Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course : Union Public Service Commission Examinations

Subject : Geography
Topic : Physical Geography of the World

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 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

Early Theories

 A large number of hypotheses were put forth by different philosophers and scientists
regarding the origin of the earth.
 One of the earlier and popular arguments was by German philosopher Immanuel Kant.
Mathematician Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as Nebular Hypothesis. The
hypothesis considered that the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated
with a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
 Later in 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the
sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar
surface. As the passing star moved away, the material separated from the solar surface
continued to revolve around the sun and it slowly condensed into planets.
 Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument. At a later date, the
arguments considered of a companion to the sun to have been coexisting. These
arguments are called binary theories.
 In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the
‘nebular hypothesis’, though differing in details. They considered that the sun was
surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly the hydrogen and helium along with what
may be termed as dust. The friction and collision of particles led to formation of a disk-
shaped cloud and the planets were formed through the process of accretion.

Modern Theories
 However, scientists in later period took up the problems of origin of universe
rather than that of just the earth or the planets. The most popular argument
regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also called
expanding universe hypothesis.
 Edwin Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding. As
time passes, galaxies move further and further apart. You can experiment and find

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 what does the expanding universe mean. Scientists believe that though the space
between the galaxies is increasing, observations do not support the expansion of
galaxies. So, the balloon example is only partially correct.

The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the development of the universe.
(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a
“tiny ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and
infinite density.
(ii) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is
now generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the
present. The expansion continues even to the present day. As it grew, some energy was
converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after
the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within first three minutes from the Big
Bang event, the first atom began to form.
(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K and gave
rise to atomic matter. The universe became transparent. The expansion of universe
means increase in space between the galaxies. An alternative to this was Hoyle’s concept of
steady state. It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time. However,
with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding universe.

The Star Formation

 The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early universe.
 These initial density differences gave rise to differences in gravitational forces
and it caused the matter to get drawn together.
 These formed the bases for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains a large
number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in
thousands of light-years.
 The diameters of individual galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light years. A
galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large
cloud called nebula.

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  Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These clumps
continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of
stars. The formation of stars is believed to have taken place some 5-6 billion years
ago.

Formation of Planets
The following are considered to be the stages in the development of planets :
(i) The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within the
lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and dust
develops around the gas core.
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the
core develops into small rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of
cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by collision, and
gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together. Planetesimals are a large number of
smaller bodies.
(iii) In the final stage, these large number of small planetesimals accrete to form a fewer
large bodies in the form of planets.

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

 Our Solar system consists of nine planets. The tenth planet 2003 UB313 has also been
recently sighted.
 The nebula from which our Solar system is supposed to have been formed, started its
collapse and core formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and the planets were
formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 9
planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantity
of dust-grains and gases.
 Out of the nine planets, mercury, venus, earth and mars are called as the inner planets as
they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids the other five planets are called the
outer planets.
 Alternatively, the first four are called Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made up
of rock and metals, and have relatively high densities. The rest five are called Jovian or

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 Gas Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most of them are much larger than the
terrestrial planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
 All the planets were formed in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion years ago.

The difference between terrestrial and jovian planets can be attributed to the following
conditions:

(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too
warm for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at quite a distant
location.
(ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the
terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases
from the Jovian planets.
(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping gases.

The Moon
 The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. Like the origin of the earth, there have
been attempts to explain how the moon was formed.
 In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped body and
eventually it broke. It was also suggested that the material forming the moon was
separated from what we have at present the depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean.
 However, the present scientists do not accept either of the explanations. It is now
generally believed that the formation of moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of
‘giant impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”. A body of the size of one to three
times that of mars collided into the earth sometime shortly after the earth was formed. It
blasted a large part of the earth into space.
 This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed
into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.

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EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

 The earth has a layered structure. From the outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre
of the earth, the material that exists is not uniform.
 The atmospheric matter has the least density. From the surface to deeper depths, the
earth’s interior has different zones and each of these contains materials with different
characteristics.

Development of Lithosphere
 The earth was mostly in a volatile state during its primordial stage.
 Due to gradual increase in density the temperature inside has increased. As a result the
material inside started getting separated depending on their densities.
 This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink towards the centre of the earth and the
lighter ones to move towards the surface. With passage of time it cooled further and
solidified and condensed into a smaller size.
 This later led to the development of the outer surface in the form of a crust. During the
formation of the moon, due to the giant impact, the earth was further heated up. It is
through the process of differentiation that the earth forming material got separated into
different layers.
 Starting from the surface to the central parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle, outer
core and inner core. From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases.

Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

 The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and
oxygen.
 The first stage is marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere. In the second stage, the
hot interior of the earth contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
 Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was modified by the living world through the
process of photosynthesis.
 The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is supposed to have been stripped off
as a result of the solar winds.

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  This happened not only in case of the earth, but also in all the terrestrial planets, which
were supposed to have lost their primordial atmosphere through the impact of solar
winds. During the cooling of the earth, gases and water vapour were released from the
interior solid earth.
 This started the evolution of the present atmosphere. The early atmosphere largely
contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very little of
free oxygen. The process through which the gases were outpoured from the interior is
called degassing.
 Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapour and gases to the atmosphere. As
the earth cooled, the water vapour released started getting condensed.
 The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature
further decreased causing more condensation and more rains.
 The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the depressions to give rise to
oceans. The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million years from the formation of
the earth. This tells us that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million years.
 Sometime around 3,800 million years ago, life began to evolve. However, around 2,500-
3,000 million years before the present, the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
 Oceans began to have the contribution of oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen
began to flood the atmosphere.
Origin of Life
 The last phase in the evolution of the earth relates to the origin and evolution of life. It is
undoubtedly clear that the initial or even the atmosphere of the earth was not conducive
for the development of life.
 Modern scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction, which first
generated complex organic molecules and assembled them. This assemblage was such
that they could duplicate themselves converting inanimate matter into living substance.
 The record of life that existed on this planet in different periods is found in rocks in the
form of fossils.

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 The microscopic structures closely related to the present form of blue algae have been
found in geological formations that are much older than these were some 3,000 million
years ago. It can be assumed that life began to evolve sometime 3,800 million years ago.

8
 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR

The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. No one can reach the centre of the earth and make
observations or collect samples of the material. Most of our knowledge about the interior of the
earth is largely based on estimates and inferences. Yet, a part of the information is obtained
through direct observations and analysis of materials.

Direct Sources
 The most easily available solid earth material is surface rock or the rocks we get from
mining areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep as 3 - 4 km.
 Besides mining, scientists have taken up a number of projects to penetrate deeper depths
to explore the conditions in the crustal portions.
 Scientists world over are working on two major projects such as “Deep Ocean Drilling
Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”.
 The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km. This and
many deep drilling projects have provided large volume of information through the
analysis of materials collected at different depths.
 Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information. As and when the
molten material (magma) is thrown onto the surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption
it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
 However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of the source of such magma.

Indirect Sources
 Analysis of properties of matter indirectly provides information about the interior. We
know through the mining activity that temperature and pressure increase with the
increasing distance from the surface towards the interior in deeper depths.
 Moreover, it is also known that the density of the material also increases with depth. It is
possible to find the rate of change of these characteristics.
 Knowing the total thickness of the earth, scientists have estimated the values of
temperature, pressure and the density of materials at different depths.

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  Another source of information is the meteors that at times reach the earth. However, it
may be noted that the material that becomes available for analysis from meteors, is not
from the interior of the earth.
 The material and the structure observed in the meteors are similar to that of the earth.
They are solid bodies developed out of materials same as, or similar to, our planet.
Hence, this becomes yet another source of information about the interior of the earth.
 The other indirect sources include gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity. The
gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near
the poles and less at the equator.
 This is because of the distance from the centre at the equator being greater than that at the
poles. The gravity values also differ according to the mass of material. The uneven
distribution of mass of material within the earth influences this value. The reading of the
gravity at different places is influenced by many other factors. These readings differ from
the expected values. Such a difference is called gravity anomaly.
 Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass of the material in
the crust of the earth. Magnetic surveys also provide information about the distribution of
magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and thus, provide information about the
distribution of materials in this part.
 Seismic activity is one of the most important sources of information about the interior of
the earth.

EARTHQUAKE
The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior. An
earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to
release of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.

Why does the earth shake?

The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks
along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press them, the
friction locks them together. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time
overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one
another abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.
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The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is
called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface. The
point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicenter. It is the first one to experience the
waves. It is a point directly above the focus.

Earthquake Waves
 All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere. It is sufficient to note here that the
lithosphere refers to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the surface of the earth. An
instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.
 Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called
surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities.
 There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.
 P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called
‘primary waves’. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous,
liquid and solid materials.
 S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves. An
important fact about S-waves is that they can travel only through solid materials. This
characteristic of the S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the
structure of the interior of the earth.
 Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different
directions. The variations in the direction of waves are inferred with the help of their
record on seismograph. The surface waves are the last to report on seismograph.
 These waves are more destructive. They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the
collapse of structures occurs.

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 Fig. Earthquake Waves

Propagation of Earthquake Waves

 Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or

propagate, they cause vibration in the body of the rocks through which they pass. P-
waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.
 This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of the propagation. As a result, it
creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
material. Other three waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the
vertical plane.
 Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass. Surface
waves are considered to be the most damaging waves.

Emergence of Shadow Zone

 Earthquake waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations. However,
there exist some specific areas where the waves are not reported. Such a zone is called
the ‘shadow zone’.

