Radiation Protection Dosimetry (2010), Vol. 142, No. 2–4, pp. 120–124 doi:10.
1093/rpd/ncq265
Advance Access publication 29 October 2010
HIGH-PERFORMANCE HEAVY CONCRETE
AS A MULTI-PURPOSE SHIELD
S. M. J. Mortazavi 1,2,*, M. A. Mosleh-Shirazi 3, P. Roshan-Shomal 1, N. Raadpey 1
and M. Baradaran-Ghahfarokhi 4
1
School of Paramedical Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
2
The Center for Radiological Research, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
3
Radiotherapy Department, Namazi Hospital, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
4
Department of Nuclear Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz,
Iran
Downloaded from [Link] at University of Arizona on December 14, 2012
*Corresponding author: mmortazavi@[Link]
Received March 19 2010, revised July 18 2010, accepted August 25 2010
Concrete has long been used as a shield against high-energy photons and neutrons. In this study, colemanite and galena min-
erals (CoGa) were used for the production of an economical high-performance heavy concrete. To measure the gamma radi-
ation attenuation of the CoGa concrete samples, they were exposed to a narrow beam of gamma rays emitted from a 60Co
radiotherapy unit. An Am-Be neutron source was used for assessing the shielding properties of the samples against neutrons.
The compression strengths of both types of concrete mixes (CoGa and reference concrete) were investigated. The range of the
densities of the heavy concrete samples was 4100–4650 kg m23, whereas it was 2300– 2600 kg m23 in the ordinary concrete
reference samples. The half-value layer of the CoGa concrete samples for 60Co gamma rays was 2.49 cm; much less than that
of ordinary concrete (6.0 cm). Moreover, CoGa concrete samples had a 10 % greater neutron absorption compared with refer-
ence concrete.
INTRODUCTION
Although at low energies (,0.1 MeV), low mass
A wide variety of materials are being used for shield- number materials such as hydrogen are ideal
ing against different radiations. In case of megavol- attenuators for neutrons, at higher energies (10 MeV
tage photons used in radiotherapy (X- and gamma or higher), the cross section for interaction with
rays), the most important properties of a shield is its hydrogen (1 barn or less compared with approxi-
electron density. In this light, high-mass-density mately 20 barns at low energies) is not efficient in
materials such as lead (Z ¼ 82) have high electron slowing down neutrons. To solve this problem,
densities and seem to be good shields. On the con- materials such as iron, with good inelastic scattering
trary, neutrons are not sufficiently shielded by typical properties, are used. Although these materials
high-mass-density materials. As neutrons are electri- decrease the energy of high-energy neutrons signifi-
cally neutral particles, they do not interact with the cantly, they have no gross effect on neutrons at lower
electrons of the materials through which they pass. energies. In this light, iron, in the form of stainless
Neutrons transfer large amounts of their energy to steel, is widely used as the material for shielding fast
light nuclei through elastic collisions. Therefore, neutrons and gamma rays(2). The inelastic scattering
materials with low-mass nuclei are the most efficient of high-energy neutrons striking iron nuclei, slows
shields against neutrons. The maximum energy trans- down the neutrons to much lower energies and then
fer occurs when the mass of the nucleus in shielding it is the water that slows down the neutrons by
material is very close to that of the neutron. Thus, elastic scattering. This condition becomes worse,
materials such as water, paraffin, polyethylene and when thermal neutrons produced by elastic scatter-
concrete, which have high hydrogen content, can be ing are captured by the shielding materials by a
used for shielding neutrons(1). neutron –gamma (n, g) reaction. The gamma rays
The problem of appropriate shielding of neutrons produced by these reactions are a secondary source
is challenging due to the wide range of energies that of radiation which itself must be shielded.
should be taken into account. In the core of a Concrete is frequently used for neutron shielding
nuclear reactor, fast neutrons must be slowed down due to both having a high level of hydrogen and its
to thermal energies by appropriate neutron attenuat- potential to serve as a high-strength load-bearing
ing materials. After the collisions that slow the neu- structural shield. It has been reported that concrete
trons down to thermal energies, thermal neutrons with 7 % (by weight) or greater of water appears to
are absorbed by the shielding material. be adequate for neutron attenuation(3). In spite of
# The Author 2010. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [Link]@[Link]
PRODUCTION OF A COLEMANITE-BASED HEAVY CONCRETE
this, increasing the water content of concrete leads Table 1. Physical properties of the two main minerals used
to significant decrement of density and structural in this study.(9)
strength of concrete(4).
