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GROUNDWATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF QUATERNARY AQUIFER, WADI

QENA BASIN, EASTERN DESERT, EGYPT

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Egyptian Journal of Geology, v. 62, 2018, p.2 1-35

GROUNDWATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF QUATERNARY AQUIFER, WADI

QENA BASIN, EASTERN DESERT, EGYPT.
Samah Mahmoud Morsy
Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT

The present study focused on assessing the quality of groundwater of the Quaternary aquifer in Wadi
Qena Basin to deduce its suitability for different purposes according to the World Health Organization and
Egyptian standards. Groundwater samples are collected from twenty three water points and analyzed to
determine physicochemical parameters. Two effective techniques are used to develop the assessment of
groundwater quality in the concerned aquifer; Groundwater Quality Information Mapping and Water
Quality Index Estimation and mapping. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to establish the
integration of attribute data base and spatial data base for the studied aquifer. Therefore, by using GIS Tools;
spatial interpolation Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) as well as Reclassify and Weight Overlay methods
are carried out to generate Water Quality Information map for the concerned aquifer. The Water Quality
Index (WQI) estimation and mapping is used to generate WQI map by using GIS spatial IDW method. The
obtained maps delineated the groundwater in studied aquifer into zones according to its suitability for human
consumption. These maps revealed congruent results, where most of groundwater in this aquifer exists in
the Not-suitable zone for drinking purposes however; it is suitable for irrigation purposes. The best sites for
groundwater extractions from the Quaternary aquifer in Wadi Qena Basin are detected at the eastern side of
the study area; where the groundwater exists in the Potable zone which suitable for drinking and human
consumption. The spatial data base constructed in GIS technique is helpful for monitoring and managing
groundwater quality of the Quaternary aquifer in the study area.
Keywords: Groundwater quality assessment, GIS, Water Quality Index (WQI), Wadi Qena Basi