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 The study of different events reveals that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether
different shadow zone. It was observed that seismographs located at any distance within
105° from the epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
 However, the seismographs located beyond 145° from epicenter, record the arrival of P-
waves, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from epicenter was
identified as the shadow zone for both the types of waves.
 The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is
much larger than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band
around the earth between 105° and 145° away from the epicenter.
 The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but it is also a little over 40 per
cent of the earth surface.
 In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
 Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
 The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir
induced earthquakes.

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 Fig. Earthquake Shadow zones

Measuring Earthquakes

 The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale.
 The magnitude relates to the energy released during the quake. The magnitude is
expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10. The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an
Italian seismologist.
 The intensity scale takes into account the visible damage caused by the event. The range
of intensity scale is from 1-12.

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EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
(viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami

The first six listed above have some bearings upon landforms, while others may be
considered the effects causing immediate concern to the life and properties of people in the
region. The effect of tsunami would occur only if the epicenter of the tremor is below oceanic
waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves generated by the tremors and
not an earthquake in itself. Though the actual quake activity lasts for a few seconds, its effects
are devastating provided the magnitude of the quake is more than 5 on the Richter scale.

Frequency of Earthquake Occurrences

The earthquake is a natural hazard. If a tremor of high magnitude takes place, it can cause
heavy damage to the life and property of people. However, not all the parts of the globe
necessarily experience major shocks. the quakes of high magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they
occur once in 1-2 years whereas those of ‘tiny’ types occur almost every minute.

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STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The Crust
 It is the outermost solid part of the earth. It is brittle in nature.
 The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas. Oceanic crust is
thinner as compared to the continental crust.
 The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30
km. The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much
as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region.
 It is made up of heavier rocks having density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found in the
oceanic crust is basalt. The mean density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.

Fig. Interior of the Earth

The Mantle
 The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle. The mantle extends from
Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
 The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. The word astheno means weak.
It is considered to be extending upto 400 km. It is the main source of magma that finds its
way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.
 It has a density higher than the crust (3.4 g/cm3). The crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle are called lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km.

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  The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid state.

The Core
 The earthquake wave velocities helped in understanding the existence of the core of the
earth. The core mantle boundary is located at the depth of 2,900 km.
 The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state. The density of
material at the mantle core boundary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of the earth at
6,300 km, the density value is around 13g/cm3.
 The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron. It is
sometimes referred to as the nife layer.

VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

 A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to
the ground. A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials mentioned are being
released or have been released out in the recent past.
 The layer below the solid crust is mantle. It has higher density than that of the crust. The
mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere.
 It is from this that the molten rock materials find their way to the surface. The material in
the upper mantle portion is called magma.
 Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic
bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and
minor amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.

Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature of eruption and the form developed at the
surface.

Major types of volcanoes are as follows:

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Shield Volcanoes
Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the
earth. The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples. These volcanoes are mostly made
up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are
not steep. They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are
characterised by low-explosivity. The upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain and throws
out the cone at the top of the vent and develops into cinder cone.
Composite Volcanoes
These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than
basalt. These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large quantities of
pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground. This material accumulates in the
vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of layers, and this makes the mounts appear as
composite volcanoes.

Caldera
These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that
when they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure. The
collapsed depressions are called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that the magma chamber
supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in close vicinity.

Flood Basalt Provinces

These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances. Some parts of the
world are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of
flows with some flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend for
hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra
plateau, are a much larger flood basalt province. It is believed that initially the trap formations
covered a much larger area than the present.
Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more
than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion of this ridge
experiences frequent eruptions.

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VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Intrusive Forms
 The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks. The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava is
still in the crustal portion.
 Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as
volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).
 The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are
called intrusive forms.
Fig. Volcanic Landforms

Batholiths
 A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in
the form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational
processes remove the overlying materials.
 They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km. These are
granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths
 These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-
like conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano,
only these are located at deeper depths.

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  It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way to the surface. The
Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now
exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths or batholiths.

Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills

 As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms.
In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
 A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of
anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to
source beneath in the form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths).
These are called the phacoliths.
 The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
depending on the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are called sheets while the
thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

Dykes
 When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it
solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in the same position to
develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes.
 These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the
Deccan traps.

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 DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
From the known records of the history of science, it was Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch map
maker, who first proposed such a possibility as early as 1596. Antonio Pellegrini drew a map
showing the three continents together. However, it was Alfred Wegener—a German
meteorologist who put forth a comprehensive argument in the form of “the continental drift
theory” in 1912. This was regarding the distribution of the oceans and the continents. According
to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass, a mega ocean surrounded by the
same. The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth. The mega-ocean was
called PANTHALASSA, meaning all water. He argued that, around 200 million years ago, the
super continent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses as
Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern components respectively.
Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various smaller continents
that exist today. A variety of evidence was offered in support of the continental drift.

Some of these are given below.

Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift
The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit) the shorelines of Africa and South America
facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match. It may be noted that a map
produced using a computer programme to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin was presented
by Bullard in 1964. It proved to be quite perfect. The match was tried at 1,000- fathom line
instead of the present shoreline.

Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans

The radiometric dating methods developed in the recent period have facilitated
correlating the rock formation from different continents across the vast ocean. The belt of ancient
rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa. The
earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic age.
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior to that time.

21
Tillite
It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system of
sediments from India is known to have its counter parts in six different landmasses of the
Southern Hemisphere. At the base the system has thick tillite indicating extensive and prolonged
glaciation. Counter parts of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar,
Antarctica and Australia besides India. Overall resemblance of the Gondawana type sediments
clearly demonstrates that these landmasses had remarkably similar histories. The glacial tillite
provides unambiguous evidence of palaeo-climates and also of drifting of continents.

Placer Deposits
The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast and the absolute
absence of source rock in the region is an amazing fact. The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and
it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two
continents lay side by side.

Distribution of Fossils
When identical species of plants and animals adapted to living on land or in fresh water
are found on either side of the marine barriers, a problem arises regarding accounting for such
distribution. The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to
consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus was a
small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water.
The skeletons of these are found only in two localities : the Southern Cape province of
South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart
with an ocean in between them.

Force for Drifting

Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was
caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the
earth. You are aware of the fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at the equator.
This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth.
The second force that was suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due to the
attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener believed that
22
these forces would become effective when applied over many million years. However, most of
scholars considered these forces to be totally inadequate.

Post-Drift Studies
It is interesting to note that for continental drift, most of the evidence was collected from
the continental areas in the form of distribution of flora and fauna or deposits like tillite. A
number of discoveries during the post-war period added new information to geological literature.
Particularly, the information collected from the ocean floor mapping provided new
dimensions for the study of distribution of oceans and continents.

Convectional Current Theory

Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents operating in the
mantle portion. These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal
differences in the mantle portion. Holmes argued that there exists a system of such currents in
the entire mantle portion. This was an attempt to provide an explanation to the issue of force, on
the basis of which contemporary scientists discarded the continental drift theory.

Mapping of the Ocean Floor

Expeditions to map the oceanic floor in the post-war period provided a detailed picture of
the ocean relief and indicated the existence of submerged mountain ranges as well as deep
trenches, mostly located closer to the continent margins. The mid-oceanic ridges were found to
be most active in terms of volcanic eruptions.
The dating of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed the fact that the latter is much
younger than the continental areas. Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic ridges and having
equidistant locations from the crest were found to have remarkable similarities both in terms of
their constituents and their age.

Ocean Floor Configuration

The ocean floor may be segmented into three major divisions based on the depth as well
as the forms of relief. These divisions are continental margins, deep-sea basins and mid-ocean
ridges.
23
Continental Margins

These form the transition between continental shores and deep-sea basins. They include
continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise and deep-oceanic trenches. Of these, the
deep-sea trenches are the areas which are of considerable interest in so far as the distribution of
oceans and continents is concerned.

Abyssal Plains

These are extensive plains that lie between the continental margins and mid-oceanic
ridges. The abyssal plains are the areas where the continental sediments that move beyond the
margins get deposited.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges

This forms an interconnected chain of mountain system within the ocean. It is the longest
mountain-chain on the surface of the earth though submerged under the oceanic waters. It is
characterised by a central rift system at the crest, a fractionated plateau and flank zone all along
its length.
The rift system at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic activity. In the previous
chapter, you have been introduced to this type of volcanoes as mid oceanic volcanoes.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

A line of dots are in the central parts of the Atlantic Ocean almost parallel to the
coastlines. It further extends into the Indian Ocean. It bifurcates a little south of the Indian
subcontinent with one branch moving into East Africa and the other meeting a similar line from
Myanmar to New Guiana.

The shaded belt showing another area of concentration coincides with the Alpine-
Himalayan system and the rim of the Pacific Ocean. In general, the foci of the earthquake in the
areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths whereas along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as
well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones. The map of volcanoes also

24
shows a similar pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also called rim of fire due to the existence of
active volcanoes in this area.

CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING

The post-drift studies provided considerable information that was not available at the
time Wegener put forth his concept of continental drift. Particularly, the mapping of the ocean
floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed the following facts:
(i) It was realised that all along the mid-oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are common and they
bring huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
(ii) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable
similarities in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and magnetic properties.
Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are normal polarity and are the youngest. The age of the
rocks increases as one moves away from the The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the
continental rocks. The age of rocks in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than 200 million years
old. Some of the continental rock formations are as old as 3,200 million years.
(iv)The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were expecting, if the
ocean floors were as old as the continent, to have a complete sequence of sediments for a period
of much longer duration. However, nowhere was the sediment column found to be older than
200 million years.
(v) The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the midoceanic ridge
areas, the quake foci have shallow depths. These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
properties of the rocks on either sides of the mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose his
hypothesis, known as the “sea floor spreading”. Hess argued that constant eruptions at the crest
of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new lava wedges into it, pushing
the oceanic crust on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads. The younger age of the oceanic
crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the other,
made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust. He further maintained that the
ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the
oceanic trenches and gets consumed.