Concrete that is composed of Portland cement, Minerals Colemanite Galena
sand, aggregate (stones, gravel, etc.) and water(5), is properties
one of the most common materials used in the con-
struction of commercial buildings. Its properties Chemical Hydrated calcium Lead sulphide
make concrete an excellent choice for structures, composition borate hydroxide, (PbS)
cladding systems and floor slabs. On the other hand, CaB3O4(OH)3-H2O
Molecular weight 412 239.26 g
concrete is widely used for radiation shielding in
Lead content (%) – 86.59
radiotherapy facilities and nuclear reactors as well as Boron content (%) 15.78 –
for the prevention of radiation leakage from radio- B2O3 content (%) 50.81 –
active sources. Although, aggregate has been basi- Hardness 4.5, between fluorite 2.5
cally considered as an inert, inexpensive material, it
Downloaded from [Link] at University of Arizona on December 14, 2012
and apatite
is not truly inert and influences the performance of Density (g cm23) 2.42 7.0– 7.5
the concrete due to its physical and sometimes Color Colourless, gray, Gray
chemical properties(6). Concrete is a very strong gray white, yellowish
material when compressed. However, it is extremely white, white.
weak in tension. The strength and other properties
of concrete depend on how the above-mentioned Galena is the main lead mineral(11). Other
four ingredients are proportioned and mixed(7). common varieties include cerussite (PbCO3), platt-
The maximum resistance that a concrete structure nerite (PbO2) and angelsite (PbSO4). Over the past
will sustain, when loaded axially in compression in a few years, some types of galena-based concrete
testing machine at a specified rate, is measured as samples(12) for efficient attenuation of X- or gamma
the compressive strength. Compressive strength is rays have been produced . However, this is the first
usually expressed as force per unit cross-sectional experiment on production of heavy concrete samples
area (e.g. in megaPascals). that are capable of efficient attenuation of neutrons
Currently, ordinary concrete (density of about 2350 as well as X- or gamma rays.
kg m23) is widely used for superficial and orthovol-
tage radiotherapy rooms(8). The photoelectric effect is
MATERIALS AND METHODS
the predominant interaction of X-ray photons with
high-atomic number matter in this energy range, The colemanite and galena used in this study were
making the use of lead very efficient for shielding obtained from Neyshapour (Khorasan) and
purposes. In megavoltage radiotherapy treatment Firouzabad (Fars) mines in Iran, respectively. The
bunkers (vaults), ordinary concrete is also often used concrete mix design was selected according to our
(due to its low construction costs), although higher basic protocols. Two different mixing designs were
density concretes such as barite (density up to about used. As in the previous study, the reference
3500 kg m23) are sometimes used too. concrete mix consisted of gravel (865 kg m23), sand
Colemanite (hydrated calcium borate hydroxide, (1000 kg m23), cement (440 kg m23), microsiliceous
CaB3O4(OH)3-H2O), is a naturally occurring (60 kg m23) and water (222 kg m23). The water-to-
mineral containing boron(9). The basic structure of cement (w/c) ratio was 0.44. In the colemanite and
colemanite contains endless chains of interlocking galena (CoGa) samples, 896 g of colemanite and
BO2(OH) triangles and BO3(OH) tetrahedrons with 3548 g of galena minerals were used to completely
the calciums, water molecules and extra hydroxides replace sand ina total of 6097 g concrete mixture. In
interspersed between the chains. Table 1 summarises this sample, the w/c ratio was 0.58. The dimensions
the main physical properties of colemanite and of the concrete samples were approximately 20
galena (PbS), the two main minerals used in this cm20 cm2 cm. The mix design utilised in the
study. concrete samples used in this study is summarised in
Due to its special structural and bonding charac- Table 2.
