Data Management

Data management is a structured approach for capturing, storing, processing,

integrating, distributing, securing, and archiving data effectively throughout its life
cycle.

Effective data management is a crucial piece of deploying the IT systems that run
business applications and provide analytical information to help drive operational
decision-making and strategic planning by corporate executives, business
managers, and other end users.

Data, Text, and Document Management

Vast quantities of data, text, and documents are created or collected and then
stockpiled through some type of storage method. Often data and documents get
stored in multiple locations, perhaps five or more of them. Data, text, and
document management helps companies improve productivity by ensuring that
people can find what they need without having to conduct a long and difficult
search. We use the term data management to refer to data, text, and document
management, for simplicity, unless otherwise stated.
Terminologies related to Data Management
Bits, bytes, fields, records, files, and databases

A computer system essentially organizes data into a hierarchy that begins with
bits and proceeds to bytes, fields, records, files, and databases.

A bit represents the smallest unit of data a computer can process, which is either
a 0 or a 1.
A group of eight bits, called a byte, represents a single character, which can be a
letter, a number, or a symbol.
Characters that are combined to form a word, a group of words, or a complete
number constitute a field.
A key characteristic of a field is that all of the entries are related in some way.

For example, a field titled "Cust_Name" might include the names of a company's
customers. It would not, however, contain addresses or telephone numbers.
Just as related characters can be combined into a field, related fields - such as
vendor name, address, and account data - can constitute a record.

Moving up the hierarchy, a collection of related records is called a file or data file.
For example, the records of all non-commercial customers who have a mortgage
loan at a financial institution would constitute a data file.

Finally, a logical group of related files would constitute a database.

Data vs Information

Data Information
Data is raw, unorganized facts that When data is processed, organized,
need to be processed structured, or presented in a given
context so as to make it useful, it is
called information

Ex: Each student's test score is one Ex: The average score of a class or of
piece of data. the entire school is information that
can be derived from the given data.
File management systems
A File Management system allows access to single files or tables at a time. In a
File System, data is directly stored in a set of files. It contains flat files that have
no relation to other files (when only one table is stored in a single file, then this
file is known as a flat-file). This data file approach led to redundancy,
inconsistency, data isolation, and other problems.

Disadvantages of using the File system for Database

Management

Data redundancy: Data redundancy refers to the duplication of data, lets say we
are managing the data of a college where a student is enrolled for two courses,
the same student details in such case will be stored twice, which will take more
storage than needed. Data redundancy often leads to higher storage costs and
poor access time.

Data inconsistency: Data redundancy leads to data inconsistency, lets take the
same example that we have taken above, a student is enrolled for two courses
and we have student address stored twice, now lets say student requests to
change his address, if the address is changed at one place and not on all the
records then this can lead to data inconsistency.

Data Isolation: Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in
different formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate
data is difficult.

Atomicity issues: Atomicity of a transaction refers to “All or nothing”, which

means either all the operations in a transaction executes or none.

Data Security: Securing data is difficult in the file environment because new
applications are added to the system on an ad hoc basis. As the number of
applications increases, so does the number of people who can access the data
Database Management Systems
A Database Management System (DBMS) is application software that allows
users to efficiently define, create, maintain and share databases. The DBMS
permits an organization to centralize data, manage it efficiently, and provide
access to the stored data by application programs.

Data flows into companies continuously and from many sources: data from Web
and e-commerce applications, detailed data from POS terminals, and filtered
data from CRM, supply chain, and enterprise resource planning applications.
Databases are the optimal way to store and access organizational data.

With DBMS, data redundancy, data isolation, and data inconsistency are
minimized, and data can be shared among data users. In addition, security and
data integrity are easier to control, and applications are independent of the data
they process.

DBMS also provides protection and security to the database. It maintains data
consistency in the case of multiple users. Here are some examples of popular
dbms: MySql, Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft Access and IBM DB2 etc.

There are two basic types of databases: centralized and distributed.

Components of Database System

The database system can be divided into four components.

Users : Users may be of various types such as DB administrator, System

developer and End users.
Database application : Database application may be Personal, Departmental,
Enterprise and Internal
DBMS : Software that allows users to define, create and manages database
access, Ex: MySql, Oracle etc.
Database : Collection of logical data.