25
 Fig. Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes

PLATE TECTONICS
Since the advent of the concept of sea floor spreading, the interest in the problem of
distribution of oceans and continents was revived. It was in 1967, McKenzie and Parker and also
Morgan, independently collected the available ideas and came out with another concept termed
Plate Tectonics. A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped
slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plates move
horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying
between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas. A plate may be
referred to as the continental plate or oceanic plate depending on which of the two occupy a
larger portion of the plate.
Pacific plate is largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be called a
continental plate. The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided
into seven major and some minor plates. Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or faults
surround these major plates.
The major plates are as follows :
(i) Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic Plate
26
(ii) North American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the South American plate along
the Caribbean islands) plate
(iii) South American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the North American plate along
the Caribbean islands) plate
(iv) Pacific plate
(v) India-Australia-New Zealand plate
(vi) Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
(vii) Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
Some important minor plates are listed below:
(i) Cocos plate : Between Central America and Pacific plate
(ii) Nazca plate : Between South America and Pacific plate
(iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian land mass
(iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
(v) Caroline plate : Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
(vi) Fuji plate : North-east of Australia.
These plates have been constantly moving over the globe throughout the history of the
earth. It is not the continent that moves as believed by Wegener. Continents are part of a plate
and what moves is the plate.
Moreover, it may be noted that all the plates, without exception, have moved in the
geological past, and shall continue to move in the future period as well. Wegener had thought of
all the continents to have initially existed as a super continent in the form of Pangaea.

27
 Fig. Major and minor plates of the world

However, later discoveries reveal that the continental masses, resting on the plates, have
been wandering all through the geological period, and Pangaea was a result of converging of
different continental masses that were parts of one or the other plates. Scientists using the
palaeomagnetic data have determined the positions held by each of the present continental
landmass in different geological periods. Position of the Indian sub-continent (mostly Peninsular
India) is traced with the help of the rocks analysed from the Nagpur area. There are three types
of plate boundaries:

Divergent Boundaries
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. The sites where the
plates move away from each other are called spreading sites. The best-known example of
divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated
from the Eurasian and African Plates.

Convergent Boundaries
Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another. The location where
sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. There are three ways in which convergence
28
can occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and continental plate; (ii) between two oceanic
plates; and (iii) between two continental plates.
Transform Boundaries
Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past
each other. Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid-
oceanic ridges. As the eruptions do not take all along the entire crest at the same time, there is a
differential movement of a portion of the plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the rotation
of the earth has its effect on the separated blocks of the plate portions.

Rates of Plate Movement

The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help
scientists determine the rates of plate movement. These rates vary considerably. The Arctic
Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in
the South Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile, has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).

Force for the Plate Movement

At the time that Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift, most scientists believed
that the earth was a solid, motionless body. However, concepts of sea floor spreading and the
unified theory of plate tectonics have emphasised that both the surface of the earth and the
interior are not static and motionless but are dynamic.
The fact that the plates move is now a well-accepted fact. The mobile rock beneath the
rigid plates is believed to be moving in a circular manner. The heated material rises to the
surface, spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper depths. This cycle is
repeated over and over to generate what scientists call a convection cell or convective flow.
Heat within the earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual heat.
Arthur Holmes first considered this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced Harry Hess’
thinking about seafloor spreading. The slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below
the rigid plates is the driving force behind the plate movement.

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MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE
The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of
continent— continent convergence. In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
Myanmar towards the island arc along the Java Trench.
The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of Australia in the form of an
oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It
further extends along the Makrana coast and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift
southeastward along the Chagos Archipelago. The boundary between India and the Antarctic
plate is also marked by oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in roughly W-E direction and
merging into the spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
India was a large island situated off the Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys Sea
separated it from the Asian continent till about 225 million years ago. India is supposed to have
started her northward journey about 200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea broke. India
collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas.
The positions of India since about 71 million years till the present . It also shows the
position of the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate. About 140 million years before the
present, the subcontinent was located as south as 50oS. latitude. The two major plates were
separated by the Tethys Sea and the Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic landmass.
During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that
occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps.
This started somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period of
time. Note that the subcontinent was still close to the equator. From 40 million years ago and
thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas took place. Scientists believe that the process
is still continuing and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.

30
 Fig. Movement of the Indian Plate

LANDFORMS
MINERALS AND ROCKS
The earth is composed of various kinds of elements. These elements are in solid form in
the outer layer of the earth and in hot and molten form in the interior.
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium , and the rest is
constituted by titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other
elements.
The elements in the earth’s crust are rarely found exclusively but are usually combined
with other elements to make various substances. These substances are recognised as minerals.
31
Though the numbers of elements making up the lithosphere are limited they are combined in
many different ways to make up many varieties of minerals.
There are at least 2,000 minerals that have been named and identified in the earth crust;
but almost all the commonly occurring ones are related to six major mineral groups that are
known as major rock forming minerals. The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the
interior of the earth.
When magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and a systematic series of minerals are
formed in sequence to solidify so as to form rocks. Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural
gas are organic substances found in solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
A brief information about some important minerals in terms of their nature and physical
characteristics is given below :

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(i) External crystal form — determined by internal arrangement of the molecules — cubes,
octahedrons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
(ii) Cleavage — tendency to break in given directions producing relatively plane surfaces —
result of internal arrangement of the molecules — may cleave in one or more directions and at
any angle to each other.
(iii) Fracture — internal molecular arrangement so complex there are no planes of molecules; the
crystal will break in an irregular manner, not along planes of cleavage.
(iv) Lustre — appearance of a material without regard to colour; each mineral has a distinctive
lustre like metallic, silky, glossy etc.
(v) Colour — some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular structure
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., and some minerals are coloured by impurities. For example,
because of impurities quartz may be white, green, red, yellow etc.
(vi) Streak — colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be of the same colour as the
mineral or may differ — malachite is green and gives green streak, fluorite is purple or green but
gives a white streak.
(vii) Transparency — transparent: light rays pass through so that objects can be seen plainly;
translucent — light rays pass through but will get diffused so that objects cannot be seen; opaque
— light will not pass at all.

32
(viii) Structure — particular arrangement of the individual crystals; fine, medium or coarse
grained; fibrous — separable, divergent, radiating.
(ix) Hardness — relative resistance being scratched; ten minerals are selected to measure the
degree of hardness from 1-10.
They are:
1. talc;
2. gypsum;
3. calcite;
4. fluorite;
5. apatite;
6. feldspar;
7. quartz;
8. topaz;
9. corundum;
10. diamond.
Compared to this for example, a fingernail is 2.5 and glass or knife blade is 5.5.
(x) Specific gravity — the ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of an equal
volume of water; object weighed in air and then weighed in water and divide weight in air by the
difference of the two weights.

SOME MAJOR MINERALS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Feldspar
Silicon and oxygen are common elements in all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium,
calcium, aluminium etc. are found in specific feldspar variety. Half of the earth’s crust is
composed of feldspar. It has light cream to salmon pink colour. It is used in ceramics and glass
making.

Quartz
It is one of the most important components of sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a
hard mineral virtually insoluble in water. It is white or colourless and used in radio and radar. It
is one of the most important components of granite.

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Pyroxene
Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum, magnesium, iron and silica. Pyroxene forms 10
per cent of the earth’s crust. It is commonly found in meteorites. It is in green or black colour.

Amphibole
Aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium are the major elements of amphiboles. They
form 7 per cent of the earth’s crust. It is in green or black colour and is used in asbestos industry.
Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.

Mica
It comprises of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica etc. It forms 4 per cent of
the earth’s crust. It is commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is used in electrical
instruments.

Olivine
Magnesium, iron and silica are major elements of olivine. It is used in jewellery. It is
usually a greenish crystal, often found in basaltic rocks. Besides these main minerals, other
minerals like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, haematite, bauxite and barite are also present in some
quantities in the rocks.

Metallic Minerals
These minerals contain metal content and can be sub-divided into three types:
(i) Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum etc.
(ii) Ferrous metals: iron and other metals often mixed with iron to form various kinds of steel.
(iii) Non-ferrous metals: include metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc.

Non-Metallic Minerals
These minerals do not contain metal content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are
examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture of non-metallic minerals.

34
ROCKS
The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
Rock may be hard or soft and in varied colours. For example, granite is hard, soapstone is soft.
Gabbro is black and quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not have definite composition of
mineral constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks. There
are many different kinds of rocks which are grouped under three families on the basis of their
mode of formation. They are:
(i) Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava;
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes;
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing re-crystallisation.

Igneous Rocks
As igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth, they are
known as primary rocks. The igneous rocks (Ignis – in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed when
magma cools and solidifies. When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid
form it is called igneous rock.
The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the earth’s crust or on the surface
of the earth. Igneous rocks are classified based on texture. Texture depends upon size and
arrangement of grains or other physical conditions of the materials.
If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains. Intermediate conditions of
cooling would result in intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro,
pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which means
settling. Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are exposed to
denudational agents, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments. Such fragments are
transported by different exogenous agencies and deposited. These deposits through compaction
turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits retain their characteristics even after
lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like

35
sandstone, shale etc. Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified
into three major groups:

(i) mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
examples;
(ii) organically formed— geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples;
(iii) chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, potash etc.
are some examples.

