GNED 01 ETHICS MORAL STANDARDS AND NON-MORAL

STANDARDS DEFINED
MODULE 1 - Moral standards involve the rules about the kinds
WHAT IS ETHICS? of actions they believe are morally right and wrong,
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies morality as well as the values they place on the kinds of
or the rightness or wrongness of human conduct objects they believe are morally good and morally
bad.
WHAT IS MORALITY? - Non-moral standards refer to rules that are
Morality speaks of a code or system of behaviour in unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Either
regards to standards of right or wrong behaviour. these standards are not necessarily linked to
morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
Some questions that are ethical in nature are:
1. What is the good? THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL
2. Who is a moral person? STANDARDS FURTHER DIFFERENTIATE THEM
3. What are the virtues of a human being? FROM NON-MORAL STANDARDS
4. What makes an act right? What duties do we have a) Moral standards involve serious wrongs or
to each other? significant benefits.
b) Moral standards ought to be preferred to other
Clearly Ethics and morality necessarily carry the values.
concept of moral standards or rules with regard to c) Moral standards are not established by authority
behaviour. So as a way of introducing moral rules, let figures.
us discuss why rules are important to social beings. d) Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
e) Moral standards are based on impartial
1. THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL considerations
BEINGS f) Moral standards are associated with special
What is rules? emotions and vocabulary.
1. Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or
principles governing conduct within a specific activity DILEMMA AND MORAL DILEMMA
or sphere. - The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a
2. Rules tell us what is or is not is allowed in a tough choice has to be made between two or more
particular context or situation. options, especially more or less equally desirable
3. In many ways, rules serve as a foundation for any ones.
healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall - Moral dilemmas are situations in which a difficult
into anarchy. choice has to be made between two courses of
action, either of which entails transgressing a
RULES BENEFIT SOCIAL BEINGS IN VARIOUS moral principle.
MANNERS
A. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour. THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA
B. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights A. Personal dilemmas - are those experienced and
in freedom. resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical
C. Rules produce a sense of justice among social decisions are personally made, many, if not most
beings. of, moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to, this
D. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. level.
B. Organizational Dilemmas - refer to ethical cases
In short, society could not soundly function without encountered and resolved by social organizations.
rules and regulations. Rules are necessary to protect This category includes moral dilemmas in
the greater good. Even the freest societies ought to business, medical field, and public sector.
have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny C. Structural Dilemmas - refer to cases involving
while upholding the common welfare. network of institution and operative theoretical
paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-
2. MORAL VS NON-MORAL STANDARD sectoral institutions and organizations, they may
“Not all rules are moral rules. That is, not all standards be larger in scope and extent than organizational
are moral standards” dilemmas.
- Morality may refer to the standards that a person
or a group has about what is right and wrong, or ONLY HUMAN BEINGS CAN BE ETHICAL
good and evil. a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and
- Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned self-conscious
with or relating to human behaviour, especially the b. Only human beings can act morally or immorally.
distinction between good and bad (or right and c. Only human beings are part of the moral community.
wrong) behaviour.
FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORALITY convention. They mean those things agreed upon by
- Basically, morality is a question of choice. Morality, people, like through their authorities.
practically, is choosing ethical codes, values, or
standards to guide us in our daily lives. Philosophically THEORIES ANALYZED
choosing is impossible without freedom. However, just because something is learned at homes
- Morality requires and allows choice, which means the or school does not necessarily mean that it is a social
right to choose to give to charities, donate time and convention.
money to schools, mentor children, open businesses
or protest against animal cruelty. Mathematical operations, geographical facts, and
scientific laws are also taught in those institutions, yet
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: they are never considered as mere human
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY fabrications. Meaning, whether or not people know and
- Reason as a requirement for morality entails those like them, they are as they are.
human feelings may be important in ethical decisions,
but they ought to be guided by reason. Sound THE PHILOSOPHER C.S LEWIS OFFERS TWO
reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings REASONS FOR SAYING THAT MORALITY
and institutions about moral cases are correct and BELONGS TO THE SAME CLASS AS
defensible. MATHEMATICS
- Impartiality, on the other hand, involves the idea that
each individuals interests and point of view are equally A. Although there are differences between the moral
important. ideas of one time or country and those of another, the
differences are not really very great.
THE MORAL AGENT CULTURE: SOME
DEFINITIONS B. We affirm that the morality of one people is better or
- It is commonly said that culture is all around us. worse than that of another, which means that there is a
Practically, culture appears to be an actual part of moral standard or rule by which we measure both
social life as well as our personality. For some, culture moralities and that standard for real.
is a quality that some people have more than others.