Who Uses DBMS: Types of Database Users

There are different database users:

Database Administrator: Their main task is to manage the entire database

management system. Some people even hire a database management company
to take over this task.
Application Programmers: They write programs in different programming
languages in order to interact with the database.

End-Users: They are the individuals who interact with the DBMS and perform
different tasks on databases, such as updating, deleting, retrieving, etc.

Functions of DBMS
Provides data Independence
Concurrency Control
Provides Recovery services
Provides Utility services

Applications of Database Management Software

Following are some of the applications of DBMS based in different verticals:

➔ Banks: The use of DBMS in the banking sector include storing client info,
account activities, disbursements, credits, and mortgages
➔ Airlines: Flight bookings and scheduling info
➔ Academies: Learner info, course registrations, grading, and result
➔ Telecommunication: Keeping call archives, monthly bills, and retaining
balances.
➔ Economics and Finance: Storing data about bonds, transactions, and
acquisitions of fiscal instruments, such as shares and stocks.
➔ Sales and Marketing: Storing data about consumers, merchandise, and
sales.
➔ Engineering and Manufacturing: Managing supply chain and pursuing
manufacturing of items and inventory statuses in storerooms.
➔ Human Resources: Keeping records about workers, remunerations,
payroll, deduction, generating salaries, and more.
➔ Agriculture: Use of DBMS in agriculture includes maintaining records of
crops, machinery, and livestock.
Advantages of DBMS

1. Improved data sharing

An advantage of the database management approach is, the DBMS helps to
create an environment in which end users have better access to more and better-
managed data.

Such access makes it possible for end-users to respond quickly to changes in

their environment.

2. Improved data security

The more users access the data, the greater the risks of data security breaches.
Corporations invest considerable amounts of time, effort, and money to ensure
that corporate data are used properly. A DBMS provides a framework for better
enforcement of data privacy and security policies.

3. Better data integration

Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of the
organization’s operations and a clearer view of the big picture. It becomes much
easier to see how actions in one segment of the company affect other segments.

4. Minimized data inconsistency

Data inconsistency exists when different versions of the same data appear in
different places. For example, data inconsistency exists when a company’s sales
department stores a sales representative’s name as “Bill Brown” and the
company’s personnel department stores that same person’s name as “William G.
Brown,” or when the company’s regional sales office shows the price of a product
as $45.95 and its national sales office shows the same product’s price as $43.95.
The probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed
database.

5. Improved data access

The DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries. From
a database perspective, a query is a specific request issued to the DBMS for
data manipulation—for example, to read or update the data. Simply put, a query
is a question, and an ad hoc query is a spur-of-the-moment question. The DBMS
sends back an answer (called the query result set) to the application. For
example, end users, when dealing with large amounts of sales data, might want
quick answers to questions (ad hoc queries) such as:

- What was the dollar volume of sales by product during the past six months?
- What is the sales bonus figure for each of our salespeople during the past three
months?
- How many of our customers have credit balances of 3,000 or more?

6. Improved decision making

Better-managed data and improved data access make it possible to generate
better-quality information, on which better decisions are based. The quality of the
information generated depends on the quality of the underlying data. Data quality
is a comprehensive approach to promoting the accuracy, validity, and timeliness
of the data. While the DBMS does not guarantee data quality, it provides a
framework to facilitate data quality initiatives.

7. Increased end-user productivity

The availability of data, combined with the tools that transform data into usable
information, empowers end users to make quick, informed decisions that can
make the difference between success and failure in the global economy.

Till now we have seen different benefits of database management systems. But it
has certain limitations or disadvantages.

Disadvantages of the database system

1. Increased costs
one of the disadvantages of DBMS is Database systems require sophisticated
hardware and software and highly skilled personnel. The cost of maintaining the
hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and manage a database
system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulatory compliance costs
are often overlooked when database systems are implemented.
2. Management complexity
Database systems interface with many different technologies and have a
significant impact on a company’s resources and culture. The changes
introduced by the adoption of a database system must be properly managed to
ensure that they help advance the company’s objectives. Given the fact that
database systems hold crucial company data that are accessed from multiple
sources, security issues must be assessed constantly.

3. Maintaining currency
To maximize the efficiency of the database system, you must keep your system
current. Therefore, you must perform frequent updates and apply the latest
patches and security measures to all components.

Because database technology advances rapidly, personnel training costs tend to

be significant. Vendor dependence. Given the heavy investment in technology
and personnel training, companies might be reluctant to change database
vendors.

