ABEB 121: SURVEYING considered as a plane.

taken into
Module 1: Principles of Surveying consideration.
Area is smaller than Area is larger than 250
Definition of Surveying 250 km2 km2
All surveying operations have the same basic Less accurate More accurate
characteristics – that of delineating a portion of the Line joining two points Line joining two points
earth’s surface or subsurface or of establishing the is a straight line is an arc
position or boundaries of some objects upon it Used in engineering Used in establishing
projects such as control points for plane
1. Rayner & Schmidt bridges, dams and survey
“Surveying is the art of determining the positions of highways
points on or near the earth’s surface by means of
measurements in the three elements of space; Uses of Surveying
namely distance, direction, and elevation.”  To prepare a map or plan showing the
relative position of objects on the surface of
2. Davis, Foote, Anderson and Mikhail the earth;
“Surveying is the art of, measuring horizontal and  To establish the boundaries of the land; and
vertical distances between objects, of measuring  To select a suitable site for an engineering
angles between lines, and of establishing points by
predetermined angular and linear
measurements.”

3. Clarke
“Surveying is the art of making such measurements
of the relative positions of points on the surface
of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural
and artificial features may be exhibited in their
correct horizontal or vertical relationships.”

4. Webster
“Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics
which teaches the art of determining the area of
any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and
direction of the boundary lines, the contour of the
surface, and the accurate delineating of the whole project
on paper.” A cadastral map

5. Breed, Hosmer, and Bone Fundamental Principles of Surveying

Surveying is the science or art of making such Principle 1: Always work from whole to part.
measurements as are necessary to determine the  In surveying large areas, a system of control
relative position of points above, on, or beneath points is identified and they are located with
the surface of the earth, or to establish such points high precision.
 The secondary control points are located
6. Brinker and Wolf using lesser precise methods.
“Surveying is the science and art of determining  The details of the localized areas are
relative positions of points above, on, or beneath measured and plotted with respect to the
the surface of the earth, or establish such points.” secondary control points.
 This is called working form whole to part.
PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF SURVEYING  This principle helps in localizing errors.
1. PLANE SURVEYING  If the surveying is carried out by adding
 Type of surveying in which earth’s surface is localized areas, errors accumulate and may
considered as a plane and the curvature of become unacceptable when large area is
the earth is ignored. In such surveying the covered.
line joining any two stations is considered to
be straight Principle 2: Locate a new station by at least 2
measurements whether linear or angular from
2. GEODETIC SURVEYING fixed reference points.
 Type of surveying in which the curvature of  Control points are selected in the area and
the earth is taken into consideration. The the distance between them is measured
line joining any two stations is considered as accurately. The line joining these two points
a curved line is plotted to the scale on drawing sheet.
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying  Now the desired point (new station) can be
plotted by making suitable measurements
from the given control point.
 The new stations are located by linear or
angular measurements or by both.

Surveying Instruments
1. STEEL TAPE
 Tapes are made in a variety of materials,
lengths and weights. Those more commonly
used by the surveyor and for engineering
Surface of earth is Curvature of earth is measurements are the steel tapes,
 sometimes called the engineer’s or In precise taping operations, a thermometer is
surveyor’s tape, and woven nonmetallic or attached to the tape for the purpose of determining
metallic tapes. the temperature during actual taping.
 Steel tapes for most surveying operations Thermometers for field use are about 12 cm long,
are graduated in feet and meters together graduated forms -10°C to 50°C in 1° divisions, and
with decimals parts of these units. Their kept in a protective metal case. Tape thermometers
lengths vary from 50 to 300 feet and from are so designed such that their bulbs come in direct
15 to 100 meters although the 100-ft and contact with the tape. They usually have brackets
30-m tapes are the most common lengths. with a small spring that presses the bulb against the
tape.
Metric tapes are usually graduated to
decimeters throughout with an end
decimeter divided into millimeters.
 Land surveyors also use Invar tapes which d. SPRING SCALE
are made of an alloy which consists of 36% A spring scale is sometimes called a tension handle.
of nickel and 64% of steel. Invar tape It is used at the end of a tape for reading the pull
contains a 6mm wide strip and is available applied to tape during taping. A complete unit
in different lengths of 30m, 50m, 100m. The consists of a wire handle, a locking device to fit the
coefficient of thermal expansion of invar end ring of the tape, and a spring balance reading
alloy is very low. It is not affected by up to 15kg in ½ kg calibrations. Spring scales are
changes in temperature. Hence, these tapes used only in precise taping work and usually
are used for high precision works in dispensed with in measurements of ordinary
surveying such as baseline measurement, precision.
triangulation surveys, etc. Invar tapes are
e. TAPE CLAMPING HANDLE
expensive than all the other types of tapes.
To apply tension to a strong grip using a scissor-type
action to any part of a steel tape, a clamping handle
is used. It provides the tapeman a device for
protecting his hands from injury when handling
steel tapes with sharp edges. Pulling a tape at
certain sections without a clamping handle may
result in a slight bending of the tape which in turn
causes kinks on it.