- The term culture is so complex that it is not easy to SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY
define. In one sense, culture is used to denote that Concerning social conditioning theory,’ it can be
which is related to the arts and humanities. But in a observed that when one says that a particular action
broader sense, culture denotes the practices, beliefs, ought or ought not to be done, he/she is not simply
and perception of a given society. echoing social approval or disapproval.
- It is in this sense that culture is often opposed with
savagery,’ that is, being ‘cultured’ is seen as a product CULTURAL RELATIVISM IN ETHICS
of a certain evolvement from a natural state. Cultural relativism is perhaps the most famous form
of moral relativism, a theory in ethics which holds that
THE FOLLOWING ARE OTHER DEFINITIONS OF ethical judgments have their origins either in individual
THE TERM CULTURE or cultural standards.
a. Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of
knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, Moral Relativism fundamentally believes that no act is
meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, good or bad objectively, and there is no single
roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, objective universal standard through which we can
and material objects and possessions acquired by evaluate the
a group of people in the course of generations truth of moral judgments.
through individual and group striving.
b. Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of CULTURAL RELATIVISM: AN ANALYSIS
and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by Valuable lessons from ethical relativism. In proposing
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement that there is no independent standard in ethics, moral
of human groups, including their embodiments in relativism does encourage tolerance. Without a doubt,
artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of tolerance is necessary for people of different cultural
traditional ideas and especially their attached origins to co-exist and live peacefully in society.
values, culture systems may, on the one hand be
considered as products of action, on the other THE THEORY’S ETHICAL FAULTS
hand, as conditioning influences upon further Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and
action. independent decision making in ethics as it requires
unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social
MORAL STANDARD AS SOCIAL CONVENTION norms.
AND THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Theories explained. Logically, cultural relativism is inconsistent in
The things we regard as moral laws (moral standards promoting tolerance while teaching that no culture is
or rules), some purport, are nothing but just social morally
superior or more progressive than others. anchored on at least six basic Filipino values: the
concepts of:
RACHELS’ EVALUATION OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
1. The Cultural Differences Argument. PAKIKISAMA - Is having and maintaining ‘good public
He explains that the cultural relativists’ approach is to relations, ‘This public usually being practiced to avoid
argue from facts about the difference between cultural clash with other people or a certain group. It
outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality. characterizes both a value and a goal that involves
keeping good feelings in all personal interactions and
Different cultures have different moral codes. getting along with others, oftentimes, at all costs.
Therefore, there is no “objective truth” in morality.
Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and HIYA
opinions vary from culture to culture. Is described as a feeling of lowliness, shame or
embarrassment, and inhibition or shyness which is
THE BAD CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL experienced as somewhat distressing. Integrally,
RELATIVISM ’HIYA’ is related to the concept of ‘face’ and a concern
A. We could no longer say that the customs of other with how one appears in the eyes of others.
societies are morally inferior to our own.
B. We could decide whether actions are right or AMOR PROPIO
wrong just by consulting the standards of our - Is derived from the concept of ‘face. ‘Although
society. commonly translated as ‘self-respect’ or ‘self-esteem,’
C. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt. ‘AMOR PROPIO ’has ‘been characterized as the high
degree of sensitivity that’s makes a person intolerant tp
“ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING TO UNIVERSAL criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded
VALUES” pride” (“amor propio,”n.d.). Concerning this Filipino
value, some observe that “Filipino lea to withstand a
ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING: ‘loss of face’ in some situations, particularly when they
- Because culture has a major impact on morality, perceive themselves to be at fault, but it is devastating
people from the different cultures appear to have to be publicity criticized, insulted, belittled, or
seemingly, but not essentially, different sets of ethics. humiliated, or to lose one’s self-respect” (AMOR
- This particularly apparent in ethics of groups of PROPIO,”n.d.).
people from the Eastern or Asian culture as compared - ‘Amor propio’ comes from the person’s tendency to
to those from the Western culture. protect his or her dignity and honor. Because of pride
- Some say that one of the differences between or amor propio, for instance, a person may refuse
eastern (ASIAN)and western ethics is the fact that offers even if he\she really wants to accept them.
Western Ethics is basically about finding truth,
whereas Eastern Ethics is very much about the UTANG NA LOOB
protocol and showing of respect. Asian ethics is said to Is likewise a fundamental aspect of upholding group
be much more about doing what is right in terms of harmony and relationships that demands the balancing
what is expected to some by his family, society and of obligations and debts. This involves the concepts
culture. ‘reciprocity’ or returning the received favor. The
inability to repay “utang na loob” (debt of gratitude)
THIS TABLE SUMMARIZES WHAT ARE usually makes a person “walang utang na loob” or
PERCEIVED AS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN “walang hiya.”To avoid being dubbed as “walang utang
WESTERN ANTD ETHICS (“WESTERN AND na loob,”some Filipinos sometimes do thing that may
EASTERN ETHICS,” N.D.): be bad (like voting for unworthy candidate)