teristics, colemanite has many modern industrial To measure the gamma radiation attenuation of
applications such as bleaching, stain removal and the concrete samples, they were exposed to a narrow
having a buffering effect in detergents and film pro- beam of gamma rays emitted from a Theratron 60Co
cessing as well as controlling the viscosity in paints, radiotherapy unit (Best Theratronics, Canada). A
adhesives and cosmetics. Because the significant Farmer-type ionisation chamber with a standard
60
neutron absorption characteristics of borates make Co buildup cap, and positioned in air using a cus-
them useful in the nuclear industry(10), the boron tomised stand, was used to measure the transmitted
content of colemanite makes it a candidate for use beam intensity through the concrete slab (It) as well
in neutron shielding too. as the ‘unattenuated’ beam in the absence of any
121
S. M. J. MORTAZAVI ET AL.
Table 2. The mix design used in the concrete samples in this study.
Concrete mix design (g) Density Compression
(g cm23) strength (kg m22)
Lead ore Colemanite Distilled water Cement Microsiliceous w/c ratio
3548 896 608 950 95 0.58 4.10–4.65 398– 464
samples (I0). In exponential photon attenuation, Organization of Iran. To obtain a collimated beam of
neutrons, the source was placed inside a sealed
It ¼ B I0 emt ; ð1Þ hollow tube made of aluminum and plastic, which
was in turn positioned inside a 150 cm diameter
cylindrical polyethylene container. A spherical
Downloaded from [Link] at University of Arizona on December 14, 2012
where B is the buildup factor, m is the linear attenu-
ation coefficient of the concrete material for the neutron detector Nuclear Enterprises model
‘monoenergetic’ gamma rays used and t is the thick- MK27NH (UK) was used for the measurements. The
ness of the concrete slab. The buildup factor distance between the centre of the source and the
accounts for the buildup of Compton-scattered centre of the detector was set to 100 cm.
photons resulting from the gamma-ray interactions.
The buildup factor depends on the gamma-ray
energy, the geometry and the type of the medium. It RESULTS
is difficult to experimentally derive B so, instead, it
The colemanite and galena minerals used in this
was minimised to a negligible value in this study to
study had densities of 3000 and 7500 kg m23,
obtain an accurate value of m by appropriate beam
respectively. The concrete samples made had a
collimation down to a 4.54.5 cm2 field size, while
density of 4100–4650 kg m23 compared with that of
still providing a reasonable charged-particle equili-
ordinary concrete (2350 kg m23) or barite high-
brium for ionisation chamber measurement. The
density concrete (up to 3500 kg m23). The measured
value of m was then calculated from equation (1) by
half-value layer (HVL) thickness of the CoGa con-
using the measured values of I0, It and t. Then, the
crete samples for 60Co gamma rays (1.25 MeV) was
HVL was calculated using the following well-known
much less than that of ordinary concrete (2.49 cm
relationship:
compared with 6.0 cm). Furthermore, the CoGa
concrete samples had a significantly higher compres-
0:693 sive strength (398–464 kg/cm2 compared with 300
HVL ¼ : ð2Þ
m kg/cm2). CoGa concrete samples (densities of 4100
and 4650 kg m23) had a 10 % greater neutron
Neutron shielding properties of both the ordinary absorption compared with the reference concrete
reference and CoGa concrete samples were measured (density 2600 kg m23). Table 3 presents the engin-
by using an Am-Be (S ¼ 1.221108 neutron/s) eering and gamma-ray shielding properties of the
source in the Secondary Standard Dosimetry CoGa concrete samples compared with those of the
Laboratory, Karaj Complex, Atomic Energy ordinary concrete.
Table 3. Density, gamma-ray HVL and compressive strength of the concrete samples made in this study compared with those
previously reported.
