A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

ON

LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND

PENETRATING RADAR

Submitted to

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR,

ANANTHAPURAMU
For the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS & VLSI DESIGN

Submitted by

Ms. E. CHARU LATHA 244M1D8405

Under the Esteemed Guidance

of

Dr. U. SOMALATHA
Associate Professor, Dept. of E.C.E
.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS)

Tirupati – Chittoor highway, [Link], Chittoor district - 517112

2024-2025
 VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS)
Tirupati – chittoor highway, [Link], Chittoor district - 517112

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTICATE

This is to certify that the Technical seminar report entitled “ LANDMINE DETECTION
USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR” this is being submitted by Ms.
E. CHARU LATHA ( 244M1D8405) in partial fulfillment of degree of MASTER OF
TECHNOLOGY in EMBEDDED SYSTEMS & VLSI DESIGN to the JNTUA,
Ananthapuramu. This record is a bonafide work carried out by her under my guidance and
supervision during the academic year 2024 – 2025.

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr. U. SOMALATHA, Dr. S. LEELA LAKSHMI,
Associate Professor, Professor & H.O.D
Department of E.C.E, Department of E.C.E,
Vemu Institute of Technology, Vemu Institute of Technology,
P. Kothakota, -517 112. P. Kothakota, -517 112.

Internal Examiner: External Examiner:

Date: Date:
 DECLARATION

I here “LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING

RADAR” by declare that the seminar report entitle have been done by under the guidance of
Dr. U. SOMALATHA, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, VEMU INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, P. KOTHAKOTA. This seminar report have been submitted to VEMU
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, P. KOTHAKOTA, as a part of partial fulfillment for
the degree of Post Graduate program in Embedded Systems & VLSI Design.

I also here by declare that this seminar report has not been submitted at any time to any other
institute or university for the award of any degree.

Place: P. KOTHAKOTA Ms. E. CHARU LATHA 244M1D8405

Date:
 CERTIFICATE BY GUIDE

This is to certify that Ms. E. CHARU LATHA (244M1D8405) student of [Link] during the
academic year 2024-2025 has successfully completed the seminar on “LANDMINE
DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR” under the
guidance of Dr. U. SOMALATHA, Associate Professor, Department of E.C.E, VEMU
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, P. KOTHAKOTA. This seminar report has been
submitted to VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, P. KOTHAKOTA as a part of
partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of Post Graduate program in Embedded
Systems & VLSI Design.

Place: Dr. U. SOMA LATHA,

Date: Associate Professor,
Department of E.C.E
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

An Endeavour over a long period can be successful only with a advice and support of
many well wishers. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude and appreciation to all of
those who encouraged me for successfully completion of the Seminar work.
I wish to express my heartfull thanks and deep sense of gratitude to the honorable
founder Dr. K. CHANDRA SEKHAR NAIDU Garu, for his encouragement and inspiration
throughout the process.
My special thanks to our Principal Dr. NAVEEN KILARI Garu, who provide all the
required facilities and helped in accomplishing the seminar report within time.
I am thankful to our Head of the Department Dr. S. LEELA LAKSHMI Garu, for
her valuable guidance and efforts throughout the Seminar work.
My sincere thanks to our coordinator and my guide Dr. U. SOMALATHA Garu, for
her valuable suggestion and information throughout the Seminar work.
Finally, I would like to extend our deep sense of gratitude to all faculty members,
friends and last but not greatly indebted to my parents who inspired me at all circumstances.

Ms. E. CHARU LATHA 244M1D8405

 VEMU Institute of Technology
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Vision of the Institute

To be one of the premier institutes for professional education producing dynamic and
vibrant force of technocrats with competent skills, innovative ideas and leadership qualities to
serve the society with ethical and benevolent approach.
Mission of the Institute

Mission_1: To create a learning environment with state-of-the art infrastructure, well

equipped laboratories, research facilities and qualified senior faculty to impart high quality
technical education.
Mission_2: To facilitate the learners to inculcate competent research skills and innovative
ideas by Industry-Institute Interaction.
Mission_3: To develop hard work, honesty, leadership qualities and sense of direction in
learners by providing value based education.