FILIPINO HOSPITALITY
Refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be
courteous and entertaining to their guests. Indeed,
generally speaking, Filipinos are hospitable as they are
internationally known to be warm, welcoming, and
accommodating. This trait, However, makes Filipinos
prone to being abused or maltreated.

FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTH AND RESPECT TO ELDERS

WEAKNESSES - We, Filipinos, are not only respectful to elders, but
Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concern also have unique ways to expressing this respect
social ethics, center on ideally having a ‘smooth to elders. These include the use of ‘opo’ when
interpersonal relationship ‘(SIR) with others. The talking to elders and ‘pagmamano’ or the putting of
definitional of ‘smooth interpersonal relationship’ in the the elder’s hand on one’s forehead. When
Philippines culture is principally supported by an excessive, nonetheless, respect to elders make
 one dependent or irrationally obedient to parents - It is a science of human conduct = it simply treats
or elders. (For further discussion on Filipino moral of human act or any action done by the agent/doer.
character, you may consult the Appendix J: “Human acts make human conduct”.
“Sikolohiyang Pilipin” of this book.) - It is the science of morality of human conduct = it
- These Filipino social values are important to studies human activity to determine what it must be to
maintain harmony in Filipino relationships in social stand in harmony with the dictates of reason.
institutions such as Family, school, and What is the Material Object of Ethics?
community. The ‘smooth interpersonal Material object refers to the subject matter of the
relationship, ‘together with Filipino science, i.e. human acts or human conduct. Any action
‘pakikipagkapwa-tao,’ has been deemed as a done by a moral agent, such as the act of telling the
central core or essential cultural traits that from truth, helping others in distress, fulfilling a promise,
and define an almost stereotypic Filipino character forgiving other’s trespasses, including malicious deeds,
and moral behavior. such as killing, stealing and lying, refers to the material
object of ethics.
UNIVERSAL VALUES
By universal values, we mean those values generally What is the Formal Object of Ethics?
shared by cultures. The existence of the so-called Formal Object Quod refers to the aim or point of view
universal values is a strong proof that cultural that the science employs in studying or dealing with its
relativism is wrong. If certain values exist both in material object, i.e. rectitude/morality of human acts. It
Western and Eastern cultures (including Filipino refers to whether the act done by the doer is right or
culture)despite the distance ,the cultural relativism’s wrong, good or bad.
claim that cultures’ moralities radically differ from each
other is mistaken. IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
- Ethics employs the marvelous faculty of human
ETHICS: CLARIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY reason to answer the supremely important question
Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means what an upright life is and must be. It is, therefore a
“custom”. At times, Ethics is also called Moral Science noble and important science.
or Moral Philosophy because the word moral comes - Ethics furnishes the norm by which relations among
from the Latin term mos (singular) or mores (plural) men are regulated, without it
which means “custom”. Hence, generally speaking, disorder or disharmony prospers.
“ethical” and “moral” and/or “ethics and “morality” can - Ethics provides methods or principles to distinguish