As a consequence, vendors are less likely to offer pricing point advantages to

existing customers, and those customers might be limited in their choice of
database system components.

4. Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles

DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality.
Such new features often come bundled in new upgrade versions of the software.
Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not only do the upgrades
themselves cost money, but it also costs money to train database users and
administrators to properly use and manage the new features.
Data models
This data model is a visual or a conceptual representation of Data objects, the
associations between different data objects, and the rules.

It is defined as an abstract model that organizes data description, data

semantics, and consistency constraints of data. The data model focuses on how
data should be organized, accessed and updated in the database
management system. It does not focus on what operations will be performed
on data. Data Model is like an architect's building plan, which helps to build
conceptual models and set a relationship between data items.

Data Models ensure consistency in naming conventions, default values,

semantics, and security while ensuring the quality of the data.

There are many data models in use. However, the Relational model is the most
widely used model. Some of the popular Data Models in DBMS are:

1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-Relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object-Oriented Data Model

1. Hierarchical Model
Hierarchical data models represent relationships in a treelike format. It was the
first DBMS model. In this model, each child record has only one parent,
whereas each parent record can have one or more child records. In order to
retrieve data from a hierarchical database, the whole tree needs to be traversed
starting from the root node.

This model is recognized as the first database model created by IBM in the
1960s. Though this approach is less efficient than more recently developed
database models, it’s still used in Extensible Markup Language (XML) systems
and geographic information systems (GISs).

2. Network Model
This model is an extension of the hierarchical model. It was the most popular
model before the relational model. This model is the same as the hierarchical
model, the only difference is that a record can have more than one parent. It
replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph.

The data can be accessed faster as compared to the hierarchical model. This is
because the data is more related in the network model and there can be more
than one path to reach a particular node.

3. Entity-Relationship Model
ER(Entity-Relationship) Model is a high-level pictorial data model. In this model,
we represent any real-world thing as an Entity. It makes it easy to understand the
system using the ER diagram. ER diagram has the following three components:

Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or even a concept.

Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building, Department, etc are some of the
entities of a School Management System.

Attributes: An entity contains many properties called attributes. These are the
characteristics of that entity. Example: The entity teacher has property like
teacher id, salary, age, etc.

Relationship: Relationship tells how two attributes are related. Example: Teacher
works for a department.
In the above diagram, the entities are Teacher and Department. The attributes
of the Teacher entity are Teacher_Name, Teacher_id, Age, Salary,
Mobile_Number. The attributes of the entity Department entity are Dept_id,
Dept_name. The two entities are connected using the relationship. Here, each
teacher works for a department.

Advantages of ER Model
Simple: Conceptually, the ER Model is very easy to build. If we know the
relationship between the attributes and the entities we can easily build the ER
Diagram for the model.

Effective Communication Tool: This model is used widely by database designers

for communicating their ideas.

Easy Conversion to any Model: This model maps well to the relational model and
can be easily converted relational model by converting the ER model to the table.
This model can also be converted to any other model like network model,
hierarchical model, etc.
4. Relational Model
The Relational Model is the most widely used model. In this model, the data is
maintained in the form of a two-dimensional table. All the information is stored in
the form of rows and columns. The basic structure of a relational model is
tables. So, the tables are also called relations in the relational model. Example:
In this example, we have an Employee table.

Features of Relational Model

Tuples: Each row in the table is called a tuple. A row contains all the information
about any instance of the object. In the above example, each row has all the
information about any specific individual like the first row has information about
John.

Attribute or field: Attributes are the property that defines the table or relation. In
the above example, we have different attributes of the employee like Salary,
Mobile_no, etc.

Advantages of Relational Model

Simple: This model is more simple as compared to the network and hierarchical
model.
Scalable: This model can be easily scaled as we can add as many rows and
columns as we want.
Structural Independence: We can make changes in database structure without
changing the way to access the data. When we can make changes to the
database structure without affecting the capability of DBMS to access the data
we can say that structural independence has been achieved.

5. Object-oriented data Model

Object-oriented data models got popular in the mid-1990s as it uses the concept
of object-oriented programming and could be directly associated with it. The
“objects” involved are abstractions of real-world entities. Objects are grouped in
classes. Object-oriented databases can incorporate tables, and can also support
more complex data relationships. This approach is employed in multimedia and
hypertext databases as well as other use cases.
Database languages
Database languages provide the tools to implement and manipulate a database.
They are used to read, update and store data in a database. There are several
such languages that can be used for this purpose; one of them is SQL
(Structured Query Language).