Metamorphic Rocks
The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. These rocks form under the action of
pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced
down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust
comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected to great amounts of
pressure by overlying rocks.
Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo re-
crystallisation and re-organisation of materials within original rocks. Mechanical disruption and
reorganization of the original minerals within rocks due to breaking and crushing without any
appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic metamorphism.
The materials of rocks chemically alter and re-crystallise due to thermal metamorphism.
There are two types of thermal metamorphism — contact metamorphism and regional
metamorphism. In contact metamorphism the rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma
and lava and the rock materials re-crystallise under high temperatures. Quite often new materials
form out of magma or lava are added to the rocks. In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo re-
crystallisation due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing together with high temperature or
pressure or both.
In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers
or lines. Such an arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or
lineation. Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin
to thick layers appearing in light and dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is
called banding and rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks.

36
 Types of metamorphic rocks depend upon original rocks that were subjected to
metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major groups — foliated rocks and
non-foliated rocks. Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some
examples of metamorphic rocks.

ROCK CYCLE
Rocks do not remain in their original form for long but may undergo transformation.
Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form from
these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks.
The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
rocks. Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into fragments and the fragments can be a source
for formation of sedimentary rocks.
The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) once formed may be carried
down into the mantle (interior of the earth) through subduction process (parts or whole of crustal
plates going down under another plate in zones of plate convergence) and the same melt down
due to increase in temperature in the interior and turn into molten magma, the original source for
igneous rocks.

37
 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

Why is the surface of the earth uneven?

First of all, the earth’s crust is dynamic. The differences in the internal forces operating
from within the earth which built up the crust have been responsible for the variations in the
outer surface of the crust. The earth’s surface is being continuously subjected to external forces
induced basically by energy (sunlight). Of course, the internal forces are still active though with
different intensities. That means, the earth’s surface is being continuously subjected to by
external forces originating within the earth’s atmosphere and by internal forces from within the
earth.
The external forces are known as exogenic forces and the internal forces are known as
endogenic forces. The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down (degradation) of
relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of basins/depressions, on the earth’s surface.
The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth through
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic forces continuously elevate or build up parts of
the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic processes fail to even out the relief variations of the
surface of the earth. So, variations remain as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
endogenic forces continue.
In general terms, the endogenic forces are mainly land building forces and the exogenic
processes are mainly land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is sensitive. Humans depend
on it for their sustenance and have been using it extensively and intensively. So, it is essential to
understand its nature in order to use it effectively without disturbing its balance and diminishing
its potential for the future.
Almost all organisms contribute to sustain the earth’s environment. However, humans
have caused over use of resources. Use we must, but must also leave it potential enough to
sustain life through the future.
Most of the surface of the earth had and has been shaped over very long periods of time
(hundreds and thousands of years) and because of its use and misuse by humans its potential is
being diminished at a fast rate. If the processes which shaped and are shaping the surface of the
earth into varieties of forms (shapes) and the nature of materials of which it is composed of, are
understood, precautions can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects of human use and to
preserve it for posterity.

38
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on
earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are
known as geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic
processes. These have already been discussed in brief in the preceding unit. Weathering, mass
wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes.

Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and
transporting earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent. When these elements of nature
become mobile due to gradients, they remove the materials and transport them over slopes and
deposit them at lower level.

Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless stated

separately, are one and the same. A process is a force applied on earth materials affecting the
same. An agent is a mobile medium (like running water, moving ice masses, wind, waves and
currents etc.) which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. Running water,
groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can be called geomorphic agents.
Gravity besides being a directional force activating all downslope movements of matter
also causes stresses on the earth’s materials. Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and tide
induced currents and winds. Without gravity and gradients there would be no mobility and hence
no erosion, transportation and deposition are possible. So, gravitational stresses are as important
as the other geomorphic processes.
Gravity is the force that is keeping us in contact with the surface and it is the force that
switches on the movement of all surface material on earth. All the movements either within the
earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients — from higher levels to lower levels,
from high pressure to low pressure areas etc.

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic
geomorphic processes. This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal

39
friction and primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This energy due to geothermal gradients
and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness
and strength, the action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled
original crustal surface is uneven.

Diastrophism
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. They include:
(i) orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long
and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
(ii) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust;
(iii) earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements;
(iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
In the process of orogeny, the crust is severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny,
there may be simple deformation.
Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental building
process.
Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can
be faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these processes cause pressure, volume and
temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.

Volcanism
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s
surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES
The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate
energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors. Gravitational force acts
upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to produce movement of matter in
down slope direction. Force applied per unit area is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid by
pushing or pulling. This induces deformation.
40
 Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces). It is
this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials. The shear stresses result in angular
displacement or slippage.
Besides the gravitational stress earth materials become subjected to molecular stresses
that may be caused by a number of factors amongst which temperature changes, crystallisation
and melting are the most common.
Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of
soluble minerals or cementing materials. Thus, the basic reason that leads to weathering, mass
movements, earth’s surface the exogenic geomorphic processes vary from region to region.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various
processes. All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation.
The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.

Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in

denudation processes and their respective driving forces. It should become clear from this chart
that for each process there exists a distinct driving force or energy. As there are different climatic
regions on the earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients created by latitudinal, seasonal and
land and water spread variations, the exogenic geomorphic processes vary from region to region.
The density, type and distribution of vegetation which largely depend upon

Fig. Denudational process and their driving forces

41
indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes. Within different climatic regions there may be
local variations of the effects of different climatic elements due to altitudinal differences, aspect
variations and the variation in the amount of insolation received by north and south facing slopes
as compared to east and west facing slopes.
Further, due to differences in wind velocities and directions, amount and kind of
precipitation, its intensity, the relation between precipitation and evaporation, daily range of
temperature, freezing and thawing frequency, depth of frost penetration, the geomorphic
processes vary within any climatic region.
Climatic factors being equal, the intensity of action of exogenic geomorphic processes
depends upon type and structure of rocks. The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as
folds, faults, orientation and inclination of beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding planes,
hardness or softness of constituent minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents; the
permeability or impermeability etc. Different types of rocks with differences in their structure
offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes.
A particular rock may be resistant to one process and nonresistant to another. And, under
varying climatic conditions, particular rocks may exhibit different degrees of resistance to
geomorphic processes and hence they operate at differential rates and give rise to differences in
topography.
The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow and may be
imperceptible in a short time span, but will in the long run affect the rocks severely due to
continued fatigue.
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the differences on the surface of the earth though
originally related to the crustal evolution continue to exist in some form or the other due to
differences in the type and structure of earth materials, differences in geomorphic processes and
in their rates of operation.

WEATHERING
Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials. There are a
number of processes within weathering which act either individually or together to affect the
earth materials in order to reduce them to fragmental state. Weathering processes are conditioned
by many complex geological, climatic, topographic and vegetative factors. Climate is of

42
particular importance. Not only weathering processes differ from climate to climate, but also the
depth of the weathering mantle.
There are three major groups of weathering processes: (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes. Very rarely does any one of these processes
ever operate completely by itself, but quite often a dominance of one process can be seen.

Chemical Weathering Processes

A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
reduction act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine classic state through
chemical reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.
Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed up
all chemical reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of
plants and animals increases the quantity of carbon dioxide underground. These chemical
reactions on various minerals are very much similar to the chemical reactions in a laboratory.

Solution
When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved contents
is called solution. This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids.
On coming in contact with water many solids disintegrate and mix up as suspension in
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are affected by
this process. So, these minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
Minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in
limestones are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon
dioxide in water), and are carried away in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced by
decaying organic matter along with soil water greatly aids in this reaction. Common salt (sodium
chloride) is also a rock forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of solution.

Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon dioxide from the
43
atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed
in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.

Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate takes
in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than calcium sulphate. This process is
reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead
to their disintegration

Oxidation and Reduction

In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides
or hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and oxygenated
waters. The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur etc.
In the process of oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by
addition of oxygen. Red colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown or yellow. When oxidised
minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place. Such
conditions exist usually below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and waterlogged
ground. Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey. These weathering
processes are interrelated.

Hydration, carbonation and oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the weathering process.

Physical Weathering Processes

Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces. The applied
forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load and shearing stress; (ii)
expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii) water
pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles.

Unloading and Expansion

44
 Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure
release with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand producing disintegration of rock
masses. Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface. In areas of curved ground
surface, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs of rock. Exfoliation
sheets resulting from expansion due to unloading and pressure release may measure hundreds or
even thousands of metres in horizontal extent.
Large, smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes result due to this process.

Temperature Changes and Expansion

Various minerals in rocks possess their own limits of expansion and contraction. With
rise in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbour and as temperature
falls, a corresponding contraction takes place. Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures,
this internal movement among the mineral grains of the superficial layers of rocks takes place
regularly.

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This process is most effective at high elevations in mid-
latitudes where freezing and melting is often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging
daily. In this process, the rate of freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden
expansion and high pressure. The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks and small inter
granular fractures to become wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.

Salt Weathering
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallisation. Many salts like
calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium have a tendency to expand. Expansion of
these salts depends on temperature and their thermal properties. High temperature ranges
between 30 and 50oC of surface temperatures in deserts favour such salt expansion. Salt crystals
in near-surface pores cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which eventually fall off.
This process of falling off of individual grains may result in granular disintegration or granular
foliation.