INTRODUCTION

Groundwater in Wadi Qena Basin is available from different water bearing formations, occurring under
different hydrogeologic conditions. These aquifers from the younger to the older are: Alluvium aquifer
(Quaternary), Carbonate and sandstone aquifer (Eocene-Pliocene), Nubia sandstone aquifer (Turonian-
Santonian) and Fractured basement complex aquifer (Precambrian) (Hussien, 2017). These hydrogeologic
features control the groundwater occurrence, movement and quality. The Quaternary aquifer represents the
most promising water bearing formation in the study area. Currently, it is the main source of water for the
inhabitants at Wadi Qena Basin. The quality of groundwater in this aquifer is affected by variable sources
of pollution. Mixing from waste water and agrochemicals, due to urbanization and agricultural activities, is
the main pollution sources detected by Fathy et al., (2009). Ahmed et al., (2017) presented an integrated
geoelectrical and hydrogeological study on Wadi Qena basin; and concluded that; the groundwater in the
study area is unsuitable for drinking and other domestic uses and could be used for irrigation and some
industrial activities under certain precautions. This study represents an assessment for groundwater quality
of the Quaternary aquifer in Qena Basin to obtain optimal results help in groundwater management in this
basin. Two effective techniques are used to develop the groundwater quality assessment in the concerned
aquifer; Groundwater Quality Information Mapping and Water Quality Index Estimation and mapping.
The present study used GIS as a helpful tool that provides a good integration of various data bases
(attribute data base and spatial data base) for the studied aquifer. Several studies have used GIS as a data
base system in order to obtain maps of water quality according to concentration values of different chemical
 Morsy, S. M.
constituents such as Skubon, 2005; Yammani, 2007, Balakrishnan et al., 2011. WQI estimation and mapping
technique is used to assess the suitability of groundwater for human consumption. It is initially proposed by
Horton (1965) and Brown et al, (1970), then many different methods for the WQI's calculation have been
developed by Debels et al., 2005; Saeedi et al., 2009; Tsegaye et al., 2006 and others. The main objectives
of this study are: (1) to cast light on the hydrogeological sitting of the aquifer, (2) to assess the
physicochemical characteristics of the groundwater and generate Water Quality Information map, (3) to
obtain Water Quality Index (WQI) map, and (4) to discuss the effects of each water quality parameter on
the WQI values.
STUDY AREA
The area of study occupies the southern part of Wadi Qena Basin (Fig. 1). Many previous studies have
investigated the geomorphological, geological, and hydrologic features of the Wadi Qena. Aggour (1997)
described the geomorphologic and geologic conditions of the wadi. Elewa et al. (2000) described the
landforms of Wadi Qena basin. Based on the topographic, geologic maps, DEM and Landsat images besides
field observations; Hussien, (2017) subdivided the area of study into two main landforms as shown in figure
2. Geology of the area has been studied by many authors among them are Said (1962, 1971, 1990), Ahmed
(1983), El-,Shamy (1988), El-Hussaini et al. (1994), Abu El-Ella (2004), Galal (2005) Elewa et al. (2006),
Elmalt (2008), , Abdel Gowad (2010), Seleem et al. (2013), Seleem (2014) and Abdel Moneim (2014).
Based on the literatures; the lithostratigraphic succession of the study area ranges in age from Precambrian
to Quaternary. Figure 3 shows the rock units and geologic formations along the area of Wadi Qena Basin.
According to Aggour 1997 and RIGW 1998; the Quaternary alluvial deposits in the study area are formed
of sand, gravel, and boulders filling the courses of the hydrographic drainage network. These sediments
have great potentiality to store and transmit great amounts of groundwater. These deposits consist of the
weathering products of the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. They have lateral and vertical variations in the
lithological composition according to the dominated rock exposures through the hydrographic basins. The
thickness of the Quaternary alluvial deposits varies laterally across Wadi Qena stream because of the
undulation of subsurface strata and differential erosion of the surface layers. The thickness of these deposits
generally decreases toward the Red Sea Mountains and increase toward the Nile Valley. Generally, the
thickness is increasing downstream of the wadi, where it exceeds 100 m. The Quaternary aquifer in the
study area is recharged directly through the infiltration of the local precipitation as well as the upward
leakage of groundwater from the deep Nubia sandstone aquifer through the deep seated NW-SE faults which
act as conduits for groundwater as shown in figure (4). Elewa et al., (2000) and Elewa and Abu El-Ella
(2011) indicated the hydraulic connection between the Quaternary aquifer and the underlying Nubian
aquifer system in Wadi Qena through the structural region.

Fig. 1: Location
map of the study
area showing the
distribution of
water samples from
Quaternary aquifer
in Wadi Qena
basin.

22
 Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting

Fig.2:
Geomorphologic map
of Wadi Qena Basin,
Easter Desert, Egypt.
(After Hussien, 2017)

Fig. 3: Geologic map

of the study area
(After Conoco, 1987).

METHODOLOGY
Groundwater levels in twenty- three wells penetrating the Quaternary aquifer in the study area were
measured using a suitable water level meter (See fig.1). Groundwater samples were collected from these
wells and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters following US Environmental Protection Agency, 1997
(USEPA) method 300.1 The anions (SO42-, Cl-) and cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+) concentrations were

23
 Morsy, S. M.
measured by Dionex Ion Chromatograph (Model: ICS 1100). While, carbonate and bicarbonate (HCO 3 -,
CO32-) were determined by titration using sulfuric acid according to the methods of Rainwater and Thatcher
(1960) as well as Fishman and Friedman (1985). The measurements were conducted at the laboratories of
Hydrogeochemistry Department, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.

Fig.4: N-S Geologic

cross-section along
traverse A-A′ in Fig.
(1). (Modified after
Garpad, 1985)