f. PLUMB ROB
A plumb bob is used in taping to project a point on
the tape to the ground, or to project a point on the
These tapes should be handled with care ground up to the tape. Plumb bobs used in
otherwise bends or kinks may be formed. surveying are usually made of bronze, weighing
from 0.25 to 0.50 kg and attached to a fish-line cord
or string about 2m long. They have sharp
replaceable points and a device at the top to which
 Figure 1.1. Invar Tape a string may be tied.
TAPING ACCESSORIES 2. BRUTON COMPASS
a. RANGE POLE A Brunton Compass, properly known as the Brunton
Range poles, sometimes called flags or lining rods Pocket Transit, is a precision compass made by
are used as guides or markers when sighting points, Brunton, Inc. of Riverton, Wyoming. The instrument
and for lining up tapemen to keep them going along was patented in 1894 by a Canadian-born geologist
the correct direction. They are usually from 1 to 3 named David W. Brunton. Unlike most modern
cm in diameter (some are hexagonal) and from compasses, the Brunton Pocket Transit utilizes
about 2 to 3 m in length. Range poles are usually magnetic induction damping rather than fluid to
painted in alternate bands of red and white to make damp needle oscillation. Although Brunton, Inc.
them more easily visible. The bands are each 30 cm makes many other types of magnetic compasses,
in length which can be used for rough and quick the Brunton Pocket Transit is a specialized
measurements. instrument used widely by those needing to make
accurate navigational and slope-angle
b. CHAINING PINS measurements in the field. Users are primarily
Chaining pins are sometimes referred to as taping geologists, but archaeologists, environmental
(or surveyor’s arrows). They are used for marking engineers, mining engineers and surveyors also
the ends of tapes or intermediate points during make use of the Brunton's capabilities. The United
taping. Chaining pins are usually made of #12 steel States Army has adopted the Pocket Transit as the
wire and are sharply pointed at one end. These pins M2 Compass for use by crew-served artillery.
have round loops (or eyes) at one end, and
sometimes painted with alternate red and white
bands, and are conveniently carried by a tapeman Figure 1.2. A
on a wire loop or ring. Strips of colored cloth are tied standard Brunton
to the eyes to make the pins easily visible in weeds Geo, used commonly
or tall grass. A set of eleven pins carried on a ring is by geologists
standard.

c. TAPE THERMOMETER
3. LEVEL instrument to
A level is an optical instrument used to establish or determine the
verify points in the same horizontal plane in a difference in height
process known as levelling, and is used in between points or
conjunction with a levelling staff to establish the heights of points
relative heights or levels of objects or marks. It is above a vertical
widely used in surveying and construction to datum. It cannot be
measure height differences and to transfer, used without a
measure, and set heights of known objects or leveling instrument.
marks.
It is also known as a Surveyors level, Builders level, Levelling rods can be
Dumpy level or the historic "Y" level. It operates on one piece, but many
the principle of establishing a visual level are sectional and can
be shortened for
storage and transport
or lengthened for use.
Aluminum rods may
be shortened by
telescoping sections
inside each other,
while wooden rod
sections can be
attached to each
other with sliding
relationship between two or more points, for which connections or slip joints, or hinged to fold when not
an inbuilt telescope and a highly accurate bubble in use.
level are used to achieve the necessary accuracy.
Traditionally the instrument was completely There are many types of rods, with names that
adjusted manually to ensure a level line of sight, but identify the form of the graduations and other
modern automatic versions self-compensate for characteristics. Markings can be in imperial or
slight errors in the coarse levelling of the metric units. Some rods are graduated on one side
instrument, and are thereby quicker to use. only while others are marked on both sides. If
marked on both sides, the markings can be identical
Figure 1.3 Dumpy Level or can have imperial units on one side and metric
on the other.