Vision of the Department

To become a centre of excellence in the field of Electronics and Communication
Engineering and produce graduates with Technical Skills, Research & Consultancy
Competencies, Life-long Learning and Professional Ethics to meet the challenges of the
Industry and Society.
Mission of the Department
Mission_1: To enrich Technical Skills of students through Effective Teaching and Learning
practices for exchange of ideas and dissemination of knowledge.

Mission_2: To enable the students with research and consultancy skill sets through state-of-
the art laboratories, industry interaction and training on core & multidisciplinary
technologies.

Mission_3: To develop and instill creative thinking, Life-long learning, leadership qualities,
Professional Ethics and social responsibilities among students by providing value based
education.
Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO 1: To prepare the graduates to be able to plan, analyze and provide innovative ideas to
investigate complex engineering problems of industry in the field of Electronics and
Communication Engineering using contemporary design and simulation tools.

PEO-2: To provide students with solid fundamentals in core and multidisciplinary domain
for successful implementation of engineering products and also to pursue higher studies.

PEO-3: To inculcate learners with professional and ethical attitude, effective communication
skills, teamwork skills, and an ability to relate engineering issues to broader social context at
work place.
 Programme Outcomes (POs)

PO-1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO-2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO-3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for
the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO-4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO-5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
PO-6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
PO-7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
PO-8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
PO-9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO-10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
PO-11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO-12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 Programme Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

Higher Education: Qualify in competitive examinations for pursuing higher education by

applying the fundamental concepts of Electronics and Communication Engineering domains such
PSO_1
as Analog & Digital Electronics, Signal Processing, Communication & Networking, Embedded
Systems, VLSI Design and Control Systems etc...
Employment and Entrepreneur: Get employed in allied industries through their proficiency in
PSO_2 program specific domain knowledge in communications, VLSI and ES, Specialized software like
MATLAB and Computer programming like PYTHON, JAVA etc or to become an entrepreneur.
 LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
Abstract i
List of figures ii
List of abbreviations iii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 What is Landmine? 2-3
1.3 How GPR works? 4
1.4 Principle of operation 4-5
1.5 Types of Landmines 6
1.5.1 Anti-tank landmines 6
1.5.2 Anti-personnel landmines 7
1.6 What’s in the new Landmine Policy 7-8
1.7 What is the impact of landmines 8
CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY 9-11
2.1 Signal Processing in Ground Penetrating 11-13
Radar
2.2 Effects of Soil Condition and Moisture 13-15
2.3 Signal Characteristics and Penetration 15-16
depth
CHAPTER 3 IMPULSE GROUND
PENETRATING RADAR

3.1 Introduction 18
3.2 Block diagram 19
3.3 Hardware description 19
3.3.1 Pulse generator 20
3.3.2 Antenna system 20
3.3.3 Pulse extender 20
3.3.4 A/D converter 21
3.3.5 Processor 21
3.3.6 Visual Display 21
3.4 Advantages 21
3.5 Disadvantages 22
3.6 Detection Challenges 22-24
3.7 Applications 24
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 25-27
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & FUTURE 28-31
SCOPE
CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES 32-33
 ABSTRACT
This study explores the use of Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for
landmine detection. Impulse GPR offers a non-invasive and effective solution for
detecting buried landmines, leveraging its ability to penetrate the ground and
distinguish between different subsurface objects. The technology's potential for
high accuracy and reduced false alarms makes it a promising tool for humanitarian
demining and military applications. This research highlights the benefits and
challenges of using impulse GPR for landmine detection, including advancements
in signal processing and system design. The findings suggest that impulse GPR can
significantly contribute to improving landmine detection capabilities, enhancing
safety and efficiency in mine clearance operations. It is a novel system to obtain
the images from the underground based on ground penetrating radar (GPR).
Landmine are a persistent threat to human life and socioeconomic development
with millions of undetected and unexploded landmines buried in former conflict
zones worldwide. Impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR) technology has
emerged as a promising technique for detecting buried landmines, offering a non-
invasive, fast, and effective means of detecting subsurface objects.