Methodology used in this study is summarized in the flow chart as shown in figure (5). Two techniques
were used to assess the groundwater quality of the concerned aquifer for drinking and human consumptions;
Groundwater Quality Information Mapping and Water Quality Index Estimation and mapping.
Groundwater Quality Information Mapping
This technique is used to delineate the spatial variations of groundwater quality in the study area for
different purposes and classify the groundwater into three zones Potable, Permissible and Non-potable zone;
as the following:
i. Spatial distribution thematic maps of water quality parameters TDS, TH and Cl - (Skubon, 2005;
Yammani, 2007, Balakrishnan et al., 2011) are obtained by integration of attribute data base (water
quality data) and spatial data base in Arc GIS software.
i. Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method in GIS tools is used to delineate the spatial interpolation of
groundwater pollutants.
ii. Based on WHO (1996 b, 2004 and 2011) standards for water quality, each water quality parameter is
ranked according to its criteria for suitability and non-suitability (table 1).
iii. A reclassified thematic map is produced for each water quality parameter according to its ranking
criteria.
iv. Arc GIS Spatial Analyst extension is used to weight overlay the reclassified thematic maps by weights;
40% TDS, 30% Cl- and 30%TH and finally obtain spatial integration for groundwater quality zone
(Potable, Permissible and Non- Potable) map for drinking purposes. Total hardness (TH) and sodium
adsorption ratio (SAR) of groundwater samples were calculated according to Todd (1980).
v. GIS spatial interpolation technique with Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method is used to generate
spatial distribution groundwater quality information map for drinking based on TDS classification after
WHO (2011) and Davis and De Wiest (1966) (Table 2)
vi. The groundwater quality map for irrigation purposes is generated by equal (50%) weight overlay of the
reclassified thematic maps of TDS and SAR.
Water Quality Index Estimation (WQI) and Mapping
This technique is used to assess the suitability of groundwater in the study area for human consumption.
The WQI in this study is calculated following the method described; Sahu and Sikdar (2008), Raychaudhuri
et al., (2014), Asadi et al., (2007) and Pradhan et al., (2001) as following:

24
 Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting
i. Each of chemical parameters (pH, TDS, TH, CL-, SO42-, HCO3-, Na+ , Ca+2, Mg+2, K+) has been
weighted (wi) from 1 to 5 according to its environmental and healthy effect (Table 3) (Dwivedi and
Pathak, 2007, Srinivasamoorthy et al., 2008 and Mouna et al., 2011).

Fig. 5: Flowchart showing the main materials, techniques, tools and methods used in this study.

25
 Morsy, S. M.
Table 1: Criteria for acceptability of water quality parameters based on WHO (2011)
Parameter Rank Criteria Acceptability
TDS 1 <500 Desired
2 500-1000 Acceptable
3 >1000 Not Acceptable

TH 1 <500 Desired
2 500-1000 Acceptable
3 >1000 Not Acceptable

Cl- 1 <250 Desired

2 250-1000 Acceptable
3 >1000 Not Acceptable
Table 2: Groundwater classification according to Davis and De Wiest, 1996.
Water Type Concentration of dissolved constituent ppm)
Fresh Water 0-1,000
Brackish Water 1,000 -10,000
Saline Water 10,000 - 100,000
Brine Water > 100,000
Table 3: Water quality parameters, WHO standards and assigned unit weights
Chemical parameter WHO standard Weight (wi) Relative weight (WI)
pH 8.5 3 0.107143
TDS (mg/l) 500 5 0.178571
-
Cl (mg/l) 250 3 0.107143
TH 300 4 0.142857
SO4 -2(mg/l) 250 3 0.107143
HCO3- (mg/l) 120 2 0.071429
+
Na (mg/l) 200 3 0.107143
Ca2+ (mg/l) 75 2 0.071429
Mg2+ (mg/l) 50 2 0.071429
+
K (mg/l) 12 1 0.035714
∑wi=28 ∑WI=1

ii. WQI is calculated by applying equations [1- 4]:

𝒘𝒊
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭: 𝐖𝐈 = ∑𝒏 (1)
𝒊=𝟏 𝒘𝒊

𝑪𝒊
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠: 𝒒𝒊 = 𝑺𝒊 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (2)
𝑪𝒊 is the concentration of each chemical parameter in each water sample in mg/l
𝑺𝒊 is the WHO standard for each chemical parameter in mg/l.
𝑺𝑰𝒊 = 𝐖𝐈 × 𝒒𝒊 (3)
WQI=∑ 𝑺𝑰𝒊 (4)