Database languages(SQL Commands) can be broadly classified into:

➔ DDL - Data Definition Language
➔ DML - Data Manipulation Language
➔ DCL - Data Control Language
➔ TCL - Transaction Control Language

DDL - Data Definition Language

Commands for creating, defining, altering, and deleting tables. These commands
are related to Schema Definition in SQL.

CREATE Creates new table or database

ALTER Modifies an existing table

TRUNCATE Deletes data from the table

DROP Drops/Deletes a complete table

RENAME Renames a table

DML - Data Manipulation Language

Commands for manipulating the data stored in the table.

INSERT Creates a new record in the table

UPDATE Modifies an existing record

DELETE Deletes row(s) from the table

SELECT Retrieves records from one or more tables.

Note: SELECT is also categorized as Data Query Language by some authors.

TCL: Transaction Control Language

Commands for committing or undoing Transactions.

COMMIT Makes temporary change permanent

ROLLBACK Undo a change

SAVEPOINT Provides a facility to save temporarily.

DCL: Data Control Language

Commands to grant and take back authority from any database user.

GRANT Gives a privilege to users

REVOKE Takes back privileges from users

Data warehouse and Data Mining

Data warehouse
Data Warehouse is the electronic storage of a large amount of information by a
business that is designed for query and analysis instead of transaction
processing. It is a process of transforming data into information and making it
available to users for analysis.

It is a technology that aggregates structured data from one or more sources so

that it can be compared and analyzed rather than transaction processing.

A data warehouse is designed to support the management decision-making

process by providing a platform for data cleaning, data integration, and data
consolidation.

A data warehouse is a database, which is kept separate from the organization's

operational database.

Why a Data warehouse?

DWH (Data warehouse) is needed for all types of users like:

● Decision-makers who rely on the mass amount of data

● Users who use customized, complex processes to obtain information from
multiple data sources.
● It is essential for those people who want a systematic approach for making
decisions.
● If the user wants fast performance on a huge amount of data which is a
necessity for reports, grids or charts, then Data warehouse proves useful.
● A data warehouse is a first step If you want to discover 'hidden patterns' of
data-flows and groupings.

Data Mining

It is the process of finding patterns and correlations within large data sets to
identify relationships between data.
Data mining tools allow a business organization to predict customer behavior.
Data mining tools are used to build risk models and detect fraud.

Data mining is used in market analysis and management, fraud detection,

corporate analysis, and risk management.

It is a multi-disciplinary skill that uses machine learning, statistics, AI, and

database technology.

Comparison between data mining and data warehousing

Data Warehousing Data Mining

A data warehouse is a database Data mining is the process of

system that is designed for analytical analyzing data patterns.
analysis instead of transactional work.

Data is stored periodically. Data is analyzed regularly.

Data warehousing is the process of Data mining is the use of pattern

extracting and storing data to allow recognition logic to identify patterns
easier reporting.

Data warehousing is solely carried out Data mining is carried by business

by engineers users with the help of engineers

Data warehousing is the process of Data mining is considered a process

pooling all relevant data together of extracting data from large data sets
Enterprise Content Management
ECM is an umbrella term that describes the combination of methods, tools, and
strategies that support capturing and managing content, as well as the storage,
preservation, and delivery of information throughout its lifecycle.

ECM includes electronic document management, Web content management,

digital asset management, and electronic records management (ERM). ERM
infrastructures help reduce costs, easily share content across the enterprise,
minimize risk, automate expensive time-intensive and manual processes, and
consolidate multiple Web sites onto a single platform.

Enterprise content management (ECM) has become an important data

management technology, particularly for large and medium-sized organizations.

The definition of content can range significantly, but it generally refers to any
information that employees use to do their work. In the context of traditional
ECM, content often took the form of paper documents such as invoices,
resumes, and contracts. As technology has advanced, the definition of content
has broadened to include video and audio files, social media posts, email, web
content, and more. ECM can handle both unstructured and structured content:

Unstructured content refers to information that doesn’t have a predefined

format and can include content such as Office documents, PDFs, and emails.
Modern businesses generate volumes of documents, messages, and memos
that, by their nature, contain unstructured content (data or information).
Therefore, the contents of the e-mail and instant messages, spreadsheets, faxes,
reports, case notes, Web pages, voice mails, contracts, and presentations
cannot be put into a database.