Physical properties concrete type Density (kg m23) HVL for 60Co Compression
gamma rays (cm) strength (kg m22)
Ordinary concrete 2300– 2500 5.25– 6.2 300
Barite concrete(18) 3180– 3550 3.6–4.0 140– 394
Barite concrete(20) 3490 3.8 NI
Barite concrete(19) NI 4.4 NI
Super heavy concrete(17) 3800– 4200 NI NI
Galena concrete(12) 4200– 4600 2.56 500
Datolite-Galena (DaGa) concrete(21) 4420– 4650 2.56 448– 522
Colemanite-Galena (CoGa) concrete (current study) 4100– 4650 2.49 398– 464
NI, not indicated by the authors.
122
PRODUCTION OF A COLEMANITE-BASED HEAVY CONCRETE
DISCUSSION for 1.25 MeV energy gamma radiation and compres-
sive strength of their samples were 3.6–4.0 cm and
Different concrete mixes can have very different
140–394 kg m22, respectively. Investigators in
attenuation characteristics(13). The heavy concrete
other countries who used barite for production of
made in this study demonstrated a significantly
concrete had reported HVLs ranged from 3.8 to 4.4
better performance in radiation shielding as well as
cm(19, 20). The HVL obtained in this study is less than
compressive strength compared with ordinary con-
what is obtained before using datolite and galena
crete. Based on the preliminary results obtained in
(DaGa Concrete). However, the neutron attenuation
this study, CoGa concrete is a highly suitable option
of the DaGa concrete was 10 % more than the CoGa
where high-density concrete is required in megavol-
concrete produced in this study(21). Density, HVL
tage radiotherapy rooms as well as nuclear reactors.
and compressive strength of the concrete samples
It should be emphasised that the most common
made in this study compared with those previously
material for shielding the radiation from particle
reported are also summarised in Table 3.
accelerators is concrete. As far as it is known, the
Currently, the research group is in the process of
Downloaded from [Link] at University of Arizona on December 14, 2012
CoGa concrete samples that were made have the
finding the optimum level of constituents for best
best shielding/engineering properties compared with
shielding and engineering properties. Moreover, the
all samples made by using high-density materials
authors are in the process of adding the optimum
other than depleted uranium(14). Considering the
level of different boron-containing minerals for con-
possible hazards of depleted uranium, it can be
structing an efficient shield against neutrons in a
claimed that the CoGa concrete is the best non-
nuclear reactor. We are also conducting experiments
radioactive shield for applications such as shielding
on finding the optimum w/c ratio. It is believed that
megavoltage radiotherapy rooms.
this part of the research here opens a new horizon in
The choice of 60Co as a standard source of high-
finding an economic and efficient gamma/neutron
energy photons for this study was made based on
shielding in high-energy radiotherapy bunkers and
the fact that unlike polyenergetic megavoltage
nuclear power plants.
X rays, its almost monoenergetic gamma-ray beam
is not susceptible to spectral filtration issues, thereby
enabling a more direct comparison with HVL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
measurements made by other groups using the same
source. Moreover, the resulting lack of beam harden- The authors wish to thank Mr. R. Latifian,
ing allowed a relatively simple HVL determination Mr. A. Farhadpour from the Laboratory of the Soil
method using a single thickness of the concrete Mechanics, Shiraz, Iran and Mr. M. Ghafoory,
material. A narrow-beam geometry was used for the Mr. A. Shahvar from the Secondary Standard
same reasons. Dosimetry Laboratory, Agricultural, Medical and
To highlight the importance of CoGa concrete in Industrial Research School, Nuclear Science and
shielding, its properties to the heavy-concrete Technology Research Institute, AEOI, Iran.
samples for which specifications are reported in
some recent publications can be compared. Kan
et al.(15) added iron ore to concrete. They found that FUNDING
the compressive strength of heavy concrete increased This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for
with iron ore content, while the tensile strength Scientific Research from the Shiraz University of
declined. In their study, the concrete including 40 % Medical Sciences (Grant No. 3873).
metallic aggregate content by volume exhibited
higher compressive strength and fracture toughness.
Furthermore, Facure et al.(16) found that that the
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