be used interchangeably. But to establish distinction good from bad, right from wrong actions.
between the two, morality points to something personal
and normative, whereas ethics is the standards of DIVISION OF ETHICS
“good and bad” distinguished by a certain community 1. General Ethics presents truth about human acts
or social setting. and from these truths deduces the general principles of
morality.
It is also important to consider how the two terms have 2. Special Ethics is applied ethics. It applies the
been used in discourse in different fields so that we principle of General Ethics in different departments of
can consider the connotations of both terms. For human activity, individual and social.
example, morality has a Christian connotation to many
Westerners, since moral theology is prominent in the ASSUMPTIONS OF ETHICS
church. Similarly, ethics is the term used in conjunction Like any other disciple, ethics proceeds from some
with business, medicine, or law. In these cases, ethics basic assumptions. Assumptions are
serves as a personal code of conduct for people fundamental beliefs or statements that are accepted to
working in those fields, and the ethics themselves are be true without burden of proof or proving. The two
often highly debated and contentious. important and most common assumptions are the
following:
ETHICS AS A SCIENCE
- Ethics is defined as the practical science of the 1. Man is a rational being. This means that man is
morality of human act. rational has a reason and acts with a
- Ethics is a science = it is a complete and purpose. Unlike brutes, they merely act out of instinct
systematically arranged body or data, which relate to and reflex.
the morality of human conduct, and it presents the 2. Man is free. Ethics assumes that man is free to act
reasons which show these data to be true. according to his will and he has the power to act,
- It is a practical science = it presents data, which speak, or think if he chooses to restraint.
directly imply and indicate rules/directions for human
conduct. If the data of a science enrich the mind FORMS OF ETHICAL ANALYSIS
without directly implying rules or directions, the science 1. Descriptive = aims to discover what moral beliefs
is called speculative. A speculative science presents are held by a given society, social group or social
truths that are to be known; a practical science organization.
presents truths that are to be acted upon.
2. Normative = examines the standard for the
rightness or wrongness of actions. It deals with what
makes an action right or wrong.

MAJOR NORMATIVE ETHICS

1. Teleological Ethics (Consequentialist) =
maintains that the morality of an action is determined
solely by its consequences.

2. Deontological Ethics (Non-consequentialist) =

assert that the morality of an action depends on its
intrinsic nature, its motives or its rules and principles.

3. Authoritarian Ethics = appeals the morality of an

action to authority force in determining what constitute
right from wrong, good from bad, moral from immoral.

4. Theological Ethics = holds that the will of God

determines the rightness and wrongness of an act

5. Legalistic Ethics = determines right from wrong,

based on a body of clearly state and well-documented
body of laws.

6. Situational Ethics = asserts that the morality of an

action depends on the situation and not the application
of moral laws to the case.

In general, Ethics is about matters such as the good

thing that we should pursue and the bad thing that we
should avoid; the right ways in which we could or
should act and the wrongs ways of acting. It is about
what is acceptable and unacceptable in human
behaviour.