45
 Salt crystallisation is most effective of all salt-weathering processes. In areas with
alternating wetting and drying conditions salt crystal growth is favoured and the neighbouring
grains are pushed aside. Sodium chloride and gypsum crystals in desert areas heave up overlying
layers of materials and with the result polygonal cracks develop all over the heaved surface. With
salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down most readily, followed by limestone, sandstone, shale,
gneiss and granite etc.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING

Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the
weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing
the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in
mixing and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.
Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids
which enhance decay and solubility of some elements. Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth
and help in concentration of iron and manganese oxides. Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure
on the earth materials mechanically breaking them apart.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
Weathering processes are responsible for breaking down the rocks into smaller fragments
and preparing the way for formation of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass
movements. Biomes and biodiversity is basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests
depend upon the depth of weathering mantles.
Erosion cannot be significant if the rocks are not weathered. That means, weathering aids
mass wasting, erosion and reduction of relief and changes in landforms are a consequence of
erosion. Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain
valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc., which are of great importance for the
national economy. Weathering is an important process in the formation of soils.

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MASS MOVEMENTS
These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct
influence of gravity. That means, air, water or ices do not carry debris with them from place to
place but on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice. The movements of mass
may range from slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of materials and include creep,
flow, slide and fall. Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of
weathering. So, weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass
movements. Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over
unweathered materials.

Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes), flow and slide are the
three forms of movements.

Fig. Relationships between various mass movements

Mass movements can be grouped under three major classes: (i) slow movements; (ii) rapid
movements; (iii) landslides.

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Slow Movements
Creep is one type under this category which can occur on moderately steep, soil covered
slopes. Movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended
observation. Materials involved can be soil or rock debris.

Rapid Movements
These movements are mostly prevalent in humid climatic regions and occur over gentle
to steep slopes. Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle
terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow. Another type in this category is mudflow.
In the absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly flow down along definite
channels. It looks like a stream of mud within a valley. When the mudflows emerge out of
channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can be very destructive engulfing roads, bridges and
houses. Mudflows occur frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
A third type is the debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions with
or without vegetation cover and occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris avalanche
can be much faster than the mudflow. Debris avalanche is similar to snow avalanche.

Landslides
These are known as relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials involved
are elatively dry. The size and shape of the detached mass depends on the nature of
discontinuities in the rock, the degree of weathering and the steepness of the slope.

Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to
the slope over which the movement takes place. Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without
backward rotation of mass is known as debris slide. Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris
from a vertical or overhanging face. Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or
fault surfaces is rockslide.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris. When massive rocks break
into smaller fragments through weathering and any other process, erosional geomorphic agents
48
like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove and transport it to other
places depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.
Abrasion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic agents also aids greatly in erosion.
Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves. In other
words, deposition is not actually the work of any agent.

SOIL FORMATION
Soil and Soil Contents
A pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection of natural bodies on the
earth’s surface containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants. Soil is a
dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities go on constantly.
Soil is a result of decay, it is also the medium for growth. It is a changing and developing body.
It has many characteristics that fluctuate with the seasons. It may be alternatively cold and warm
or dry and moist. Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the soil becomes too cold or too dry.
Organic matter increases when leaves fall or grasses die.

Process of Soil Formation

Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on weathering. It is this weathering mantle (depth of
the weathered material) which is the basic input for soil to form. First, the weathered material or
transported deposits are colonized by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like mosses and
lichens. Also, several minor organisms may take shelter within the mantle and deposits.
The dead remains of organisms and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor grasses
and ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will start growing through seeds brought in by birds
and wind. Plant roots penetrate down, burrowing animals bring up particles, mass of material
becomes porous and sponge like with a capacity to retain water and to permit the passage of air
and finally a mature soil, a complex mixture of mineral and organic products forms.

Soil-forming Factors
Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
(i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate; (iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil
forming factors act in union and affect the action of one another.
49
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION
RUNNING WATER
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall running water is considered the most
important of the geomorphic agents in bringing about the degradation of the land surface. There
are two components of running water. One is overland flow on general land surface as a sheet.
Another is linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the erosional landforms made by
running water are associated with vigorous and youthful rivers flowing along gradients.
With time, stream channels over steep gradients turn gentler due to continued erosion,
and as a consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating active deposition. The divides between
drainage basins are likewise lowered until they are almost completely flattened leaving finally, a
lowland of faint relief with some low resistant remnants called monadnocks standing out here
and there. This type of plain forming as a result of stream erosion is called a peneplain (an
almost plain).

Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no floodplains or with very narrow floodplains along
trunk streams. Streams divides are broad and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes. Meanders if
present develop over these broad upland surfaces. These meanders may eventually entrench
themselves into the uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies are
exposed.

Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good integration. The valleys are still V-shaped
but deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley. The flat and broad inter stream areas and swamps
and marshes of youth disappear and the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids
disappear.

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Old
Smaller tributaries during old age are few with gentle gradients. Streams meander freely
over vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat with
lakes, swamps and marshes. Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea level.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills will gradually develop into long and wide
gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending
upon dimensions and shape, many types of valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon, etc. can
be recognised. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides and a canyon is
characterised by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost
equal in width at its top as well as its bottom.
In contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of
gorge. Valley types depend upon the type and structure of rocks in which they form. For
example, canyons commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and gorges form in
hard rocks.

Potholes and Plunge Pools

Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less circular depressions called potholes form
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock fragments. Once a small and shallow
depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by
flowing water and consequently the depressions grow in dimensions. A series of such
depressions eventually join and the stream valley gets deepened.
At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form because of the
sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of
waterfalls are called plunge pools. These pools also help in the deepening of valleys. Waterfalls
are also transitory like any other landform and will recede gradually and bring the floor of the
valley above waterfalls to the level below.

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INCISED OR ENTRENCHED MEANDERS
In streams that flow rapidly over steep gradients, normally erosion is concentrated on the
bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion on the
sides of the valleys is not much when compared to the streams flowing on low and gentle slopes.
Because of active lateral erosion, streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop sinuous or
meandering courses.
It is common to find meandering courses over floodplains and delta plains where stream
gradients are very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders can also be found cut in hard rocks.
Such meanders are called incised or entrenched meanders. Meander loops develop over original
gentle surfaces in the initial stages of development of streams and the same loops get entrenched
into the rocks normally due to erosion or slow, continued uplift of the land over which they start
River Terraces
River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or floodplain levels. They may be
bedrock surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial terraces consisting of stream deposits.
River terraces are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical erosion by the
stream into its own depositional floodplain. There can be a number of such terraces at different
heights indicating former river bed levels.
The river terraces may occur at the same elevation on either side of the rivers in which
case they are called paired terraces When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and
with none on the other side or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, the terraces are
called non-paired terraces.
Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow uplift of land or where the water column
changes are not uniform along both the banks. The terraces may result due to (i) receding water
after a peak flow; (ii) change in hydrological regime due to climatic changes; (iii) tectonic uplift
of land; (iv) sea level changes in case of rivers closer to the sea.

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are formed when streams flowing from higher levels break into foot slope
plains of low gradient. Normally very coarse load is carried by streams flowing over mountain
slopes. This load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and gets
dumped and spread as a broad low to high cone shaped deposit called alluvial fan.
52
 Usually, the streams which flow over fans are not confined to their original channels for
long and shift their position across the fan forming many channels called distributaries. Alluvial
fans in humid areas show normally low cones with gentle slope from head to toe and they appear
as high cones with steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.

Deltas
Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a different location. The load carried by the
rivers is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load is not carried away far into the sea or
distributed along the coast, it spreads and accumulates as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
settle out first and the finer fractions like silts and clays are carried out into the sea

Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars

Deposition develops a floodplain just as erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized materials are deposited first when stream channel
breaks into a gentle slope. A river bed made of river deposits is the active floodplain. The
floodplain above the bank is inactive floodplain. The flood deposits of spilled waters carry
relatively finer materials like silt and clay.
The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains. Natural levees and point bars are some
of the important landforms found associated with floodplains. Natural levees are found along the
banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks
of rivers, quite often cut into individual mounds.
Point bars are also known as meander bars. They are found on the convex side of
meanders of large rivers and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along
the bank. They are almost uniform in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.

Meanders

In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like channel
patterns called meanders develop over flood and delta plains Meander is not a landform but is
only a type of channel pattern.

53
 This is because of (i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work
laterally on the banks; (ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with
many irregularities which can be used by water exerting pressure laterally; (iii) coriolis force
acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects the wind.
The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp and the
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and is known as slip-off bank As meanders grow into
deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points and are left as ox-bow
lakes.

GROUNDWATER

Any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of
groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography after
the typical topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to
Adriatic sea. The karst topography is also characterized by erosional and depositional landforms.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements

Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions called swallow holes
form on the surface of limestones through solution. Sinkholes are very common in
limestone/karst areas. A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-
shapped towards the bottom with sizes varying in area from a few sq. m to a hectare and with
depth from a less than half a metre to thirty metres or more.

Caves
In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
limestones or dolomites in between or in areas where limestones are dense, massive and
occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Water percolates down either through the
materials or through cracks and joints and moves horizontally along bedding planes. It is along

54
these bedding planes that the limestone dissolves and long and narrow to wide gaps called caves
result.

Depositional Landforms
Many depositional forms develop within the limestone caves. The chief chemical in
limestone is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in carbonated water (carbon dioxide
absorbed rainwater). This calcium carbonate is deposited when the water carrying it in solution
evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide as it trickles over rough rock surfaces.

Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars

Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters. Normally they are broad at their bases
and taper towards the free ends showing up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up from the
floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites form due to dripping water from the surface or through the
thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately below it Stalagmites may take the shape of a column, a
disc, with either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a miniature crater like depression. The
stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of different
diameters.

