TOPIC 1
Computers are an integral part of our lives. Wherever we are—sitting in our
homes, working in the office, driving on roads, sitting in a movie hall, staying
in a hotel, etc.—our lives are directly or indirectly affected by computers. In
this era of information, we are dependent
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability, and versatility are some of the key
characteristics of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics is as follows:
o Speed. The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and
days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the
computer. For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of
thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires
analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pressure, and
humidity of various places, etc.
o Accuracy. The computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example,
the computer can accurately give the result of the division of any two numbers
up to 10 decimal places.
o Diligence. When used for a longer period, the computer does not get tired of
performing long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy
from the start till the end.
o Storage Capability. Large volumes of data and information can be stored in
the computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data
can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage
devices like floppy disks and compact disks can store a large amount of data
permanently.
o Versatility. The computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of
tasks with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a
letter document and in the next moment, you may play music or print a
document.
Computers have several limitations too. The computer can only perform tasks that it has
been programmed to do. The computer cannot do any work without instructions from
the user. It executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own
decisions.
Until the development of first-generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had
been several developments in computing technology related to mechanical computing
devices. The key developments that took place till the first computer was developed are
as follows—
· Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of
bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars
have 10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc.
The computer system consists of four main components:
1. Input Device
2. Output Device
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
4. Memory Unit.
The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations
and processing on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to
store the data, the instructions, and the output information. The following figure
illustrates the typical interaction among the different components of the computer.
1. Input Device:
Input devices convert input data and instructions into binary form for understanding by
the computer. There are different types of input devices like keyboards, Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Character Recognition (OCR), mark sense
readers, etc.
2. Output Device:
Output devices are the type of devices that receive information from the CPU and
present this information to the user in the desired form. Output devices include display
screens, printers, loudspeakers, plotters, etc.
3. CPU (Central Processing Unit):
The CPU has two parts that are Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). CPU
is also known as the brain of a computer as it executes the program instructions.
o Control unit (CU)
o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
i) Control unit (CU)
The control unit of the computer is telling how the rest of the computer system carries
out a program’s instructions. CU is directed to the movement of electronic signals
between memory –that is temporarily holds instructions, data, or processes information
- and the ALU. ALU is also directing these control signals between the CPU and the
input/output devices.
ii) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):
ALU does two kinds of operations – arithmetical and logical. Arithmetical operations of
ALU are fundamental mathematical operations. These operations consist of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, or division. The logical operations of ALU consist of
comparisons. Logical type operation is two pieces of data that are used to compare to
see whether one is equal to, less than, or greater than the other one.
3. Memory Unit
Computer memory is the working storage part or area in the computer. There are two
types of computer memory: primary memory and secondary memory.
o Main Memory
o Cache Memory
o Register
i) Main Memory
RAM is the primary memory. It is volatile in nature and holds the data for a short period
only, that is only until the system is running.
Files and instructions are saved in different secondary storage systems and they are
fetched to the RAM before the execution. This technique is known as swapping.
Memory space available in the main memory directly affects the speed of the computer.
ii) Cache Memory
It is the smallest and fastest form of memory. The contents that require to be fetched
frequently are stored in the cache memory.
Therefore, the processor before looking for the content in RAM checks here and goes to
RAM only if the content isn’t available here. Cache memory is always placed between
RAM and the processor.
iii) Register
There are special-purpose temporary storage units which are called registers. They are
the form of memory with the highest transfer speed.
These registers are used for holding instructions, data, and intermediate results that are
currently being processed. Examples: Program Counter (PC), Instruction Register,
Memory Address Register, Memory Buffer Register, Memory Data Register,
Accumulator, etc.
Computer architecture is a set of rules and methods describing computer systems'
functionality, organization, and implementation. The architecture of a system refers to its
structure in terms of separately specified components of that system and their
interrelationships.
Computer architectures represent the means of interconnectivity for a computer's
hardware components as well as the mode of data transfer and processing exhibited.
Different computer architecture configurations have been developed to speed up the
movement of data, allowing for increased data processing. The basic architecture has
the CPU at the core with the main memory and input/output system on either side of the
CPU.
A second computer configuration is the central input/output controller.
A third computer architecture uses the main memory as the location in the computer
system from which all data and instructions flow in and out. A fourth computer
architecture uses a common data and control bus to interconnect all devices making up
a computer system.
An improvement on the single shared central bus architecture is the dual bus
architecture. This architecture either separates data and control over the two buses or
shares them to increase overall performance.