i
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO FIGURE NAME PAGE NO

1.1 Landmine hidden in the grass 3
1.2 Landmine in the ground 3
1.3 Anti tank Landmines 6
1.4 Anti personal landmines 7
2.1 Impulse ground penetrating radar technique 10
3.1 Block diagram of impulse ground 12
penetrating radar
3.2 Impulse ground penetrating radar model 13
4.1 Output signal from the 0.8ns generator 16
4.2 Footprint (in dB) of the DTEM antenna at 17
the distance 54cm from the aperture
4.3 Spectrum of the output signal from the 17
0.8ns generator.

4.4 Target response after background 18

subtraction

4.5 B-scan over a deeply buried AT mine 18

ii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GPR Ground penetrating Radar
NQR Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance
Tx Transmitter
Rx Receiver
AT mines Anti – tank mines
A/D Analog to Digital
EM Electromagnetic
STEM Storable Tubular Extendible Member
AI Artificial Intelligence

iii
 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction

Impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR) technology has emerged as a

promising technique for detecting buried landmines, offering a non-invasive,
fast and effective means of detecting subsurface objects. Impulse GPR
technology works by sending short electromagnetic pulses into the ground and
measuring the reflections from different materials and structures, allowing it to
distinguish between different objects, including landmines. However the
technique has several challenges and limitations, including soil conditions,
moisture content, and the size and depth of the buried object.

The presence of landmines not only poses a significant threat to human

life but also impedes economic and social development, hindering the return of
refugees, the reconstruction of infrastructure, and the use of land for agriculture
and other productive activities. Impulse GPR technology offers a promising
solution to the landmine problem. It has the potential to detect buried landmines
quickly and accurately, allowing for their safe removal and clearance. Impulse
GPR technology works by sending electromagnetic pulses into the ground and
measuring the reflections from different materials and structures. This allows it
to distinguish between different objects, including landmines, and to create a
high resolution image of the subsurface. However, landmine detection using
impulse GPR is not without its challenges and limitations. The performance of
the technology is affected by soil conditions, moisture content, and the size and
depth of the buried object. The presence of metallic debris or other clutter can
also cause false alarms, reducing the effectiveness of the technique. In this
paper, we will explore the application of impulse GPR technology in landmine

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 1

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

1.1 What is Landmine?

Landmines are a significant threat to human lives and pose a considerable

challenge to post-conflict reconstruction efforts. One approach to locating
landmines is using impulse ground-penetrating radar, which provides a
noninvasive, fast, and effective means of detecting buried landmines. Impulse
GPR technology sends short electromagnetic pulses into the ground and
measures the reflections from different materials and structures, allowing it to
detect the presence of buried objects, including landmines.

The technique has been shown to be effective in a variety of soil and

terrain types, making it a valuable tool for demining operations worldwide.
Landmines are a deadly legacy of conflict, with millions of undetected and
unexploded landmines buried in former conflict zones worldwide.

Land mines are typically pressure activated, exploding automatically

when stepped on by a person or driven over by a vehicle, though alternative
detonation mechanisms are sometimes used. A land mine may cause damage
by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both.
Land mines are typically laid throughout an area, creating a minefield which is
dangerous to cross.

Approximately 80 million antipersonnel land mines are still deployed

worldwide in approximately 78 countries. These land mines have been termed
‘weapons of mass destruction, one person at a time.’ They have often been
placed in rural areas, posing a threat to residents of these areas and often
disrupting farming and other activities. Civilians are the most likely to be
injured or killed by land mines, which continue to injure and kill 15000–20000
people annually.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 2

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

There are two basic types: antitank mines designed to destroy or damage
vehicles, especially tanks; and lighter antipersonnel mines. A standard antitank
mine contains about 5 kg of explosives and weighs about 9 kg in all.