Structured content refers to data that is contained and defined, such as

databases and code repositories. Unstructured content cannot be put into a
database but many of these materials are business records that need to be
retained. As materials are not needed for current operations or decisions, they
are archived - moved into longer-term storage. Because these materials
constitute business records, they must be retained and made available when
requested by auditors, investigators, the SEC, the IRS, or other authorities. To be
retrievable, the records must be organized and indexed like structured data in a
database.

Four key forces are driving organizations to adopt a strategic, enterprise-level

approach to planning and deploying content systems:

● Compounding growth of content generated by organizations.

● The need to integrate that content within business processes.
● The need to support increasing sophistication for business-user content
access and interaction.
● The need to maintain governance and control over content to ensure
regulatory compliance and preparedness for legal discovery.

Components of ECM

ECM can be broken down into five major components: capture, manage, store,
preserve and deliver. The purpose of each component, as defined by the
Association for Intelligent Information Management (AIIM), is as follows:

1. The capture component involves creating information by converting paper

documents into electronic formats, obtaining and collecting electronic files
into a cohesive structure, and organizing information. Information can
include content like invoices, contracts and research reports.
2. The manage component connects, modifies and employs information
through means such as document management, collaborative software,
web content management and records management.
3. The store component temporarily backs up frequently changing
information in the short term within flexible folder structures to allow users
to view or edit information.
4. The preserve component backs up infrequently changing information in
the medium and long term, and is usually accomplished through records
management It is commonly used to help organizations comply with
government and other regulations.
 5. The deliver component provides clients and end-users with requested
information.

Areas of business for ECM

Some specific areas of business that benefit from the use of ECM software
include the following:

Contracts management: ECM software allows users to digitally collaborate and

ensure that contracts are reviewed, edited, and approved on time by
automatically routing the documents and notifying the appropriate people when
contracts need attention.

HR automation: ECM software can remove the need for paper-based employee
files while also improving new hire processes, streamlining the organization of
HR-related information and guaranteeing compliance with HR onboarding
mandates.

Accounts payable/receivable automation: ECM software enables users to

accurately match, distribute and approve purchase orders, delivery tickets and
invoices, resulting in reduced late fees and enhanced efficiency.
Network and telecommunication
Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Telecommunications
The term telecommunications generally refers to all types of long-distance
communications that use common carriers, including telephone, television, and
radio. Data communications is a subset of telecommunications and is achieved
through the use of telecommunication technologies.

In modern organizations, communications technologies are integrated.

Businesses are finding electronic communications essential for minimizing time
and distance limitations. Telecommunications plays a special role when
customers, suppliers, vendors, and regulators are part of a multinational
organization in a world that is continuously awake and doing business
somewhere 24 hours a day, 7 days a week (24/7).

Telecommunications system

A telecommunications system is a collection of compatible hardware and

software arranged to communicate information from one location to another.
These systems can transmit text, data, graphics, voice, documents, or video
information.

A typical telecommunications system has two sides: the transmitter and the
receiver.

The major components are:

Hardware: All types of computers and communications processors (such as

modems or small computers dedicated solely to communications).
Communications media: The physical media through which electronic signals
are transferred; includes both wired lines and wireless media.

Communications networks: The linkages among computers and

communications devices.

Communications processors: Devices that perform specialized data

communication functions; include front-end processors, controllers, multiplexers,
and modems.

Communications software: Software that controls the telecommunications

system and the entire transmission process.

Data communications providers: Regulated utilities or private firms that

provide data communications services.

Communications protocols: The rules for transferring information across the

system

Communications applications: Electronic data interchange (EDI),

teleconferencing, videoconferencing, e-mail, facsimile, electronic funds transfer,
and others

Electronic Signals

Telecommunications media can carry two basic types of signals:

1. Analog signals
2. Digital signals

Analog signals are continuous waves that "carry" information by altering the
amplitude and frequency of the waves. For example, the sound is analog and
travels to our ears in the form of waves - the greater the height (amplitude) of the
waves, the louder the sound; the more closely packed the waves (higher
frequency), the higher the pitch. Radio, telephones, and recording equipment
historically transmitted and received analog signals, but they are rapidly changing
to digital signals.