Figure 1.6. Two sides of a modern surveyor's

levelling rod. Metric graduations are on the left,
imperial on the right.

Figure 1.4. Wye Level

Figure 1.5. Automatic Level

4. LEVELLING ROD
A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated
wooden or aluminum rod, used with a levelling
 Figure 1.7. A surveyor's view of the levelling rod
indicating a reading of 1.422 m, interpolated 9. PLANIMETER
between the 1.42m and 1.43m marks.  The polar planimeter is a mechanical device
used the area of any shape of figure,
5. PLANE TABLE bounded by straight or curved lines, if the
 A plane table (plain table prior to 1830) is a figure is plotted to a known scale. The
device used in surveying and related device utilizes the relationship between the
disciplines to provide a solid and level tracing arm which traces the outline and the
surface on which to make field drawings, connected recording wheel which records
charts and maps. The early use of the name the area which the tracing arm has
plain table reflected its simplicity and traversed. The planimeter mechanically
plainness rather than its flatness. integrates area and records the answer on a
drum and disk as a tracing point is moved
6. ALIDADE over the outline of the figure to be
 The word in Arabic (‫ الحلقة العضدية‬al-ḥilqa al- measured. The instrument touches the
ʿaḍudiyya, "the ruler"), signifies the same scaled figure at only three places – the
device. In Greek and Latin, it is respectively anchor point, the drum, and the tracing
called δίοπτρα, "dioptra", and linea fiduciae, point guard.
"fiducial line".  Its major parts are the scale bar, graduated
drum and disk, vernier, tracing point and
The earliest alidades consisted of a bar, rod or guard, and anchor arm, weight, and point.
similar component with a vane on each end. Each The scale bar may be fixed or adjustable
vane (also called a pinnule or pinule) has a hole,  The planimeter is most useful for
slot or other indicator through which one can view a determining irregular areas, areas of road
distant object. There may also be a pointer or cross-section and in checking computed
pointers on the alidade to indicate a position on a areas in property surveys. The precision of
scale. Alidades have been made of wood, ivory, the resulting area is dependent on the scale
brass and other materials. to which the figure is drawn, and the skill of
the operator of the planimeter. With care,
Figure 1.8. A
plane table
cutaway.
This shows a
plane table
with part of
the surface
of the table
cut away to
show the mounting on the tripod. The mount
allows the table to be levelled. On the table,
the alidade with telescopic sight is seen.
areas that are accurate within one percent
7. SUBSTENSE BAR can be obtained by means of the
 A subtense bar is a bar of known length, planimeter.
with targets at either end. It is usually made
of a stable material such as invar. When
Figure 1.11 Planimeter
used with a theodolite, it serves as a quick
and convenient method of measuring
distances indirectly. The subtense technique
is similar to that involving a tachymeter and
graduated rod. Subtense bars were in use in
Europe by 1930
Figure 1.9.
Subtense
Bar System 10. TRANSIT
 The invention of the transit is credited to
Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in
1830. Both men were able to put together in
one instrument the essential parts of what
has long been known as the universal
surveying instrument
 The transit is essentially a telescope and
two large protractors, one protractor
8. SEXTANT mounted in a vertical plane and the other in
 A sextant is an instrument used for a horizontal plane, fixed to measure the
measuring the angle between two visible angle of rotation of the telescope about the
objects. Both horizontal and vertical angles horizontal and vertical axes respectively
can be measured using a sextant. It
contains two mirrors which are arranged in
such a way that the observer can sight both
the objects at the same time. It is mainly
used for navigational purposes in sea routes
 Figure 1.12. electronically, and are read directly to
Engineer’s computer memory
Transit Figure 1.13. One-Second Theodolite
12. TOTAL STATION
 A total station (TS) or total station
theodolite (TST) is an electronic/optical
instrument used for surveying and building
construction. It is an electronic transit
theodolite integrated with electronic
distance measurement (EDM) to measure
both vertical and horizontal angles and the
slope distance from the instrument to a
particular point, and an on-board computer
to collect data and perform triangulation
calculations
Figure 1.14. Sokkia Total Station
13. REFLECTORS AND TARGETS
 A reflector is a device used with an EDM
instrument when a continuous beam of light
11. THEODOLITE needs to be transmitted during the
 A theodolite is a precision optical instrument measurement of distances. The EDM is
for measuring angles between designated located at one end of the line to be
visible points in the horizontal and vertical measured, and the reflector occupies the
planes. The traditional use has been for land other end of the line. The reflector used
surveying, but they are also used consists of one of the prism which returns
extensively for building and infrastructure the light beam precisely to its [Link] the
construction, and some specialized case of microwaves, a repeater is used. The
applications such as meteorology and rocket repeater is very nearly like a transmitting
launching station except that after a predetermined
 It consists of a moveable telescope momentary delay, it returns a microwave
mounted so it can rotate around horizontal beam like the one it received
and vertical axes and provide angular Figure 1.15.
readouts. These indicate the orientation of EDM Set-up
the telescope, and are used to relate the
first point sighted through the telescope to
subsequent sightings of other points from