Anti personnel mines, which can kill or wound soldiers upon exploding
into many small fragments, usually contain less than 0.5 kg of explosives and
can be detonated by a footstep on them. Land mines have been widely used
since World War II, with increasing ingenuity going into both their design and
their detection.

Fig 1.1: Landmine hidden in the grass

Fig 1.2: Landmine in the ground

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 3

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

1.2 How does GPR works ?

It uses energy waves in the microwave band, ranging in frequency from 1 to

1000 MHz. GPR requires two main pieces of equipment – a transmitter and a
receiving antenna. The transmitter sends electromagnetic energy into the soil
and other material. Ground Penetrating Radar works by emitting a pulse into the
ground and recording the echoes that result from subsurface objects. GPR
imaging devices also detect variation in the composition of the ground material.

If the electromagnetic impulse hits an object, the density of the object reflects,
refracts, and scatters the signal. The receiver detects the returning signals and
records variations within them. The system has software that translates these
signals into images of the objects in the subsurface. This is how it is used
to map structures and utilities buried in the ground or in man-made structures.

1.3 Principle of operation :

Most GPRs for landmine detection operate in a region where the

wavelengths radiated are greater than, or in the same order of magnitude as the
dimensions of the landmine. This is between the Rayleigh and Mie (or
resonance) region of the landmine dimensions and is quite unlike conventional
radar systems where the target dimensions are generally much larger than the
wavelength of the incident radiation, i.e. the optical region. Additionally GPR
can be operated so that the antenna is very close to the ground surface and target
such that the energy transfer is predominantly either induction or quasi-
stationary (the near field), or can be operated such that the energy transfer is in
the far field region. GPR encounters extremely high levels of clutter at short
ranges and this as well as achieving an adequate signal/noise ratio is its major
technical challenge.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 4

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Daniels provides further details of the design challenges associated with

GPR. The total path losses within a few wavelengths may be as much as 100dB
depending on the material and as GPR systems do not have a total loop gain
much in excess of 120dB the designer has a major challenge to detect landmines
signatures within very short ranges of typically 20ns. GPR system design can be
classified into two main classes. Systems that transmit an impulse and receive
and process the reflected signal from the target using a sampling receiver can be
considered to operate in the time domain. Systems that transmit individual
frequencies in a sequential manner or as a swept frequency and receive the
reflected signal from the target using a frequency conversion receiver can be
considered to operate in the frequency domain. Handheld GPR systems use
separate, man-portable, transmit and receive antennas, which are placed just
above the surface of the ground and moved in a known pattern over the surface
of the ground under investigation. This generates, in real time, data or an image.

By systematically surveying the area in a regular pattern, a radar image of

the ground can be built up. Alternatively, the GPR may be designed to provide
an audible warning of target presence while the antenna is moved. Vehicle
based or airborne systems use much larger arrays of antennas to illuminate a
swathe of the ground surface ahead of the platform and rely on the movement of
the vehicle to create the data, which may be processed using SAR techniques.

Scattering of electromagnetic energy from a landmine results from the

impedance differences of the landmine compared with the host material.
Canonical targets such as cylinders, which are similar to landmines, have well
understood free space scattering characteristics that will be modified by the
dielectric of the soil. The mine may have a number of scattering centres, each
with their own angular radiation pattern and, in the case of plastic landmines;
the internal structure of the mine may generate additional scatters.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 5

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Most plastic landmines may be considered as multiple layered dielectric

cylinders, of which each interface causes a reflection, the impact of the small
internal metallic fuse being minimal. A simple transmission line model
representing the case where the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection can simulate the time domain signature of the latter. The first
reflection is due the ground surface and the subsequent reflections are due to the
landmine air void and explosive. The depth of cover of the mine is 10cm and it
is 10cm in thickness. The soil parameters are as follows, relative dielectric
constant 6 and loss tangent 0.1. The waveform is referred to as an A-scan.

