegradable pollutants. These are organic matter that can be easily broken by microorganism. They do not
last long in the environment. Eg sewage, household refuge, biodegradable plastics.
 Non-biodegradable pollutants. These are pollutants that cannot be broken down by microorganism. They
persist in the environment. Eg non-biodegradable plastics, bottles pesticides etc..
Types of Pollution, their cause and their effects.
The following types of pollution exist:
1. Air Pollution.
- It is the release of substances or energy into the atmosphere in harmful concentration by Man’s activities that
cause harm to living organisms and their environment.
- Examples of air pollutants; CO2, CO, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
smoke, dust, etc.
Causes of air pollution:
- Burning fossil fuels
- Agricultural activities.
- Mining operations
- Exhaust gases from industries and factories.
- Natural events such as volcanoes, forest fires Bush fire etc.

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Effects of air pollution.

- Gases such as NO2 and ozone Increased risk of respiratory illness and cardiovascular problems
- Increased risk of skin diseases
- Greenhouse gases like CO2, water vapour, etc, cause Global warming
- Gases such as SO2, CO2 dissolve in rain water cause Acid rain
- CFCs promote Ozone depletion.
- Smoke and can cause blindness.
- Smoke and dust can block stomata prevent the entering of gases for photosynthesis.
- Smoke and dust particles can coat leaves and prevent the absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis.
Control of Air Pollution
- Factories and energy generating stations should be built away from residential areas.
- Factory chimneys should be tall enough to discharge waste gases high up in the air.
- The waste gases from factories should be filtered to remove pollutants before discharging the gases into the
atmosphere.
- Using lead free petrol and smokeless fuels in cars and houses / factories respectively.
- Encourage the use bicycles.
- Encourage walking at short distances when.
Water pollution
- It is the release of substances or energy into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas that can cause harm to
aquatic life and change the quality of water for usage.

Causes of water pollution.

- Dumping solid wastes in water bodies.
- Disposing untreated industrial sewage into water bodies.
- Agricultural runoff containing pesticides and fertilisers.
- Oil spillage from oil tanks in ships or from industries.
Effects of water pollution.
- It leads to disruption of the ecosystem.
- Dumping of radioactive substances into water bodies will provoke the mutation of aquatic life.
- Thermal heat from industrial waste can kill aquatic organisms.
- Untreated sewage and defecation and urination in water bodies can Increase risk of water-borne diseases.
- Dumping of refuge in water bodies can reduce the life span of the water body.
- It can also lead obstruction of water flow.
- Dumping of waste in water makes if unfit for drinking.
- Oil spills prevent sunlight from penetrating into the water thus prevent photosynthesis.
- Oil spills also prevent oxygen penetration causing suffocation.
- Oil spills cause the feather of sea birds to stick together and prevent flight.
- Oil spills destroy sea beaches and make them unattractive.
- Fertilisers from farmlands cause Eutrophication.
 Eutrophication is the rapid growth of algae (alga bloom) in a water body due to increase in nitrate and
phosphate content. The death of these algae leads to increase aerobic bacterial activities which use up
the available oxygen in water causing suffocation to other aquatic organisms.Eutrophication renders
water unfit for consumption and destroys aquatic life.

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Control of Water Pollution

- Treat sewage before discharging it into water bodies
- Treat industrial waste and release them in water bodies in controlled amounts, or recycle them.
- Farmers should moderate the use of chemical (fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides).
- Strict supervision should be carried out when loading and offloading oil tankers
- Farmers and foresters are encouraged to protect streams by leaving streamside trees and vegetation
undisturbed. This will stabilize the banks and trap sediment coming down the slope and preventing
sediments from building up in water.
- Laws should be made to end pollution discharges into water bodies
- Localities should be helped to build water treatment plants that remove sewage from wastes before
discharge.
- Plough hillside fields by contours rather than up and down the incline plane to reduce erosion and formation
of gullies.
- Cows should be kept away from stream sides and housed in barns where their waste can be gathered and
treated.
- At construction sites, builders are required to fight soil erosion by laying down traps, building sediment traps
and seeding grasses.
Land pollution.
- It is the degradation of the earth’s surface by Man’s activities like dumping of undesirable substances on land
which are harmful to living organisms and the environment and poor farming methods.
- Land pollutants include; plastic papers and bottles, poor disposal of refuge, excessive use of inorganic fertilisers.
Causes/sources of land pollution.
- Poor disposal of refuge.
- Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers.
- Littering.
Effects of land pollution.
- Dumping grounds are unattractive with pungent smell.
- Open dumps act as breeding grounds for disease vectors like mosquitoes.
- Umps occupy space that could be useful.
- Carbon dioxide and methane which greenhouse gases are released from the decomposition of garbage.
- The waste may block drainage and water ways leading to flooding.
- Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers makes the soil to be loose.
Control of Land Pollution
- Metals, bottles and plastics can be recycled
- Refuse should properly be disposed of
- Some solid wastes may be used in land reclamation
- Animal dung and human faeces can be used to make biogas
Noise pollution. Pollution caused by exceedingly loud sound.
- It can be caused by industrial machines, music, military shooting exercise, etc.
Effects of noise pollution.
- It can cause high blood pressure.
- It leads to speech interference.
- It may provoke sleeplessness insomnia.
- It leads to loss of productivity.
- Disturbs learning and concentration.
- It can lead temporal or permanent deafness.

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- May cause tinnitus (ear ringing).

- It can cause headache.
- Impairs cognitive function.
- Can cause heart attack
- May causes irritation and high stress.
Methods of conserving water
- Trapping and storage of water in wells or tanks.
- Treatment and recycling of used water.
- Making dams on rivers to allow more effective management of water.
- Saving water by prompt repairs of burst pipes and turning off taps immediately after usage.
- Planting trees to provide vegetation cover which reduces evaporation and promotes water recycling.
- Prevent water pollution of all forms.
- Employ water guards.
- Educate the public on the need to conserved water.
Methods of conserving wild life
- Establishment of zoological gardens for rare and endangered species
- Establishment of game forest reserve.
- Control and even stopping of hunting in some cases.
- Prohibiting poaching in game reserves.
- Prohibition of bush burning or fire.
- Discouraging deforestation.
- Encouraging afforestation.
- Breeding of animals to produce more species.
- Boundaries or fence be erected around wild life game reserves.
- Treatment of wild life.
- Employ security guards.
- Slam taxes to defaulters
- Educate the public on the values of wild life
Methods of conserving forest
- Reforestation or tree planting should be encourage.
- Prohibition of bush burning.
- Pest/disease of plants should be detected and controlled
- Establishment of forest reserves.
- Ensure cutting of only mature trees without destroying undergrowth.
- Employ forest guard.
- Impose high taxes to exploiters.
- Educate the public on the values of forest and the importance of conserving it
Examples of forest reserves in Cameroon
It includes the mount Cameroon forest reserve, botanical garden Limbe, kimbi forest reserve, Bamenda forest reserve,
Djar forest reserve, etc.
Examples of game reserves in Cameroon
It includes the Rumpi mountain game reserve, kilum game reserve, korup, Campo Ma’an, Benoue, NJida, Faro, Boumbe
park, Lobeke, Nki, Kalamaloue game reserves, etc.

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