GLACIERS
Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or pidmont glacier if a
vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the
slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called
glaciers

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Cirque
Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. The cirques quite
often are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The accumulated ice cuts these cirques while
moving down the mountain tops A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after
the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
cirques one leading into another down below in a stepped sequence.

55
Horns and Serrated Ridges
Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three or more radiating
glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side walls or head walls get narrow because of
progressive erosion and turn into serrated or saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as arêtes
with very sharp crest and a zig-zag outline.

Fig. Erosional and depositional glacial landforms

Glacial Valleys/Troughs
Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth,
and steep sides. The valleys may contain littered debris or debris shaped as moraines with
swampy appearance. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within
the valleys. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial
valley. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high
latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

56
Depositional Landforms
The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial
till. Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams is
washed down and deposited. Such glaciofluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.

Moraines
They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges of
debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to
the glacial valleys. Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over
their valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are
called ground moraines. The moraine in the centre of the glacial valley flanked by lateral
moraines is called medial moraine. They are imperfectly formed as compared to lateral
moraines.
Fig. Glacial depositional landform

Outwash Plains
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice
sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may
join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice

57
movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height. One end of the
drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other end called
tail. The drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice through
fissures in the glacier. The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice. Drumlins give
an indication of direction of glacier movement.

WAVES AND CURRENTS

Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon (i) the configuration
of land and sea floor; (ii) whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating
(submerging) landward. Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to
explain the concept of evolution of coastal landforms: (i) high, rocky coasts (submerged coasts);
(ii) low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).

LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS

Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by building
coastal plains and deltas. The coastline appears smooth with occasional incursions of water in the
form of lagoons and tidal creeks.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks

Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found where erosion is the dominant
shore process. Such platforms occurring at elevations above the average height of waves is called
a wave-cut terrace.
The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets smashed
against the cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and these hollows get widened and
deepened to form sea caves.
The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff
may leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as small islands just off the shore. Such
resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks.

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DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Beaches and Dunes
Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by deposition, but may occur
as patches along even the rugged shores. Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes
from land carried by the streams and rivers or from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
features.
The sandy beach which appears so permanent may be reduced to a very narrow strip of
coarse pebbles in some other season. Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials.
Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.

WINDS
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Pediments and Pediplains
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily concerned with the formation and extension
of pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a
thin cover of debris, are called pediments.
Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of
mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a
remnant of the mountain. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless
plains called pediplains.

Playas
In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types
of shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to
evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts. The playa plain covered
up by salts is called alkali flats.

Deflation Hollows and Caves

Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent
movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called
deflation hollows.

59
 Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces
suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are
created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of
mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.

Depositional Landforms
Sand Dunes
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune
formation are equally important. There can be a great variety of dune forms.

Barchans
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from wind
direction i.e., downwind, form where the wind direction is constant and moderate and where the
original surface over which sand is moving is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes form when sandy
surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans
with wind direction being the same.
Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point. This
happens when there is shift in wind conditions. The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and
high. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They
appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height.
Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when
the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the
wind direction.

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 CLIMATE

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The proportion of
gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in
negligible quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are
found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.

Gases
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the
incoming solar radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of
terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is largely
responsible for the green house effect.
The volume of other gases is constant but the volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in
the past few decades mainly because of the burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased the
temperature of the air.
Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found between 10 and 50 km
above the earth’s surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the
sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry
and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of
the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket
allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to the
stability and instability in the air.

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Dust Particles

Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles, which may originate
from different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and
disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of
the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents may transport them to great heights.
The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions
due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as
hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude. The
column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature
condition. They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere and exosphere.
The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km
and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. Thickness
of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong
convectional currents. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate
and weather take place in this layer. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for
every 165m of height. This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
The zone separating the tropsophere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The
air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 800C over the equator and about minus 45oC
over the poles. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause.
The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. One
important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultra-
violet radiation and shields life on the earth from intense, harmful form of energy.
The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km. In
this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up
to minus 100°C at the height of 80 km. The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the
mesopause.
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 The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause. It contains
electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Temperature here starts
increasing with height.
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the ionosphere is known as the exosphere.
This is the highest layer but very little is known about it. Whatever contents are there, these are
extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges with the outer space. Although all layers
of the atmosphere must be exercising influence on us, geographers are concerned with the first
two layers of the atmosphere.

Elements of Weather and Climate

The main elements of atmosphere which are subject to change and which influence
human life on earth are temperature, pressure, winds, humidity, clouds and precipitation.
Fig. Structure of Atmosphere

SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE

SOLAR RADIATION
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received
by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as insolation. The

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solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the variations in
the distance between the earth and the sun.
During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km on
4th July). This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to
the sun (147 million km). This position is called perihelion. Therefore, the annual insolation
received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.
Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth

The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year.
The factors that cause these variations in insolation are : (i) the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii)
the angle of inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the day; (iv) the transparency of the
atmosphere; (v) the configuration of land in terms of its aspect. The last two however, have less
influence.

The Passage of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. The incoming solar
radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking the earth’s surface. Within the
troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation
Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth’s Surface.
The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to
about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts,
where the cloudiness is the least.
Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. Generally, at the same
latitude the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans. In winter, the middle and
higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.

HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere. Conduction takes
place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there is a flow of
energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies

64
attain the same temperature or the contact is broken. Conduction is important in heating the
lower layers of the atmosphere.
The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and
further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. This process of vertical heating of the atmosphere is
known as convection. The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes,
most of dirunal (day and night) variation in daily weather are caused by advection alone. In
tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called ‘loo’ is
the outcome of advection process.

Terrestrial Radiation
The insolation received by the earth is in short wave forms and heats up its surface. The
earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere
in long wave form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as
terrestrial radiation.
The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth’s
radiation.

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by (i) the latitude of the place; (ii) the
altitude of the place; (iii) distance from the sea, the airmass circulation; (iv) the presence of
warm and cold ocean currents; (v) local aspects.

Distribution of Temperature
The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the
temperature distribution in January and July. The temperature distribution is generally shown on
the map with the help of isotherms. The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal
temperature.

65
 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in
units of mb and Pascals. The widely used unit is kilo Pascal written as hPa.

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low.
Along 30°N and 30°S are found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs. Further
pole wards along 60oN and 60oS, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near
the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high.
These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent
movement of the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the
summer northwards.

Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

The air in motion is called wind. The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure. The
wind at the surface experiences friction. In addition, rotation of the earth also affects the wind
movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force. Thus,
the horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces – the
pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.

Pressure Gradient Force

The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force. The rate of change of pressure
with respect to distance is the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars
are close to each other and is weak where the isobars are apart.

Frictional Force
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally
extends upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.

66
Coriolis Force
The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is
called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844. It deflects the wind
to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The
deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the
poles and is absent at the equator.

Pressure and Wind

The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the
geostrophic wind.
The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is
called anti cyclonic circulation. The direction of winds around such systems changes according
to their location in different hemispheres.

General circulation of the atmosphere

The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on: (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
heating; (ii) emergence of pressure belts; (iii) the migration of belts following apparent path of
the sun; (iv) the distribution of continents and oceans; (v) the rotation of earth. The pattern of the
movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere.

Seasonal Wind

The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of
regions of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a
shift is noticed in the monsoons, especially over south east Asia.

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Local Winds
Differences in the heating and cooling of earthsurfaces and the cycles those develop daily
or annually can create several common, local or regional winds.

Land and Sea Breezes

During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over
the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the
pressure over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the
wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of condition takes
place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from the land
to the sea and hence land breeze results.

Mountain and Valley Winds

In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the
valley breeze. During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as
the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is
called katabatic wind. Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain
ranges.
The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condense and
precipitate. When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by
adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

Air Masses

When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires
the characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an
airmass. It is defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and
moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are five major source
regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; (ii) The subtropical hot deserts;
68
(iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans; (iv) The very cold snow covered continents in high
latitudes; (v) Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised: (i) Maritime tropical (mT); (ii)
Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP); (v) Continental
arctic (cA). Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.

Fronts
When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of
fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm; (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded [(Figure10.8 (a), (b), (c)]. When the
front remains stationary, it is called a stationary front. When the cold air moves towards the
warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front, whereas if the warm air mass moves
towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front. If an air mass is fully lifted above the
land surface, it is called the occluded front.
The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to
form clouds and cause precipitation.

Extra Tropical Cyclones

The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the
middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
weather conditions over the area in the middle and high latitudes. Extra tropical cyclones form
along the polar front. Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows
from the south and cold air from the north of the front. When the pressure drops along the front,
the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move towards, south setting in motion an
anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.

Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move
over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very
heavy rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are

69
known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with
temperature higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence of the Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weaklow- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the
towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of
moisture from the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture
supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is
called the landfall of the cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20oN latitude generally, recurve and
they are more destructive. A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally
circulating wind around the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can
vary between 150 and 250 km. The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater
height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as
high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain bands may radiate
and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region. The diameter of
the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The
system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day. The cyclone creates storm surges and they
inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on the land.

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 Fig. Vertical section of Tropical cyclone

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm is a

well-grown cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightening. When the clouds extend to
heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm.
If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate duststorms.
A thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the
clouds to grow bigger and rise to greater height. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft
brings down to earth the cool air and the rain. From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling
wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre,
causing massive destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado. Tornadoes
generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts.

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 WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the
continents through the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in different
ways. The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity. Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in
different ways.