1.5 Types of Landmines:

1.5.1 Anti-tank landmines:

Anti-tank landmines are explosive devices designed to damage or destroy

vehicles, particularly tanks and other armored vehicles. They are typically larger
and more powerful than anti-personnel landmines. Detecting and clearing anti-
tank landmines requires specialized equipment and expertise, including
technologies like Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). Typical AT mines have a
diameter of between 200 to 300mm and contain between 2 – 4kg of explosive

Fig 1.3: Anti – tank landmines

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 6

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

1.5.2 Anti-personnel landmines:

Anti-personnel landmines are explosive devices designed to injure or kill

people, as opposed to vehicles. They are often laid on the ground to be triggered
by the presence, proximity, or contact of a person. These mines are primarily
used in military operations, but they can also be used to protect property or
control access to areas.

Fig 1.4 : Anti-personnel landmines

1.6 What’s in the new Landmine Policy?

In June 2022, President Biden announced a new near-global ban on anti-

personnel landmine (APL) use by the U.S. military and set the goal of
“ultimately acceding to the Ottawa Convention.” Under the 2022 APL policy.
the United States will begin to comply with key parts of the 1997 Mine Ban
Treaty, which requires that countries renounce the use, development,
production, acquisition, transfer, and stockpiling of these indiscriminate
weapons.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 7

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

However, the 2022 policy allows for the continued stockpiling and use APLs
for the defense the Korean peninsula—essentially reinstating the Obama
administration’s 2014 policy on APLs.

1.7 What is the impact of landmines?

Landmines are indiscriminate weapons that disproportionately impact civilians,

and especially children. From 1999 through 2020, there have been 143,382
reported casualties as a result of landmines, though the true number is likely
much higher as accurate data is difficult to gather. Last year was the sixth year
in a row of high casualties as a result of landmines, with more than double the
number of casualties in 2020 than in 2013.

According to the Landmine Monitor, in 2020 alone:

 Landmines caused at least 7,073 casualties in 2020, over a third of which

were deaths.
 Civilians accounted for 80% of landmine casualties.
 Children accounted for at least 50% of all civilian casualties, an increase
from 2017.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 8

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY

Before beginning the detection process, the survey area must be prepared by
removing any surface debris, vegetation, or other obstructions that could
interfere with the GPR signal. Impulse GPR technology sends short
electromagnetic pulses into the ground and measures the reflections from
different materials and structures, creating a high-resolution image of the
subsurface. The data is collected by moving the GPR device over the survey
area in a systematic grid pattern, typically with a spacing of several centimeters
between each measurement point.

The collected GPR data is processed using specialized software that

filters, enhances, and analyzes the signals to identify buried objects, including
landmines.

i) Electromagnetic induction: based on inducing an electric current in the

concealed metallic objects One of the scenarios of interest is landmine using a
transmitting coil. The induced current reradiates an electric field which is
detected by a receiving coil.

The main advantage of this system is its low cost and simplicity.
However, it suffers from a high false alarm rate when several metallic objects
are also in the scenario under test (shrapnel, bolts, etc.)

ii) Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR): based on the detection of the

radiofrequency signals emitted by certain substances that are backscattered
power is directed towards the radar (although it also depends on the geometry of
the buried target). In this kind of systems, the challenge is to achieve normal

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 9

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

incidence while keeping the security distance of 3-5 m. One solution is based on
small lightweight unmanned autonomous robots, capable of performing
detection with a minimum landmine detonation risk

iii) Thermal imaging: infrared sensors are capable of detecting the different
thermal behavior of landmines with respect to the surrounding medium. In
particular, thermal image time series acquisition is proposed, using thermal
response analysis in the time domain to detect landmines. The main weakness
of this methodology is the dependence with weather conditions that affect soil
thermal conductivity, and thus the thermal contrast between soil and buried
land- mines.