Digital signals are discrete on-off pulses that convey information in terms of 1s
and 0s, just like the central processing unit in computers. Digital signals have
several advantages over analog signals. First, digital signals tend to be less
affected by interference, or "noise." Noise (e.g., static) can seriously alter the
information-carrying characteristics of analog signals, whereas it is generally
easier, in spite of the noise, to distinguish between an "on" and an "off."
Consequently, digital signals can be repeatedly strengthened over long
distances, minimizing the effect of any noise. Second, because computer-based
systems process digitally, digital communications among computers require no
conversion from digital to analog to digital.
Communications processors
Communications processors are hardware devices that support data
transmission and reception across a telecommunications system. These devices
include modems, multiplexors, front-end processors, and concentrators.

Modem:
A modem is a communications device that converts a computer's digital signals
to analog signals before they are transmitted over standard telephone lines.
The telephone system was designed as an analog network to carry voice signals
or sounds in an analog wave format. In order for this type of circuit to carry digital
information, that information must be converted into an analog wave pattern.
The conversion from digital to analog is called modulation, and the reverse is
demodulation. The device that performs these two processes is called a
modem, a contraction of the terms modulate/demodulate. Modems are always
used in pairs.

Digital subscriber line (DSL)

Digital subscriber line (DSL) service is a broadband digital transmission service
offered on ordinary telephone lines. DSL is typically used by telephone
companies to offer data, video, and voice services over these existing copper
telephone lines.

DSL does not displace or disrupt the operation and quality of the existing analog
telephone service offered on copper wire telephone lines so that both analog
phone and broadband services can be simultaneously offered.

A DSL filter or splitter is used to separate voice from data in the same telephone
line.

There are two types of DSL:

Symmetric DSL - SDSL, splits the upstream and downstream frequencies
evenly, providing equal speeds to both uploading and downloading data transfer.
This connection may provide 2 Mbps upstream and downstream. It is mostly
preferred by small organizations.
Asymmetric DSL - ADSL, provides a wider frequency range for downstream
transfers, which offers several times faster downstream speeds. An ADSL
connection may offer 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps upstream. It is
because most users download more data than they upload.

Multiplexers
A multiplexer is an electronic device that takes in multiple signals and outputs a
single signal. It works as an electronic switch.

Multiplexers or “mux” take multiple inputs and select or choose which one of the
inputs is passed through to the output of the device. A multiplexer can be as
simple as having two inputs, one output, and one select line. If a logic one is
present on the select line, it might choose input A that would be passed to the
output. If the select line had a logic zero, then it would then select input B to be
passed through to the output of the mux.

In today’s electronics where systems have wide data busses, multiplexers are
used throughout electronics, to help to housekeep and of several different groups
of data. They can almost take on the behavior of stoplight, where they can
control what gets to go through. Multiplexers are used to help improve the
amount of data throughput in digital systems, as they are efficient and handling
large quantities of data traffic.

A multiplexer in its simplest form is a switch - a switch that is a multiple-input,

single output device. When multiplexers are used, they are usually used together
with a demultiplexer that takes single inputs and generates multiple outputs, the
inverse of a traditional multiplexer.

Cable modems
Cable modems are offered by cable television companies in many areas as a
high-speed way to access a telecommunications network. These modems
operate on one channel of the TV coaxial cable. Cost and transmission speed
are comparable to that of a DSL. A cable modem gives users high-speed Internet
access through a cable TV network up to 10 Mbps (10 million bits per second), or
about 100 times faster than a traditional dial-up modem. When a cable modem
unit is installed next to the computer, a splitter is placed on the side of the
household. It separates the coaxial cable line serving the cable modem from the
line that serves the TV sets. A separate coaxial cable line is then run from the
splitter to the cable modem. Cable modems typically connect to computers
through a standard 100 Base-T Ethernet interface. Data can be transmitted
between the cable modem and computer at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
Communication channels
For any networking to be effective, a raw stream of data is to be transported from
one device to other over some medium. Various Communication
channels(transmission media) can be used for the transfer of data. These
transmission media may be of two types -

● Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through a cabling

system that has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fiber optic
wires, etc.

● Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free

space in form of electromagnetic signals. For example, radio waves,
lasers, etc.

Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of
bandwidth, speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc.