The computer has evolved from a large—sized simple calculating machine to a smaller
but much more powerful machine. The evolution of computers to the current state is
defined in terms of the generations of computers. Each generation of computers is
designed based on new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper, and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster, and more efficient than their
predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computers. In the following
subsections, we will discuss the generations of computers in terms of:
1. the technology used by them (hardware and software),
2. computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per
second),
3. physical appearance, and
4. their applications.
First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
o Hardware Technology: The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes
for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was
through punched cards and paper tapes. The output was displayed as
printouts.
o Software Technology: The instructions were written in machine language.
Machine language uses 0s and 1s for coding the instructions. The first-
generation computers could solve one problem at a time.
o Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds.
o Physical Appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required
a large room for installation.
o Application: They were used for scientific applications as they were the
fastest computing device of their time.
o Examples: Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC).
The first-generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus
generated a lot of heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive
to operate. The machines were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant
maintenance. Since first-generation computers used machine language, they were
difficult to program.
Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
o Hardware Technology: Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first
generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient, and more reliable. The second-
generation computers used magnetic core technology for primary memory.
They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The
input was still through punched cards and the output using printouts. They
used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in the
memory of a computer.
o Software Technology: The instructions were written using the assembly
language. Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and
SUB for subtraction for coding the instructions. It is easier to write instructions
in assembly language, as compared to writing instructions in machine
language. High-level programming languages, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.
o Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in microseconds.
o Physical Appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum
tubes, thus, the size of the computer was also reduced.
o Application: The cost of commercial production of these computers was very
high, though less than the first-generation computers. The transistors had to
be assembled manually in second-generation computers.
o Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401, and CDC 1604
Second-generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than first-
generation computers. They required less maintenance than the t-generation
computers.
Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits
o Hardware Technology: The third-generation computers used Integrated
Circuit (IC) chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon
chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of an IC chip increased the
speed and the efficiency of the computer, manifold. The keyboard and monitor
were used to interact with the third-generation computer, instead of the
punched card and printouts.
o
o Software Technology: The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through
the operating system. The operating system allowed different applications to
run at the same time. High-level languages were used extensively for
programming, instead of machine language and assembly language.
o Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in
nanoseconds. · Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite
small compared to the second-generation computers.
o Application: Computers became accessible to a mass audience. Computers
were produced commercially and were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors.
o Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.
The third-generation computers used less power and generated less heat than second-
generation computers. The cost of the computer was reduced significantly, as individual
components of the computer were not required to be assembled manually. The
maintenance cost of the computers was also less compared to their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors
o Hardware Technology: They use Large-Scale Integration (LSI) and Large-
Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated
into silicon chips using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of
components to be integrated into a small chip. This era is marked by the
development of microprocessors. The microprocessor is a chip containing
millions of transistors and components, and, is designed using LSI and VLSI
technology. This generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer
(PC). Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory,
resulting in fast random access to memory. Secondary storage devices like
magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in capacity. The
linking of computers is another key development of this era. Computers were
linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This
generation also saw the development of pointing devices like mouse, and
handheld devices.
o Software Technology: Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and
MS- Windows were developed during this time. This generation of computers
supported Graphical User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that
allows users to interact with the computer via menus and icons. High-level
programming languages are used for the writing of programs.
o Computing Characteristics: The computation time is in picoseconds.
o Physical Appearance: They are smaller than the computers of the previous
generation. Some can even fit into the palm.
o Application: They became widely available for commercial purposes.
Personal computers became available to the home user.
o Examples: The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of
the computer like the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located
on a single chip. In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In
1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.
The microprocessor has resulted in fourth-generation computers being smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors. The fourth-generation computers are also portable
and more reliable. They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance
compared to their predecessors. GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and
learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in resource sharing and
communication among different computers.
Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop computers that are capable
of learning and self-organization. The fifth-generation computers use Super Large Scale
Integrated (SLSI) chips that can store millions of components on a single chip. These
computers have large memory requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to
be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster
processing speed. The Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.
In 1982, the fifth-generation computer system was begun by Japan's Ministry of
International Trade and Industry. In this generation, the VLSI technology has advanced
and become ULSI technology, which stands for Ultra Large-Scale Integration. That
means ten million electronic components were used in the production of microprocessor
chips.
The computer made in the fifth generation was created with the help of logic
programming and massively parallel computing. This generation of computers was
based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. Artificial
intelligence can illustrate the means and method of making computers think the same
as human beings. In this generation, all kinds of high-level languages such as C and C+
+, .Net, Java, and more are used.