In these systems, transmitting and receiving antennas are placed in the

air-soil interface at different positions separated half wavelength, so that the
coherent combination of the received signal at each position results in a bi-
dimensional radar image.

iv) Ground Penetrating Radar: it has been considered as one of the best
techniques for underground imaging thanks to the capability of creating images
of the soil and the objects buried in it .In consequence, GPR has been widely
used for landmine detection .

GPR is based on emitting electromagnetic waves to the soil, whose

reflection at the soil and at potential concealed objects allows to recover a radar
image where these concealed objects can be identified. It must be remarked that
GPR is quite sensitive to the soil composition and the air-soil interface
roughness, requiring additional signal processing techniques for image artifacts
and clutter removal.

Regardless the operating principle, the application of non-invasive

techniques for landmine detection requires the scanning system to be placed at a
safety distance with respect to the potential placement of the landmine, typically
Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 10
 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3-5 m, to avoid the accidental detonation of the landmine by the scanning

device. Landmine detection using impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR)
involves transmitting high-frequency electromagnetic pulses into the ground
and analyzing the reflected signals to identify buried objects. GPR technology
can detect both metallic and non-metallic landmines by exploiting differences in
their electromagnetic properties and the way they interact with the soil

Fig 2.1: Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar Technique

2.1 SIGNAL PROCESSING IN GROUND PENETRATING RADAR :

Signal processing plays a crucial role in landmine detection using impulse

ground-penetrating radar (IGPR) by extracting meaningful information from the
received radar signals. This process helps identify and differentiate landmines
from other subsurface objects and artifacts, enabling more accurate and reliable
detection.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 11

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

a. Pre-processing

This step prepares the raw data for further analysis.

 Time-zero correction: Aligns all A-scans (individual radar returns) so

that the time axis starts consistently from the surface.
 De wow filtering: Removes low-frequency components (e.g., baseline
drift).
 Background subtraction: Suppresses the static background (e.g., soil) to
enhance target reflections.
 Gain compensation: Amplifies deeper signals to compensate for signal
attenuation with depth.

b. Clutter Removal

Targets like landmines are often masked by clutter (e.g., soil layers, rocks).

 Filtering: High-pass or band-pass filtering helps remove irrelevant

frequencies.
 Subspace methods (e.g., PCA, SVD): Separate target reflections from
clutter.
 Wavelet de noising: Suppresses noise while preserving sharp features
from targets.

c. Feature Extraction

Features characterize the buried objects for classification.

 Time-domain features: Amplitude, time delay, signal energy.

 Frequency-domain features: Fourier transform, wavelet coefficients.
 Time-frequency features: Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT),
Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT).

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 12

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

 Shape-based features: Hyperbola shape in B-scans (indicative of buried

objects).

d. Target Detection

 Hyperbola detection: Mines often produce hyperbolic patterns in B-

scans due to antenna movement. Techniques include:
o Hough Transform
o Template matching
o Deep learning-based detection (e.g., CNNs)
 Thresholding: Simple methods use amplitude thresholds to detect strong
reflections.

e. Classification

Distinguishing landmines from non-lethal objects (metal scrap, rocks, etc.):

 Traditional classifiers: SVM, k-NN, Random Forest.

 Deep learning: CNNs or hybrid models trained on B-scan images.

2.2 EFFECTS OF SOIL CONDITION AND MOISTURE :

Soil condition and moisture significantly impact the effectiveness of impulse

ground penetrating radar (GPR) in landmine detection. Moisture content
influences the dielectric constant of the soil, which in turn affects the
propagation and reflection of radar signals. Soil texture also plays a role, with
clay soils typically attenuating GPR signals more strongly than sand or silt.