The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the
absolute humidity. The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.

The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be
saturated. It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional
amount of moisture at that stage. The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample
of air is known as dew point.

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION

Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state. Heat
is the main cause for evaporation. The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is
referred to as the latent heat of vapourisation. The transformation of water vapour into water is
called condensation.
Condensation is caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level
when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess water vapour condenses into
liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as sublimation.
Condensation is influenced by the volume of air, temperature, pressure and humidity.
Condensation takes place: (i) when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its
volume remaining constant; (ii) when both the volume and the temperature are reduced; (iv)
when moisture is added to the air through evaporation. However, the most favourable condition
for condensation is the decrease in air temperature.

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Dew
When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves,
it is known as dew. The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative
humidity, and cold and long nights. For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is
above the freezing point.

Frost
Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (00C),
i.e. the dew point is at or below the freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited in the form
of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets. The ideal conditions for the formation of white
frost are the same as those for the formation of dew, except that the air temperature must be at or
below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist

When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all
of a sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
with its base at or very near to the ground. Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes
poor to zero.
In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation
of fog and mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog. The only
difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog. In mist
each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising
warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface.
Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in
contact with cold currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei
provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt particles.
Clouds

Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. As the clouds are formed
at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.
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 According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are
grouped under four types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.

Cirrus

Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour.

Cumulus

Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -
7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.

Stratus

As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These
clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different
temperatures.

Nimbus
Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near to the
surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the
clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground. Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of
thick vapour.

Precipitation
The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow
in size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on
to the earth’s surface. So after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is
known as precipitation. This may take place in liquid or solid form.

74
 The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall, when the temperature is lower
than the 0oC, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow and is called snowfall.
Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals form flakes of snow.
Besides rain and snow, other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail, though the latter
are limited in occurrence and are sporadic in both time and space. Sleet is frozen raindrops and
refrozen melted snow-water. When a layer of air with the temperature above freezing point
overlies a subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small
rounded solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones. These
are formed by the rainwater passing through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric
layers of ice one over the other.

Types of Rainfall
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types – the convectional,
orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.

[Link] Rain
The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it
expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are
formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last long. Such
rain is common in the summer or in the hotter part of the day. It is very common in the equatorial
regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the northern hemisphere.

[Link] Rain
When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it
rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic of
this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the
windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their temperature
rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain
rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the
rain-shadow area. It is also known as the relief rain.

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3. Cyclonic Rain
Extra Tropical Cyclones
The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the
middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
weather conditions over the area in the middle and high latitudes. Extra tropical cyclones form
along the polar front. Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows
from the south and cold air from the north of the front. When the pressure drops along the front,
the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move towards, south setting in motion an
anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.

Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move
over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very
heavy rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are
known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with
temperature higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence of the Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weaklow- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the
towering cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of
moisture from the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture
supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is
called the landfall of the cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20 oN latitude generally, recurve and
they are more destructive. A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally
circulating wind around the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can
vary between 150 and 250 km. The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height
reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as
250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and
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trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region. The diameter of the
storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The
system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day. The cyclone creates storm surges and they
inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on the land.

World Distribution of Rainfall

On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of
the world are identified as follows. The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains
along the western coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land
receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per
annum. The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall. The central parts
of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall
varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes
receive very low rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an
important aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly
throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
regions.

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 WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

KOEPPEN’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE

The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification
scheme developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified a close relationship between the
distribution of vegetation and climate. He selected certain values of temperature and
precipitation and related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these values for
classifying the climates. It is an empirical classification based on mean annual and mean monthly
temperature and precipitation data. He introduced the use of capital and small letters to designate
climatic groups and types. Although developed in 1918 and modified over a period of time,
Koeppen’s scheme is still popular and in use. Koeppen recognised five major climatic groups,
four of them are based on temperature and one on precipitation. The capital letters : A,C, D and
E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on
seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics. The seasons of dryness are indicated
by the small letters : f, m, w and s, where f corresponds to no dry season, m - monsoon climate,
w- winter dry season and s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the
degree of severity of temperature. The B- Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S
for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.
Fig. Climatic types according to Koeppen

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CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate in the recent past
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The nineties decade of the last century
witnessed extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded the warmest temperature of the century
and some of the worst floods around the world. The worst devastating drought in the Sahel
region, south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 is one such variability. During the 1930s,
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great Plains of the United States, described as the dust
bowl. Historical records of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of people tell
about the effects of changing climate.
A number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet, cold and dry periods, the significant
episodes were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings
settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed “Little Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about
1885-1940 world temperature showed an upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase in
temperature slowed down.

Causes of Climate Change

The causes for climate change are many. They can be grouped into astronomical and
terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are the changes in solar output associated with
sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the sun which increase and decrease
in a cyclical manner.
According to some meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and
wetter weather and greater storminess occur. A decrease in sunspot numbers is associated with
warm and drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not statistically significant. An another
astronomical theory is Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles in the variations in the
earth’s orbital characteristics around the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the
earth’s axial tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation received from the sun, which in turn,
might have a bearing on the climate.
Volcanism is considered as another cause for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws
up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a
considerable period of time reducing the sun’s radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.

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 After the recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic eruptions, the average temperature of the
earth fell to some extent for some years. The most important anthropogenic effect on the climate
is the increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which is likely
to cause global warming.

Global Warming
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse.
The atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long
wave radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s surface. The gases that absorb long wave radiation
are called greenhouse gases. The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively
referred to as the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse Gases(GHGs)
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3). Some other gases such as nitric
oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and affect their concentration in
the atmosphere. The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
The emission of CO2 comes mainly from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal).
Forests and oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide. Forests use CO2 in their growth. So,
deforestation due to changes in land use, also increases the concentration of Co2. The time taken
for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising at about
0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level is used as an
index for estimating the changes in climate in climatic models. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are
products of human activity.
Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert oxygen into ozone. Thus,
ultra violet rays do not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which drift into the stratosphere
destroy the ozone. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica. The depletion of ozone
concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This allows the ultra violet rays to pass
through the troposphere.

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 WATER (OCEANS)

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and re-used. Water also undergoes a cycle from
the ocean to land and land to ocean. The hydrological cycle describes the movement of water on,
in, and above the earth. The water cycle has been working for billions of years and all the life on
earth depends on it. Next to air, water is the most important element required for the existence of
life on earth. The distribution of water on earth is quite uneven. Many locations have plenty of
water while others have very limited quantity.
The hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water within the earth’s hydrosphere in
different forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous phases. It also refers to the continuous
exchange of water between the oceans, atmosphere, land surface and subsurface and the
organisms.

RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

Divisions of the Ocean Floors

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions: (i) the Continental Shelf; (ii)
the Continental Slope; (iii) the Deep Sea Plain; (iv) the Oceanic Deeps. Besides, these divisions
there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea mounts,
guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively
shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1° or
even less. The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
The width of the continental shelves vary from one ocean to another. The average width
of continental shelves is about 80 km. The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some
of the margins like the coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary, the
Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.
The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in
some areas it is as deep as 600 m. The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses
of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land and distributed by waves and

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currents. Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves,
become the source of fossil fuels.

Continental Slope
The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where
the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope. The gradient of the slope
region varies between 2-5°. The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m. The
slope boundary indicates the end of the continents. Canyons and trenches are observed in this
region.

Deep Sea Plain

Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins. These are the flattest and
smoothest regions of the world. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000m. These plains are
covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. The trenches are relatively steep sided,
arrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor. They occur at the
bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active volcanoes and
strong earthquakes. That is why they are very significant in the study of plate movements. As
many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the
Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

Minor Relief Features

Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large
depression. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above
the ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid- Atlantic Ridge, is an example.

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Seamount
It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the
surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The
Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good
example.

Submarine Canyons
These are deep valleys, some comparable to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes, often extending
from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the best known canyon in the world.

Guyots
It is a flat topped seamount. They show evidences of gradual subsidence through stages
to become flat topped submerged mountains. It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts
and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.

Atoll
These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a
central depression. It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of
fresh, brackish, or highly saline water

TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

The factors which affect the distribution of temperature of ocean water are :
(i) Latitude : the temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles
because the amount of insolation decreases poleward.
(ii) Unequal distribution of land and water : the oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more
heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
(iii) Prevailing wind : the winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm surface
water away form the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below. It results into the

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longitudinal variation in the temperature. Contrary to this, the onshore winds pile up warm water
near the coast and this raises the temperature.
(iv) Ocean currents : warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold
currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the
temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the
Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North
America.
All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents locally. The enclosed
seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the
enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.

Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature

The temperature-depth profile for the ocean water shows how the temperature decreases
with the increasing depth. The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the
ocean and the deeper layers.
The boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m below the sea surface and extends
several hundred of m downward. This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of
temperature, is called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found
below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a
three-layer system from surface to the bottom. The first layer represents the top layer of warm
oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C. This
layer, within the tropical region, is present throughout the year but in mid latitudes it develops
only during summer. The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and
is characterized by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -
1,000 m thick. The third layer is very cold and extends upto the deep ocean floor.
In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and
so the temperature change with the depth is very slight. Here, only one layer of cold water exists,
which extends from surface to deep ocean floor. The average temperature of surface water of the
oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases from the equator towards the poles. The rate of
decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude. The average
temperature is around 22°C at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes and 0° C near poles.
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 The oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher temperature than in the
southern hemisphere. The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly towards
north of it. The average annual temperatures for the northern and southern hemisphere are
around 19° C and 16° C respectively. This variation is due to the unequal distribution of land and
water in the northern and southern hemispheres.