26
 Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting
iii. WQI values are classified into five classes according to the type of water (Sahu and Sikdar, 2008)
for human consumption (Table 4).
iv. GIS spatial interpolation technique with Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method is used to obtain
WQI spatial distribution map.
Table 4: WQI values classification (Sahu and Sikdar, 2008)
WQI Value Water Quality
< 50 Excellent
50 -100 Good
100 – 200 Poor
200 – 300 Very Poor
> 300 Unfit for human consumption
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of field measurements and phsico-chemical analysis for the collected groundwater samples
are shown in table 5. The Quaternary aquifer in the study area is characterized by unconfined conditions
and the depth to water from ground surface ranges from 2.7m (msl) (at well no.2&3) to 35.95m (msl) (at
well no. 51). The water table map of the concerned aquifer (Fig. 6) shows recharge area at the northeastern
part of study area; this is attributed to the presence of recharge sources from the upward flow from Nubia
sandstone aquifer through NW-SE faults and fractured basement rocks as well as the surface recharge from
the upstream courses of wadies of alluvium deposits. So the flow direction of groundwater in this aquifer is
defined from the northeast to southwest. A second direction of flow is from north to south direction due to
excessive pumping for irrigation activities at the south part of the studied area, where the estimated discharge
from shallow dug wells and open pits reaches 107m3/hour and the total drawdown after 4 hours pumping
reaches 1.22m (EDP, 2006).

Fig.6: Water table map for the Quaternary alluvium aquifer at Wadi Qena basin, Eastern Desert Egypt.
Groundwater Quality Assessment
[Link] of Groundwater for Drinking
The total dissolved solids (TDS) of groundwater in the concerned aquifer comprise inorganic salts
(principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates). The
concentrations of TDS in water vary considerably from locality to another locality owing to differences in
the solubility of minerals forming the water- bearing formations. Where the TDS values vary greatly
27
 Morsy, S. M.
between 587 mg/l at well no. 2 to 36507 mg/l at well no. 34. The low salinity values are attributed to the
replenishment from fresh groundwater recharge sources at the eastern part of the study area. The high
salinity values are attributed to dissolving processes of natural salts present in the host sediments and soil
in addition to recycling and leaching through irrigation. Based on Davis and Dewiest classification (1996),
three main types of groundwater which are; fresh, brackish and saline waters are recorded in the studied
water samples (Fig. 7).

Fig.7: TDS Spatial

distribution based on
Davis and Dewiest
classification (1996)

The TDS spatial distribution map for drinking purposes in the study area according to WHO (2011) (Fig.
8) shows that almost all the groundwater in the area exceed the permissible limit and unsuitable for drinking
except at the eastern part of the study area.
As a result of the Water Quality Information mapping technique; the obtained Water Quality Information
map (Fig. 9) detected that the groundwater in the study area is Non-potable except at the eastern part of the
wadi where the groundwater ranges from permissible to potable.

Fig.8: TDS spatial

distribution map for
drinking in the study
area according to
WHO (2011).