1. Soil Condition Effects

a. Soil Type and Composition

 Dielectric Properties: Different soils have varying dielectric constants

(ε), influencing signal speed and reflection strength. For instance:

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 13

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

o Dry sand (ε ≈ 3–5)

o Clay (ε ≈ 10–30)
 Conductivity: Soils with high electrical conductivity (e.g., clay-rich or
saline soils) cause more signal attenuation, reducing detection depth and
clarity.

b. Heterogeneity

 Heterogeneous soils with rocks, roots, or varying textures can produce

false reflections or clutter in the radar image, complicating interpretation.

c. Soil Density and Compaction

 Highly compacted soils may reflect GPR signals more efficiently than
loose soils.
 Loose, sandy soils may allow deeper penetration but may reduce
resolution.

2. Moisture Content Effects

a. Increased Dielectric Constant

 Water has a high dielectric constant (~80), so increased moisture raises

the bulk dielectric constant of soil, reducing radar wave speed and
increasing reflection.
 This can enhance target contrast but reduce depth of penetration due to
increased attenuation.

b. Attenuation of Radar Waves

 Wet soils, especially those with high clay content, strongly attenuate
radar signals.
 Moisture increases ionic conductivity, leading to energy loss through
absorption.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 14

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

c. Improved Target Contrast (in some cases)

 In dry soils, landmines (especially plastic-cased ones) can be difficult to

detect due to low contrast.
 Moderate moisture can increase contrast between the landmine and the
surrounding soil due to differential dielectric response.

2.3 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PENETRATION DEPTH :

Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar (IGPR) for landmine detection transmits

short, high-frequency pulses that penetrate the ground, with the return signals
revealing the presence and location of buried objects like landmines. The signal
characteristics, including frequency, pulse width, and amplitude, influence
penetration depth and resolution. Penetration depth is generally limited, with
IGPR often able to see 20-30 cm, but can vary based on soil type and moisture.

1. Signal Characteristics in Impulse GPR

a. Pulse Width and Bandwidth:

Impulse GPR systems emit ultra-wideband (UWB) pulses, typically in the range
of 100 MHz to several GHz. Shorter pulses (higher frequencies) provide better
resolution but shallower penetration. Longer pulses (lower frequencies)
penetrate deeper but at the cost of resolution.

b. Amplitude and Attenuation:

Signal amplitude decreases with depth due to geometrical spreading and

dielectric losses.

Attenuation is influenced by:

 Soil conductivity (e.g., high in clay, low in dry sand)

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 15

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

 Moisture content
 Presence of salts and minerals

C. Reflection and Scattering

 Reflections occur at interfaces with contrasting dielectric properties (e.g.,

air-soil, soil-metal).
 Landmines made of metal or plastic generate distinct signatures:

Metallic mines: strong, clear reflections.

Plastic mines: weaker, diffuse signals, harder to detect.

D. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

 High SNR is critical for identifying weak reflections from small or deeply
buried mines.
 Environmental noise, surface clutter, and system noise affect SNR.

2. Penetration Depth

a. Influencing Factors

1. Soil Properties

 Dry, sandy soils: favorable, allow penetration up to several meters.

 Wet, clay-rich soils: high attenuation, penetration limited to < 0.5 m.

2. Radar Frequency

 Low frequency (e.g., 100–500 MHz): penetration >1 m (lower

resolution).
 High frequency (e.g., 1–3 GHz): <0.5 m (higher resolution).

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 16

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3. Antenna Design

 Ground-coupled antennas provide better energy transfer and deeper

penetration.
 Air-coupled antennas are more mobile but have limited depth
performance.

b. Typical Penetration Depths for Landmine Detection

 Metallic mines: detected up to 30–50 cm in moderate soils.

 Plastic mines: typically detected at depths < 20 cm, depending on soil
conditions and radar system sensitivity.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 17

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 3

IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

Ground-penetrating radar creates comprehensive subsurface images by

transmitting electromagnetic energy into soil, concrete or other ground material
to detect objects, voids and anomalies. The GPR unit sends out pulses of waves
in the microwave band, with frequencies typically ranging between 1 and 1000
MHz. These pulses penetrate into the earth and are reflected, refracted or
scattered when they encounter a change in material, indicating an object or
another type of anomaly.