It is a well known fact that the maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their
surfaces because they directly receive the heat from the sun and the heat is transmitted to the
lower sections of the oceans through the process of conduction. It results into decrease of
temperature with the increasing depth, but the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout. The
temperature falls very rapidly up to the depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of decrease of
temperature is slowed down.

SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS

Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water. It is
calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. It is usually
expressed as parts per thousand (o/oo) or ppt. Salinity is an important property of sea water.
Salinity of 24.7 o/oo has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’.
Factors affecting ocean salinity are mentioned below:
(i) The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and
precipitation.
(ii) Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from rivers,
and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
(iii) Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
(iv) The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations. Salinity, temperature and density of
water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of
an area.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY

The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33o/oo and 37 o/oo. In the land locked
Red Sea, it is as high as 41 o/oo, while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0

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- 35 o/oo, seasonally. In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes
reaches to 70 o/oo. The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger
area extent.
Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo on the western parts of the northern hemisphere
because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20°
south, it decreases to 33 o/oo. The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 o/oo. The
highest salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes. Maximum salinity (37o/oo) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. It gradually decreases towards the north.
The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to
more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity due to
influx of river waters in large quantity.
The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation. Salinity is,
however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers. The average
salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal
due to influx of river water by the river Ganga. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher
salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by the
input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers. Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there
is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity
between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water. Salinity, generally,
increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline, where salinity increases
sharply. Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to
stratification by salinity.

MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER WAVES

Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean
surface. Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to
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the waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
The motion of the surface water seldom affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
TIDES
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the
attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide. Movement of water caused by meteorological
effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) are called surges. Surges are not regular like
tides. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in
frequency, magnitude and height.
The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal
force, which is the force that acts to counter the balance the gravity. Together, the gravitational
pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.
On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though
the gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes
tidal bulge on the other side.
The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces; i.e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force. On the surface of the earth, nearest
the moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than the centrifugal force, and so
there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon.
On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the
moon, the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. It
creates the second bulge away from the moon. On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide
generating forces are more important than the vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges hit
the mid-oceanic islands they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can
also magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When
the tide is channeled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents.

Types of Tides
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from
time to time. Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in
one day or 24 hours or based on their height.
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Tides based on Frequency Semi-diurnal tide :
The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day. The
successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high
and low tides are approximately of the same height.
Mixed tide : Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally
occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of
sun and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.

Spring tides: The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing
on tide height. When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide
will be higher. These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon
period and another during new moon period.

Neap tides : Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides. At
this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon
tend to counteract one another. The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the
sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull. Once in a month,
when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides occur.
During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks later, when the moon
is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited and the tidal ranges are
less than their average heights. When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd
January each year, tidal ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low
tides. When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges
are much less than average. The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is
falling, is called the ebb. The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is
called the flow or flood.
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OCEAN CURRENTS
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in
a definite path and direction. Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the
currents to flow. The primary forces that influence the currents are: (i) heating by solar energy;
(ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force.

Types of Ocean Currents

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep
water currents : (i) surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean,
these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean; (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90 per
cent of the ocean water.
These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures are cold
enough to cause the density to increase.

Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature : as cold currents and warm currents:
(i) cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the
west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the
east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm
water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low
and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere they are found on the
west coasts of continents in high latitudes.

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 Fig. Major Ocean Currents of Atlantic, Pacific and Indian

Effects of Ocean Currents

Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on human activities. West
coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator) are
bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are relatively low with a narrow diurnal and
annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm
waters which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterised by cool summers and
relatively mild winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures. Warm currents flow parallel
to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and
rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.
The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the
growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of the world
exist mainly in these mixing zones.

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LIFE ON THE EARTH
ECOLOGY
The interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within a particular
habitat resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water and air, are
called ecological systems.
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality of the physical and chemical factors that
constitute the general environment. A system consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in ecosystem are inter related and interact with each
other. Different types of ecosystems exist with varying ranges of environmental conditions
where various plants and animal species have got adapted through evolution. This phenomenon
is known as ecological adaptation.

Types of Ecosystems
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large
geographical area. The boundaries of different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
Therefore, a biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting
within specific conditions. These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions.

Some of the major biomes of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes. Aquatic
ecosystems can be classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. Marine ecosystem includes the
oceans, coastal estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
marshes and bogs.

Structure and Functions of Ecosystems

The structure of an ecosystem involves a description of the available plant and animal
species. From a structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil conditions,
inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, etc.).
Biotic factors include the producers, (primary, secondary, tertiary) the consumers and the
decomposers.

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 The producers include all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through
photosynthesis. The primary consumers include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and
all plant-eating animals. The carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers
and lions. Certain carnivores that feed also on carnivores are known as top carnivores like hawks
and mongooses. Decomposers are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers
like vultures and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing
agents like bacteria and various microorganisms.

Types of Biomes
There are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and altitudinal biomes.

Biogeochemical Cycles
The Water Cycle
All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle.

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living organisms. It forms the basic constituent
of all the organic compounds. The biosphere contains over half a million carbon compounds in
them. The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated
by the fixation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.

Plant tissues are either being eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed by the
microorganisms. The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon
dioxide for release into the air through respiration. The micro-organisms decompose the
remaining carbohydrates after the animal dies. The carbohydrates that are decomposed by the
micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere.

The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation of
carbohydrates with the release of energy, carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of oxygen is a
highly complex process. Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and combinations. It
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combines with nitrogen to form nitrates and with many other minerals and elements to form
various oxides such as the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others. Much of oxygen is produced
from the decomposition of water molecules by sunlight during photosynthesis and is released in
the atmosphere through transpiration and respiration processes of plants.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere comprising about seventy-nine per cent
of the atmospheric gases. It is also an essential constituent of different organic compounds such
as the amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments. Only a few types of
organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable of utilising it
directly in its gaseous form.
Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is
biological. The principal source of free nitrogen is the action of soil micro-organisms and
associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen found in pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can also
be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine
animals can fix it. After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an available form, green plants
can assimilate it.
Herbivorous animals feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it. Dead plants and
animals, excretion of nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites by the action of bacteria
present in the soil. Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by
green plants. There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free
nitrogen, a process known as denitrification.

Ecological Balance
Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in
a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains
relatively stable. Gradual changes do take place but that happens only through natural
succession. It can also be explained as a stable balance in the numbers of each species in an
ecosystem. This occurs through competition and cooperation between different organisms where
population remains stable. This balance is brought about by the fact that certain species compete
with one another determined by the environment in which they grow. This balance is also
attained by the fact that some species depend on others for their food and sustenance.
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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity itself is a combination of two words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
simple terms, biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified
geographic region. It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes
they contain and the ecosystems they form. It relates to the variability among living organisms
on the earth, including the variability within and between the species and that within and
between the ecosystems. Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result of hundreds of millions of
years of evolutionary history.
Biodiversity can be discussed at three levels: (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
(iii) Ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Diversity
Genes are the basic building blocks of various life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to
the variation of genes within species. Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities
in their physical characteristics are called species. Human beings genetically belong to the homo
sapiens group and also differ in their characteristics such as height, colour, physical appearance,
etc., considerably. This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is essential for a healthy
breeding of population of species.

Species Diversity
This refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of species in a defined area.
The diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types. Some areas
are more rich in species than others. Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of
Diversity.

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture and, in
turn, human communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the
genetic, species and ecological levels. Biodiversity plays the following roles: ecological,
economic and scientific.

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Ecological Role of Biodiversity
Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to
cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the
climate. These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival. The more
diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and
attacks, and consequently, is more productive. Hence, the loss of species would decrease the
ability of the system to maintain itself.

Economic Role of Biodiversity

One important part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-
biodiversity. Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the
manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. Some of the important economic
commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food crops, livestock, forestry, fish,
medicinal resources, etc.

Scientific Role of Biodiversity

Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and the role of each species in
sustaining ecosystems of which we are also a species. This fact must be drawn upon every one
of us so that we live and let other species also live their lives. It is our ethical responsibility to
consider that each and every species along with us have an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is
morally wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any species. The level of biodiversity is a
good indicator of the state of our relationships with other living species. In fact, the concept of
biodiversity is an integral part of many human cultures.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts,
etc. cause damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of
respective affected regions. Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy
metals destroy the weak and sensitive species. Species which are not the natural inhabitants of
the local habitat but are introduced into the system, are called exotic species. There are many
examples when a natural biotic community of the ecosystem suffered extensive damage because
of the introduction of exotic species.
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 During the last few decades, some animals like tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles,
minks and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has
resulted in the rendering of certain types of organisms as endangered category.
The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
classified the threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of
their conservation.

Endangered Species
It includes those species which are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes
information about endangered species world-wide as the Red List of threatened species.

Vulnerable Species
This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if
the factors threatening to their extinction continue. Survival of these species is not assured as
their population has reduced greatly.

Rare Species
Population of these species is very small in the world; they are confined to limited areas
or thinly scattered over a wider area.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The Government of India along with 155 other nations have signed the Convention of
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world
conservation strategy has suggested the following steps for biodiversity conservation:
(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild
relatives should be preserved;
(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded and
protected.
(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
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 To protect, preserve and propagate the variety of species within natural boundaries, the
Government of India passed the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and
sanctuaries were established and biosphere reserves declared.

There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region; they possess a large
number of the world’s species diversity. They are called mega diversity centres. There are 12
such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Zaire, Madagascar, China,
India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in which these centres are located.

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