28
 Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting

Table 5: Values of various physico-chemical parameters for groundwater samples, of the Quaternary aquifer, in Wadi Qena basin.
34 112 36507 16520.28 3939.47 1627.22 7442.45 80.66 0 56 2851.08 20510.5 7.71 38400 25.18
35 116 4917 1836.138 501.28 142.18 950.48 21.3 0 79.33 1377.84 1844.12 8.11 6160 9.65
—
Well No. Water TDS TH Ca ++
Mg ++
Na +
K +
CO3 HCO3- SO4— CL -
pH E.C SAR
Level mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
µMhos/cm
(m amsL )
2 648.3 587 78.185 22.91 5.1 133.54 3.58 9.18 302.99 74.65 34.75 8.69 610 6.57
3 647.1 598 67.353 20.25 4.08 150.62 1.5 4.59 312.66 75.11 29.18 8.75 672 7.98
17 195.82 32432 2282.254 575.16 205.94 9322.53 131.13 0 177.33 20138.98 1881.11 8.39 27670 84.86
21 75 5765 2234.723 587.57 186.78 1122.04 27.19 0 112 1870.79 1858.9 8.3 7160 1032
22 71.86 5163 1781.805 490.83 135.3 1084.92 18.58 0 88.66 1656.18 1688.9 8.23 6610 11.18
23 6009 2229.149 595 180.89 1227.25 42.72 0 84 1976.38 1902.31 8.17 6780 11.3
24 7653 2819.917 781.32 211.37 1485.91 20.47 9.18 112 2365.67 2667.42 8.14 9440 12.17
25 9194 3517.95 971.35 265.75 1742.67 26.53 0 121.33 2659.38 3407.46 8.15 10950 12.78
26 74.07 7683 2915.341 806.96 219.01 1499.45 25.41 0 107.33 2371.02 2653.62 8.18 9610 12.08
28 106 17076 6655.5 1769.22 544.5 3400.32 54.86 0 121.33 2403.03 8783.15 7.94 21640 18.13
29 98.5 6619 2504.502 676.31 198.47 1333.64 31.63 0 74.66 1859.56 2444.77 8.1 8260 11.59
30 102 11515 5619.346 1680.2 346.06 1773.07 35.45 0 56 2269.51 5355.17 7.88 14420 10.29
31 11 10329 4089.717 1195.35 268.62 2007.98 29.97 0 74.66 1907.56 4845.13 7.97 13600 13.66
33 108 10072 3936.212 1106.15 285.57 1903.86 30.5 0 195.99 2454.85 4095.1 7.62 12640 13.2
36 124 4029 1712.31 474.84 128.1 677.58 16.34 0 93.33 1201.56 1437.15 7.74 5050 7.12
37 132 5948 2676.669 779.42 177.59 943.32 18.15 0 167.99 1687.65 2173.48 7.58 7270 7.93
41 115.8 7228 2707.473 774.21 188.28 1422.8 20.11 0 93.33 1597.34 3131.9 7.61 9190 11.89
42 133 6918 2843.4 795.83 208.25 1208.35 25.53 0 65.33 2172.54 2442.29 7.29 8350 9.86
50 72.44 6138 2463.283 595.19 237.88 1130.81 32.76 0 65.33 1966.72 2109.33 7.94 7690 9.91
51 69.85 10315 3162.529 787.46 291.19 2218.24 62.09 0 167.99 3307.58 3480.77 7.86 12170 17.15
52 8984 2383.634 588.16 222.74 2190.8 21.07 0 121.33 2032.47 3807.44 7.69 11440 19.51

29
 Morsy, S. M.

Fig.9: Groundwater
Quality Information
Map for drinking in
the study area.

ii. Evaluation of groundwater for livestock and poultry

The National Academy of Science NAS (1972) put the principle criteria for evaluation of the
water for livestock depending on the concentration of total dissolved solids (Table 6). The
concentrations should not exceed 5,000 ppm as far as possible. However, the animals can drink
water with moderately high dissolved solids (about 10000 ppm) when Na Cl is the main
constituent. Figure (10) shows the spatial distribution of TDS in the study area based on NAS,
1972 classification. It is obvious that the majority of groundwater in the studied aquifer belongs
to class 6. Relatively lower salinity is found at the western part of the study area. Gradual
decreasing in groundwater salinity occurs to the east direction of the study area results in different
groundwater characters for different uses.

Fig.10: Groundwater
quality map for
livestock and poultry
in the study area
based on NAS, 1972
Classification.

iii. Evaluation of groundwater for irrigation

Based on the groundwater quality mapping technique; Groundwater Quality map for irrigation
purposes by equal weighting of TDS and SAR is obtained (Fig. 11). It reflects that most of the
groundwater in the study area has excessive salinity and undesirable ion exchange. Except some
scattered small areas located at the eastern and western parts are of good groundwater characters.

30
 Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting

Table 6: Classification of groundwater for livestock and poultry (National Academy of Science,
NAS 1972).
Class Concentration (TDS) Characters
1 < 1,000 Excellent for all classes of livestock and poultry
2 1,000 - 2,999 Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry.
3 3,000 - 4,999 Satisfactory for livestock
4 5,000 - 6,999 Can be used with reasonable safety
5 7.000 - 10,000 Unfit for poultry and probably for swine
6 > 10,000 Not recommended for use under any conditions

Fig.11: Groundwater
Quality map for
irrigation purposes by
Equal Weighting of
TDS and SAR.