14.
TRIPOD
 A surveyor's tripod is a device used to
support any one of a number of surveying
instruments, such as theodolites, total
stations, levels or transits
 The tripod is placed in the location where it
is needed. The surveyor will press down on
the legs' platforms to securely anchor the
legs in soil or to force the feet to a low
position on uneven, pock-marked
pavement. Leg lengths are adjusted to bring
the tripod head to a convenient height and
make it roughly level
 Once the tripod is positioned and secure,
the same theodolite position. These angles the instrument is placed on the head. The
can be measured with accuracies down to mounting screw is pushed up under the
microradians or seconds of arc. From these instrument to engage the instrument's base
readings a plan can be drawn, or objects and screwed tight when the instrument is in
can be positioned in accordance with an the correct position. The flat surface of the
existing plan. The modern theodolite has tripod head is called the foot plate and is
evolved into what is known as a total station used to support the adjustable feet of the
where angles and distances are measured instrument
 Positioning the tripod and instrument
precisely over an indicated mark on the
ground or benchmark requires intricate
techniques
 prefixes. In SI a total set of 18 prefixes are used to
form multiples and submultiples of different units.
 Figur The following more commonly used prefixes are
e added to basic names.
1.16. mega- 1,000,000
A kilo- 1,000
hecto- 100
deca- 10
deci- 0.1
centi- 0.01
milli- 0.001
micro- 0.000001
nano- 0.000000001

LINEAR, AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENT

Using the prefixes, the following linear
measurements are derived:
1 kilometer (km) 1,000 meters
1 meter (m) 1,000 millimeters
surveyor's tripod with a shoulder strap. The head 1 meter (m) 10 decimeters
of the tripod supports the instrument while the feet 1 decimeter (dm) 10 centimeters
are spiked to anchor the tripod to the ground. 1 centimeter (cm) 10 millimeters

Accomplish the following: The common units for length are the
1. As a future agricultural engineer, how useful do kilometer, meter, centimeter, and the millimeter.
you think will surveying be in accomplishing tasks Length may also refer to other linear dimensions
relevant to your line of work? Show examples of such as width, depth, thickness, height or distance.
actual agricultural engineering work where The kilometer is used for long distances and in
surveying is applied. measuring the sides of large tracts of land. For the
measurements of objects such as buildings,
2. The development of the field of surveying has structures, residential lots, heights of mountains,
come a long way. Give a historical account of this tides, pipes and cables, the meter is used. The
and focusing on the development of surveying field centimeter and millimeter are not commonly used
instruments as you go along in surveying. They are suitable for small dimensions
needed in laboratories where very precise but
Lesson 2: minute measurements are required.
Theory and Measurement of Error
The unit of area in SI is the square meter.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS For very small areas, square millimeters or square
1. Direct Measurements centimeters is used. Areas of small tracts of land,
A direct measurement is a comparison of the floor areas of buildings and structures are measured
measured quantity with a standard measuring unit in square meters the hectare (ha), although not an
or units employed for measuring a quantity of that SI unit, is used for the measurement of large tracts
kind. Some common examples of direct of land such as cities, provinces, sugar cane
measurements are applying a wire or tape to a line, plantations, ricefields, and forests. The square
determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a kilometer is the appropriate unit for this purpose.
transit, or fitting a protractor between two The following are the commonly used relationships:
intersecting lines to determine the intersecting 1 hectare = 10,000 sq m or 100 ares, 1 are = 100
angle. sq m, 1 sq km = 1,000,000 sq m or 100 hectares.

