Fundamentals of Thermodynamics Course
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
Dr. Hatem Hasan Ismaeel
Duhok Polytechnic University
Frequently asked questions
• What will this class prepare me for in the real academic world?
Thermodynamics is required for many follow-on courses, like heat transfer,
refrigeration, internal combustion engines, and gas dynamics to name a few.
• What will this class prepare me for in the real world?
Energy is one of the top challenges we face as a global society. Energy
demands are deeply tied to the other major challenges of clean water, health,
and poverty. Understanding how energy systems work is key to understanding
how to meet all these needs around the world. Because energy demands are
only increasing as its shown in the next slide (World Energy Consumption)
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World Energy Consumption
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Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of basic
concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as
system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and
cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
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THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from the
Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis
(power).
• Conservation of energy principle: During
an interaction, energy can change from
one form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
• The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
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• The second law of thermodynamics: It
asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles.
• It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it is
used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
• It is used in this text only in the supporting
role.
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Application Areas of Thermodynamics
All activities in nature involve some interaction between
energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area
that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. 8
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IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as
velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various
units in this system are related to each other rather arbitrarily. 10
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Some SI and
English Units
Work = Force Distance
1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
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W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration
Specific weight : The weight of
a unit volume of a substance. 13
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
Unity Conversion Ratios
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of
primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as
They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and
thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into
any calculation to properly convert units. 14
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SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for
study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
• Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary 17
Piston and Cylinder (Video)
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• Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.
A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and
imaginary boundaries.
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PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
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Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it
is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and view
it as a continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and
to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the
molecules.
• This is the case in practically all
problems.
• In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can be 22
modeled as a continuum.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Specific volume at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).
Specific weight: The
weight of a unit volume
of a substance.
Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves
two phases and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change
with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur. 24
The State Postulate
• The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible
system: If a system involves
no electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.
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• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no change
with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of engineering
devices operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, and
they are classified as steady-flow
devices.
• Steady-flow process: A process
during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can be
closely approximated by devices that
are intended for continuous
operation such as turbines, pumps,
boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or
refrigeration systems.
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TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of
thermodynamics: If two
bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body
with a thermometer, the
zeroth law can be restated
as two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium if both
have the same temperature
reading even if they are not
in contact.
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Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible
states such as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice
point and the steam point.
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air
saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no
air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the
ideal-gas temperature scale. The temperatures on this scale
are measured using a constant-volume gas thermometer. 31
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Comparison of
temperature
scales.
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area
Some
basic
pressure
gages. 34
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout this
text, the pressure
P will denote
absolute
pressure unless
specified
otherwise.
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Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known
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Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to
a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
The area ratio A2/A1 is
called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
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How hydraulic system is work (jack)
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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer;
thus, the atmospheric pressure is
often referred to as the barometric
pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is
the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced by
a column of mercury 760 mm in
height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
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The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small
and moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids
such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
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Other Pressure
Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal
tube bent like a hook whose end is closed
and connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various
techniques to convert the pressure effect to
an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated
in a crystalline substance when it is subjected
to mechanical pressure. 46
Pressure gauges
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What is a pressure transmitter ?
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Pressure transmitters
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PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
EES (Engineering Equation Solver) (Pronounced as ease):
EES is a program that solves systems of linear or nonlinear
algebraic or differential equations numerically. It has a large
library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as well as
mathematical functions. Unlike some software packages, EES
does not solve engineering problems; it only solves the equations
supplied by the user. 51
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A Remark on Significant Digits
In engineering calculations,
the information given is not
known to more than a certain
number of significant digits,
usually three digits.
Consequently, the results
obtained cannot possibly be
accurate to more significant
digits.
Reporting results in more
significant digits implies
greater accuracy than exists,
and it should be avoided.
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Summary
• Thermodynamics and energy
Application areas of thermodynamics
• Importance of dimensions and units
Some SI and English units, Dimensional
homogeneity, Unity conversion ratios
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
Continuum
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
The steady-flow process
• Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
Temperature scales
• Pressure
Variation of pressure with depth
• The manometer
Other pressure measurement devices
• The barometer and atmospheric pressure 55
• Problem solving technique
Links
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. What is Differential Pressure Gauges? – YouTube
• Pressure Transmitter Explained | Working Principle –
YouTube
• Understanding Differential Pressure Measurement:
Filter Example – YouTube
• What is a pressure transmitter ? - YouTube
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