The primary objective of proposing this system is to achieve progress in artificial
intelligence and include this in a new generation of very powerful computers; so that
these computers can also be used by the common man. The systems that include AI
are being used in numerous real-life applications and provide various benefits. In the
conditions that need knowledge and skills of a type, these systems can perform well in
these types of situations that a human can receive with the help of formal training.
However, they are unable to fit into the situation where the need for tacit knowledge is
where a human can receive the tacit knowledge by communicating in natural language
and concerned with shape and speech recognition.
IBM's Watson, as a contestant featured on the TV show Jeopardy is a more common
example of artificial intelligence in computers. Other more examples that used AI are
Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers, Microsoft's Cortana, and Apple's Siri on the
iPhone. Also, AI is used by the Google search engine to process user searches. Other
examples included: UltraBook, Chromebook, Notebook, Desktop, Laptop, and Play
Videox.
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and
produce output. Computer memory is divided into a large number of small parts known
as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.
Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The
secondary memory (hard disk) is referred to as storage, not memory.
But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:
o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory
Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of
the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the
smallest data-holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data,
instructions, and memory addresses that are to be used by the CPU. They hold
instructions that are currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass
through registers before it can be processed. So, they are used by the CPU to process
the data entered by the users.
Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of a CPU
depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built into the CPU.
Registers can be of different types based on their uses. Some of the widely used
Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the Address Register or AR,
Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.
Types and Functions of Computer Registers:
o Data Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store operands
(variables) to be operated by the processor. It temporarily stores data, which
is being transmitted to or received from a peripheral device.
o Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory location of the
next instruction, which is to be fetched after the current instruction is
completed. So, it is used to maintain the path of execution of the different
programs and thus executes the programs one by one, when the previous
instruction gets completed.
o Instructor Register: It is a 16-bit register. It stores the instruction which is
fetched from the main memory. So, it is used to hold instruction codes, which
are to be executed. The Control Unit takes instruction from the Instructor
Register, then decodes and executes it.
o Accumulator Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store the
results produced by the system. For example, the results generated by the
CPU after the processing are stored in the AC register.
o Address Register: It is a 12-bit register that stores the address of a memory
location where instructions or data is stored in the memory.
o I/O Address Register: Its job is to specify the address of a particular I/O
device.
o I/O Buffer Register: Its job is to exchange the data between an I/O module and
the CPU.
Cache Memory
o Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the
main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary
memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its
performance.
o Cache memory can only be accessed by the CPU. It can be a reserved part of
the main memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and
programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data
is instantly available for the CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other
words, if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in the cache memory, it
doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer
between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system’s performance.
Primary Memory
o Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
RAM (Volatile Memory)
o It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions
permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and instructions
from the hard disk are stored in RAM.
o CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut
down the computer the RAM loses all the data.
ROM (Non-volatile Memory)
o It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that
are written on it at the time of manufacture. So, it is a permanent memory that
contains all important data and instructions needed to perform important tasks
like the boot process.
What is RAM?
o RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory, is a hardware device
generally located on the motherboard of a computer and acts as an internal
memory of the CPU. It allows the CPU to store data, program, and program
results when you switch on the computer. It is the read-and-write memory of a
computer, which means the information can be written to it as well as read
from it.
o RAM is a volatile memory, which means it does not store data or instructions
permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and instructions from
the hard disk are stored in the RAM, e.g., when the computer is rebooted, and
when you open a program, the operating system (OS), and the program are
loaded into RAM, generally from an HDD or SSD. CPU utilizes this data to
perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer, the RAM
loses the data. So, the data remains in the RAM as long as the computer is on
and is lost when the computer is turned off. The benefit of loading data into RAM
is that reading data from the RAM is much faster than reading from the hard
drive.
o In simple words, we can say that RAM is like a person’s short-term memory, and
hard drive storage is like a person's long-term memory. Short-term memory
remembers things for a short duration, whereas long-term memory remembers
for a long duration. Short-term memory can be refreshed with information stored
in the brain’s long-term memory. A computer also works like this; when the RAM
fills up, the processor goes to the hard disk to overlay the old data in Ram with
new data. It is like reusable scratch paper on which you can write notes,
numbers, etc., with a pencil. If you run out of space on the paper, you may erase
what you no longer need; RAM also behaves like this, the unnecessary data on
the RAM is deleted when it fills up, and it is replaced with new data from the hard
disk which is required for the current operations.
RAM comes in the form of a chip that is individually mounted on the motherboard or in
the form of several chips on a small board connected to the motherboard. It is the main
memory of a computer. It is faster to write to and read from as compared to other
memories such as a hard disk drive (HDD), solid-state drive (SSD), optical drive, etc