2. Indirect Measurements The common metric units for volume are

When it is not possible to apply a measuring the cubic meter, liter, and the milliliter. Precise
instrument directly to a quantity to be measured, an volumes, actual physical volumes, and the volumes
indirect measurement is made. In this type of of solids and liquids should be expressed depending
measurement, the observed value is determined by on magnitude in cubic meters, cubic centimeters, or
its relationship to some other known values. For cubic milliliters. The cubic meter is used for larger
example, the total length of a line would be an volumes which are common in engineering
indirectly observed distance if it is determined by a constructions and in measuring various quantities in
summation of a series of directly measured short surveying.
segments. In the stadia and subtense method,
horizontal and vertical distances are indirectly ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
obtained since it makes use of optical systems for The SI unit for plane angles is the radian. The radian
relating a short known length to the angle it is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a
subtends at the distance to be determined. circle having a length equal to the radius of the
circle. Obviously, 2π rad = 360 deg, 1 rad = 57 deg
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT 17 min 44.8 sec or 57.2958 deg, and 0.01745 rad =
The usual surveying type of measurement entails 1 deg. The relationship may also be expressed as
both angular and linear measurements. When using follows: 1 deg = (3.1416/180 rad, 1 min =
the International System of Units (SI), all linear (3.1416/10800) rad, and 1 sec = (3.1416/648000)
measurements are based upon the meter. Larger rad.
and smaller units are derived form it in decimal The sexagesimal units of angular
steps and their names are formed by adding measurement are the degree, minute and second.
The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree ascertained by measurements, the exact value of
which is defined as 1/360th of a circle. One degree an error, likewise, can never be determined in any
equals 60 minutes; and 1 minute equals 60 measurement.
seconds. Divisions of seconds are given in tenths,
hundredths, and thousandths. MISTAKES
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES which occur because some aspect of a surveying
In recording results obtained by measurements and operation by the surveyor with carelessness,
in making computations, it is important to inattention, poor judgement, and improper
determine which should be retained as significant execution. Mistakes are also caused by a
figures. By definition, the number of significant misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or
figures in any value includes the number of certain indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is
digits plus one digit that is estimated and, therefore, referred to as a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are
questionable or uncertain. For example, if a line is not classified as errors because they usually are so
measured with a scale graduated in one meter large in magnitude when compared to errors.
increments and recorded as 3.6 meters, the value
has two significant figures – the 3 that is certain and TYPES OF ERRORS
the 6 which is estimated. Any further estimation 1. Systematic Errors
made would not be significant. If the same line is This type of error is one which will always
again measured with a scale graduated in tenths of have the same sign and magnitude as long as field
a meter, and recorded with three significant figures, conditions remain constant or unchanged. For
as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are certain, whereas changing field conditions, there is a corresponding
the 5 is estimated or uncertain. in magnitude of the error, however, the sign
remains constant. A systematic error will repeat
Some general rules regarding significant figures are: itself in other measurements, still maintaining the
1. Zeroes between other significant figures are same sign, and thus will accumulate. It is for this
significant, as, for example in the following values reason that this type of error in measurement is
each contain 4 significant figures: 12.03, 35.06, and called a cumulative error. For instance, in making a
4009. measurement with a 30m tape, which is 5cm too
2. For values less than one, zeroes immediately to short, the same error is made each time the tape is
the right of the decimal are not significant. They used. If a full tape length is used six times, the error
merely show the position of the decimal such as in accumulates and totals six times the error (or
the following values which contain three significant 30cm) for the total measurement.
figures: 0.00325, 0.000468, and 0.0230. Systematic errors conform to mathematical
3. Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are and physical laws. Such error can be computed and
significant such as: 169.30, 366.00, and 11.000. their effects eliminated by applying corrections,
These three values all have five significant figures. employing proper techniques in the use of
instruments, or by adopting a filed procedure which
ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS will automatically eliminate it.
Rounding of a value is the process of dropping one
or more of the final digits so that the value contains 2. Accidental Errors
only the significant figures required for further These errors are purely accidental in character. The
computation or for portraying the final results. The occurrences of such errors are matters of chance
following procedures of rounding off numbers are and they are likely to be positive or negative, and
generally accepted: may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to the laws of probability. There is no
1. Digit is Less Than 5. When the digit to be absolute way of determining or eliminating them
drooped is less than 5, the number is written since the error for an observation of a quantity is
without the digit. Thus, 24.244, rounded of to the not likely to be the same as for a second
nearest hundredth, becomes 24.24, observation.
correspondingly, to further round off 24.24 to the
nearest tenths, the value becomes 24.2. SOURCE OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Digit is Equal to 5. When the digit to be These errors are due to imperfections in the
dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is instruments used, either form faults in their
used for the preceding unit. Thus, 26.175, rounded construction or from improper adjustments between
off to the nearest hundredth become 26.18. Also, the different parts prior to their use. Surveying
156.285 would be 156.28. instruments, just like any other instrument, are
never perfect; proper corrections and field methods
3. Digit is Greater Than 5. When the digit to are applied to bring the measurements within
be dropped is greater than 5, the number is written certain allowable limits of precision. Moreover, with
with the preceding digit increased by one. Thus, time and continuous usage, he wear and tear of the
226.276, rounded off to the nearest hundredth instrument will likely be a cause of errors. Examples
becomes 226.28. Correspondingly, 226.28, rounded of instrumental errors are:
off to the nearest tenths would be 226.3.  Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect
length.
ERRORS  Using leveling rod with painted graduations
An error is defined as the difference between not perfectly spaced.
the true value and the measured value of a  Determining the difference in elevation
quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or between two points with an instrument
calculation from the true value and is often beyond whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
the control of the one performing the operation.  Sighting on a rod which is warped.
Since the true value of a quantity can never be
  Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of
a transit or level. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy and precision are two terms constantly
used in surveying; however, their correct meanings
are often misunderstood. While accuracy may be
2. Natural Errors synonymous with precision, the two should not be
These errors are caused by variations in the used interchangeably. The surveyor should always
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic attempt which are not only accurate but also
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, [Link] measurement of a set, accuracy is
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors closeness of the measurements to a specific value,
are beyond the control of man. However, inorder to while precision is the closeness of the
keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, measurements to each other.
necessary precautions can be taken. Methods can More commonly, accuracy is a description of
be adopted to suit prevailing conditions. systematic errors, a measure of statistical bias; low
The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the accuracy causes a difference between a result and a
cause of such errors but he can minimize their "true" value. ISO calls this trueness. Alternatively,
effects by making proper corrections of the results ISO defines accuracy as describing a combination of
and using good judgement. Common examples are: both types of observational error above (random
 The effect of temperature variation on the and systematic), so high accuracy requires both
length of a steel tape. high precision and high trueness.
 Error in the readings of the magnetic In simpler terms, given a set of data points
needle due to variations in magnetic from repeated measurements of the same quantity,
declination. the set can be said to be accurate if their average is
 Deflection of the line of sight due to the close to the true value of the quantity being
effect of the earth’s curvature and measured, while the set can be said to be precise if
atmospheric refraction. the values are close to each other. In the first, more
 Error in the measurement of a line with a common definition of "accuracy" above, the two
tape being blown sidewise by a strong concepts are independent of each other, so a
wind. particular set of data can be said to be either
 Error in the measurement of a horizontal accurate, or precise, or both, or neither.