Guided

Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because
of good performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in telephone
lines. However, if two or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with
each other’s signals. To reduce this electromagnetic interference, pair of copper
wires are twisted together in helical shape like a DNA molecule. Such twisted
copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce interference between nearby
twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each pair.

Up to 25 twisted pairs are put together in a protective covering to form twisted

pair cables that are the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cables are the oldest and most popular cables all over the
world. This is due to the many advantages that they offer −

Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
Least expensive for short distances
The entire network does not go down if a part of the network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some
disadvantages too −

The signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

The high error rate for distances greater than 100m
Very thin and hence breaks easily
Not suitable for broadband connections
Characteristics of communication media
Some of the characteristics and the factors that determine the functionality,
capacity and quality of Communication Media are:

Speed
How quickly data can be received from the Internet or other network, or how fast
a connection can deliver data to a computer or mobile device is Download speed.
Similarly, how quickly data can be sent to a network or how fast a connection can
transfer data from the source computer or mobile device is upload speed.
Typically, networks are configured so that downloading is faster than uploading.

Cost
A major factor in the purchase decision of any Transmission Media is its cost. For
a new fast technology, the cost is also more expensive. Purchase decision
depends upon application and standard of the resources

Bandwidth
The throughput capacity of a network, which is a measure of the speed at which
data is transmitted. Bandwidth depends on what protocol is used (802.11b,
802.11g, 802.11n, 802.16, etc.) and how much of the signal is available for
processing. The weaker the signal, the lower the bandwidth, and the slower the
transmission speed. As an analogy, consider a pipe used to transport water. The
larger the diameter of the pipe, the greater the throughput (volume) of water that
flows through it.
All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium,
the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.

Interference
Interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
EMI(Electromagnetic interference consists) of outside electromagnetic noise that
distorts the signal in a medium.
Transmission impairment
When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to the
transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.

Transmission impairment could be caused due to the following reasons:

Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of
energy.

Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the

signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals having
different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to delay distortion.

Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some

unwanted signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Protocol
The standards or set of rules that govern how devices on a network exchange
information (communicate) and how they need to function in order to "talk to each
other."
Wireless broadband networks and
collaboration
Wireless broadband networks

Wireless broadband (WiBB) is high-speed internet and data service delivered

through a wireless local area network (WLAN) or wireless wide area network
(WWAN).

Factors contributing to enterprises adopting Wireless broadband networks:

● New wireless technologies and standards.

● High-speed wireless networks.
● Multitasking mobile devices.
● More robust mobile OSs and applications.
● Increased competitive pressure as others start adopting mobile
technology.
● Overall increased speed of business.

Generally, wireless broadband networks can be categorized into two types:

1. Fixed broadband wireless networks

2. Mobile broadband wireless networks

1. Fixed broadband wireless networks

Fixed broadband wireless technologies can be defined as high-speed wireless

networks that connect to stationary locations such as homes or offices.
Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) and Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMax) technologies are the fixed wireless technologies.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a technology that allows computers to share a network or Internet
connection wirelessly without the need to connect to a commercial network.
Wi-Fi networks usually consist of a router, which transmits the signal, and one or
more adapters, which receive the signal and are usually attached to computers.

Wi-Fi networks beam large chunks of data over short distances using part of the
radio spectrum, or they can extend over larger areas, such as municipal Wi-Fi
networks. Municipal networks are not common because of huge expenses.

WiMax
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax) is an emerging fixed
broadband wireless technology that will deliver last-mile broadband connectivity
in a larger geographic area than Wi-Fi. It is an alternative to cable and DSL.

It is expected to provide coverage anywhere from one to six miles wide. Such
WiMax coverage range is expected to provide fixed and nomadic wireless
broadband connectivity without necessarily having a line-of-site (LOS) with a
base station. WiMax will also enable greater mobility, higher speed data
applications, range, and throughput than its counterpart, Wi-Fi.

2. Mobile broadband wireless networks

The evolution of mobile service started with the first generation (1G) networks.
The 1G network was replaced by second-generation (2G) networks, which are
mainly used for voice applications. These 2G systems provided circuit-switched
data communication services at a low speed.

The 2.5G is an enhancement of the 2G technologies to provide increased data

capacity on the 2G networks. This led to the introduction of technologies such as
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for Global
Evolution (EDGE).