Fig.12: Water
Quality Index
map in the
study area.

CONCLOUSION
The present study introduces a new sight for the groundwater quality of the Quaternary aquifer
in Wadi Qena Basin, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Two effective techniques are carried out to assess the
groundwater quality in the concerned aquifer which are; Groundwater Quality Information
Mapping technique and Water Quality Index Estimation and mapping technique. The GIS is used
as a helpful tool to integrate, analyze and display of both attribute data base (non-spatial) and
spatial data base of the study area. The resultant maps from the applied techniques revealed that,

31
 Morsy, S. M.

the groundwater in the eastern portion of the studied aquifer exists in the Potable zone and is
suitable for human consumption. This is mainly attributed to the direct replenishment from the
nearby watershed area and the lithologic composition of the parent rocks which are formed mainly
of granite as well as its closeness to recharge sources from the fractured basement rocks and the
Nubia sandstone water through NW-SE deep seated faults. The best sites for groundwater
extractions from the Quaternary aquifer in Wadi Qena Basin are detected at the eastern side of
the study area. At the western portion of the concerned aquifer; the groundwater exists in the Not-
potable zone, and Un-fit for human consumption, while it is suitable for irrigation, livestock and
poultry purposes under certain constraints. High evaporation intensity of shallow groundwater,
continuous withdrawing of the water play an effective role in the groundwater degradation in the
study area. At the downstream portion of Wadi Qena the total salinity is very high due to high
leaching from the gypsferous and saliferous shales in addition to the excessive extraction from
the aquifer for different human purposes. Continuous monitoring and earnest groundwater quality
management are necessary for the present status of groundwater in the study area.
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.‫ مصر‬،‫ الصحراء الشرقية‬،‫ حوض وادى قنا‬،‫تقييم جودة المياه الجوفيه في خزان العصر الجيولوجي الرباعى‬

‫سماح محمود مرسى سعد‬

34
 ‫‪Hydrographical modelling for potentiality of water harvesting‬‬

‫قسم الجيولوجيا ‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪- -‬جامعة عين شمس‬

‫الخالصة‬

‫تهدف الدراسة الحالية الى تقييم جودة المياه الجوفية في خزان العصر الجيولوجى الرباعي في حوض وادي قنا‪,‬‬
‫الصحراء الشرقية‪ ،‬مصر وذلك لصالحيتها للشرب والري ‪ ،‬وتربية الماشية واألغراض المنزلية طبقاً "منظمة الصحة‬
‫العالمية" والمعايير المصرية‪ .‬تم جمع عدد ‪ 23‬عينة من المياه الجوفية وتم تحليلها كيميائيا‪ .‬باستخدام نظم المعلومات‬
‫الجغرافية‪ ،‬تم دمج البيانات المكانية وغير المكانية لمنطقة الدراسة‪ .‬تقنية تقدير جودة االمياه(‪ (WQI‬استخدمت لتقييم‬
‫مدى مالءمة المياه الجوفية في منطقة الدراسة لالستهالك البشري‪ .‬تقنية نظم المعلومات الجغرافية المكانية إلنتاج‬
‫خريطة معلومات عن نوعية المياه الجوفية وتوزيعاتها فى منطقة الدراسة ‪ .‬تم استنتاج خريطة )‪ (WQI‬للمياه الجوفية‬
‫و توزيعاتها في منطقة الدراسة ‪ .‬تشير النتائج التي تم الوصول اليها في هذه الدراسة إلى تدهور ملحوظ فى نوعية‬
‫المياه الجوفية في منطقة الدراسة‪.‬كما ان معظم المياه الجوفية في منطقة الدراسة غير مناسبة ألغراض الشرب ولكنها‬
‫مناسبة ألغراض الري‪ .‬ما عدا في الجانب الشرقي من حوض وادي قنا حيث وجد ان المياه الجوفية صالحة للشرب‬
‫وصالحة لالستهالك البشري‪.‬‬

‫‪35‬‬
 Egyptian Journal of Geology, v. 62, 2018, p.2 1-35

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