Figure [Link] is the proximity of

measurement results to the true value; precision is
the degree to which repeated (or reproducible)
measurements under unchanged conditions show
the same results.
distance due to slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors
These errors arise principally from
limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing
of the human observer which are likely to be
erroneous or inaccurate. This type of fallibility
differs from one individual to another and may vary
due to certain circumstances existing during a
measurement. Some personal errors are constant,
some are compensating, while others may be
erratic. Personal errors are significantly reduced or
eliminated as skills are developed in surveying
operations through constant practice and
experience. Errors of this type are also eliminated
by employing appropriate checking of procedures in
the taking and recording of measurements. Typical
of these errors are:
 Error in determining a reading on a rod
which is out of plumb during sighting.
 Error in the measurement of a vertical
angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on
the target.
Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull
to be applied on a steel tape during measurement.
 where low precision of measurement is sufficient.
Distances by pacing are sufficiently accurate for
small-scale mapping, for locating details and
traversing with a plane table, and in reconnaissance
MOST PROBABLE VALUE surveys. It is also used for many purposes in
From the theory of probability a basic assumption is geology, forestry, engineering, and agriculture.
that the most probable value (mpv) of a group of
Under average conditions, a good pacer will have
repeated measurements made under similar
little difficulty in pacing distances with a relative
conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average.
Most probable value refers to a quantity which, precision of 1/200. Results could be attained within
based on available data, has more chances of being 1 percent of accurately measured distances. Unless
correct than has any other. a mistake has been made in counting, it will seldom
be more than 3 percent in error.
Since the true values of measured
quantities must forever be unknown, it is possible to Computations
obtain by measurements only approximations of
1. Computing Pace Factor (PF)
true values. Therefore, if a given quantity is
measured more than one time, resulting in more a. Get the sum of the number of paces
than one value, not all the derived values are for the five trials performed on
correct. There is only one correct value that should
course AB then compute the mean
be considered and it is determined by using the
following equation. number of paces.

b. Divide the known or taped length of

THINK!:
course AB by the mean number of
In making measurements in surveying works, which
paces for AB to determine the pace
do you think should be avoided more? Committing
errors or committing mistakes? Justify your answer. factor.

2. Computing Paced Distance (PD)

Lesson 4:
PACING a. Get the sum of the number of paces
The accurate determination of the distance for the five trials performed on
between two points on any surface is one of the
course CD and compute the mean
basic operations of plane surveying. Such
number of paces.
measurements are understood to mean the
horizontal distance. If the points are at different b. Multiply the mean number of paces
elevations, the distance is the horizontal length
for CD by the pace factor to obtain
between plumb lines at the points. In many
the paced distance.
instances measurements are taken along an
inclined line. These distances however, are
subsequently reduced to their equivalent on the
horizontal projection for use. 3. Computing Relative Precision (RP)
There are several methods of determining
distance. The choice depends on the purpose for a. Determine the difference between
which the measurement is intended, the required the taped distance of CD and the
precision, the cost, and other conditions. In paced distance of CD.
surveying, the commonly employed methods of
linear measurement include pacing, taping, b. Divide the difference by the taped
tachymetric, graphical, mathematical, mechanical, distance of CD and reduce the
photogrammetric, and electronic distance numerator to unity to determine the
measurement. In some instances, a surveyor may relative precision.
find occasion a combination of methods to
advantage. Remarks, Hints and Precautions in Pacing:

PACING 1. The ends of the assigned courses should be

 Pacing consists of counting the number of marked with either hubs, marking pins, or
steps or paces in a required distance. A by chalk marks of on pavement.
pace is defined as the length of a step in
walking. It may be measured from heel to 2. Range poles are set or held behind the end
heel or from toe to toe. In surveying, pacing points to serve as guides or markers during
means moving with measured steps, and if actual pacing.
the steps are counted, distances can be
determined if the length of a step (pace 3. A steel tape should be used in lying out or in
factor) is known. Counting strides instead of measuring the actual lengths of courses
paces is sometimes preferred by surveyors. assigned for pacing.
A stride is equivalent to two paces or double
step. Because of its many practical 4. When taping, two measurements should be
applications, it is one of the most valuable made for any line and the mean recorded as
things learned in surveying. its actual length.
Figure 3.1. The pace and the stride.
5. The length of a single step is termed as a
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking pace. It may be measured from heel to heel
measurements taken by other methods. It is or from toe to toe. Also, each two paces or a
suitable in determining approximate distances double step is called a stride.
6. Pacing consists of counting the number of
steps in a required distance and is best
done by walking with natural steps.
7. Pacing is used only when approximate
results are satisfactory such as in
estimating distances used for sketching and
in reconnaissance surveys. Pacing is also
used as a means of checking distances
measured by more accurate methods.
8. To keep one on the line while pacing, it is a
good practice to fix one’s eyes on a distant
object behind the pole on the range at the
farther end of the line being paced.
9. A partial pace at the end of the line should
be figured out to the nearest one-fourth
pace.
10. The accepted precision for measuring
distance by pacing usually varies from
1/200 to 1/500.
11. Reject measurements that vary from the
mean by more than three percent.
12. If the computed relative precision of the set
of measurements is greater that one part in
two hundred, the measurements should be
repeated.