Third-generation (3G) networks started with the vision to develop a single global
standard for high-speed data and high-quality voice services. The goal was to
have all users worldwide use a single standard that would allow for true global
roaming.
3G technology was developed around the year 2000 and is able to carry a lot
more data. In fact, 3G does not refer to a specific technology but to any network
technology that provides a data transfer rate of at least 200 kilobits per second. A
number of different 3G technologies exist, including upgraded versions of 2G
technologies as well as some new ones.

Each generation of technology uses different communication protocols. This

includes details on which specific frequencies are being used, how many
channels are involved and how information is converted between digital and
analog. Different protocols mean that with each generation, all the hardware
needs to be upgraded, including the cell towers, network processing centers and
the phones themselves. Different technologies within a single generation are also
not always compatible, which means that you cannot assume you can use your
3G phone in a different country.

The 4G is a new generation of wireless intended to complement and replace the

3G systems. Accessing information anywhere, anytime, with a seamless
connection to a wide range of information and services, and receiving a large
volume of information, data, pictures, video, and so on, are the key features of
the 4G infrastructures. 4G delivers higher data transfer rates, approximately 10
times faster compared to 3G. These speeds are competitive with broadband
Internet services available in homes and offices.
There has been tremendous growth in data transfer over cellular networks. If you
are like most smartphone users, you check email, upload photos, and download
videos. With more than six billion mobile phones being used, this means a whole
lot of network traffic.
Collaboration

Wireless Broadband Alliance

Wireless Broadband Alliance (WBA) is a global organization that connects

people with the latest Wi-Fi initiatives. Founded in 2003, the vision of the
Wireless Broadband Alliance (WBA) is to drive seamless, interoperable service
experiences via Wi-Fi within the global wireless ecosystem. WBA’s mission is to
enable collaboration between service providers, technology companies, cities,
regulators and organizations to achieve that vision. WBA’s membership is
comprised of major operators, identity providers and leading technology
companies across the Wi-Fi ecosystem with the shared vision.

WBA undertakes programs and activities to address business and technical

issues, as well as opportunities, for member companies. WBA work areas
include standards development, industry guidelines, trials, certification and
advocacy. Its key programs include NextGen Wi-Fi, OpenRoaming, 5G, IoT,
Testing & Interoperability and Policy & Regulatory Affairs, with member-led Work
Groups dedicated to resolving standards and technical issues to promote end-to-
end services and accelerate business opportunities.

The WBA Board includes AT&T, Boingo Wireless, BT, China Telecom, Cisco
Systems, Comcast, Intel, KT Corporation, Liberty Global, NTT DOCOMO,
Orange and Ruckus Wireless.
Network Management and Portals
Network management refers to the processes, tools and applications used to
administer, operate and maintain network infrastructure. Performance
management and fault analysis are also included in network management. To
put it simply, network management is the process of keeping your network
healthy, which keeps your business healthy.

Components of Network Management

● Network administration
● Network maintenance
● Network operation
● Network provisioning
● Network security

Why Network Management

Effective communication is key to success in everything from business
partnerships to personal and professional relationships. With few exceptions,
when the network goes down or access is blocked, so does the ability to operate
or function. Imagine a network meltdown in which you could not access the
Internet, e-mail, voice-mail, software, and data files. At most companies,
employees would have nothing to do without network connectivity. Obvious
damages when a company cannot operate or fulfill orders include lost sales and
productivity, financial consequences from not being able to send and receive
payments, and inability to process payroll and inventory.

The whole point of IT network management is to keep the network infrastructure

and network management system running smoothly and efficiently. Network
management helps organizations to:

Avoid costly network disruptions

Improve IT productivity
Improve network security
Gain a holistic view of network performance
Network Management Portal
Network Management Portal provides access to information about your network
connection and self-service administration of network services to authorized
contacts. The portal can be accessed on both desktop and mobile devices. Once
you are logged in to the portal, you’ll see relevant information about your network
connection including your workstation’s IP address, MAC address, and an
estimate of the network performance for the subnet (if the information is
available).

Features provided by the Network Management Portal are:

● Information about your network connection

● Self-service administration of network services
● Ability to edit your contact information
● Advanced connection information, including DHCP lease, wall-port, and
router information.
● DNS Resources
● Developer API

Contact groups and contact group management:

● View the membership of groups you are a member of.
● Add/remove contacts from the groups you manage (admin contacts only).
● View the resources belonging to a contact group you are a member of.