The strength of this reflection, known as its amplitude, depends on the contrast
in conductivities between the materials the signal passes through, and how the
impulse reacts is primarily determined by the object’s density and size. This
altered signal is then picked up by the GPR unit’s receiver, where it’s recorded
along with its two-way travel time. The amplitude, travel time and relative
permittivity of the subsurface materials are combined to create a depth scale for
the scan.

Because of the difficulty detecting the tiny amounts of metal in a plastic

landmine with a metal detector, technology development has been funded in
other areas. GPS has been used for nearly 70 years for a variety of geophysical
subsurface imaging applications including utility mapping and hazardous waste
containers location and has been actively applied to the problem of landmine
detection for nearly 20 years.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 18

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Impulse Visual Processor

generator Display

Tx Rx Pulse A/D
Extender

Fig 3.1: Block diagram of impulse ground penetrating radar technique

3.3 HARDWARE DISCRIPTION :

 Impulse generator

 Antenna system

 Pulse extender

 A/D converter

 Processor

 Visual display

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 19

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Fig 3.2: Impulse ground penetrating radar model

3.3.1 IMPULSE GENERATOR :

 An impulse generator is a crucial component with generates the

electromagnetic pulses used to scan the subsurface.

 The impulse generator creates high amplitude pulse, which is the

transmitted into the ground via an antenna.

3.3.2 ANTENNA SYSTEM :

 The GPR system performing strongly depends on the antenna system.

 The antenna system consists of transmitter and receiver.

3.3.3 PULSE EXTENDER :

 Pulse extension can improve the detection of weak signals from buried
landmines.

 It also extends the duration of received pulse signal.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 20

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3.3.4 A/D CONVETER :

 The transmitter sends out a series of EM pulses then listens with the
receive connected to high speed samples which in-turn feeds to A/D
converter.

 This information is converted from nano sec to milli sec.

 It provides 12 bit accuracy and 66dB linear dynamic range.

3.3.5 PROCESSOR :

 This processor filters the signals.

 This signals shows presence or absence of mine in the soil.

 Processor selects the mine detecting signal and passes to the visual
display.

3.3.6 VISUAL DISPLAY :

 It helps to see the range of targets.

 It displays the position of land mine.

3.4 ADVANTAGES :

 GPR locates even a small targets.

 It has been well founded by the defense.

 GPR improves safety by reducing the need for excavation or drilling,

which can be hazardous in certain environment.

 Data is provided quickly and can cover a large site area.

 Its less expensive than other methods.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 21

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

3.5 DISADVANTAGES :

 GPR surveys can be expensive to conduct and time – consuming,

especially if the area is large or complex.

 Extreme weather conditions, such as heavy rains, can impact GPR data
quality.

 This radar has a limited depth penetration in certain conditions.

 Ground surface obstructions can interrupt GPR data collection.

3.6 DETECTION CHALLENGES :

Landmine detection using impulse GPR is not without its challenges and
limitations. The performance of the technology is affected by soil conditions,
moisture content, and the size and depth of the buried object.

Landmine detection using Impulse Ground Penetrating radar faces several

technical and environmental challenges. These issues arise due to the
complexity of subsurface environments, the variability of mine types, and the
limitations of GPR technology itself. Here’s a comprehensive overview of the
main detection challenges:

1. Clutter and Soil Heterogeneity

 High soil clutter: Natural in homogeneities like rocks, roots, and soil
layers can produce reflections similar to those of landmines.
 Soil type effects: Variations in soil dielectric properties (e.g., clay vs.
sand) affect signal propagation and attenuation.
 Moisture content: Wet soil can significantly reduce penetration depth
and alter reflection signatures.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 22

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

2. Low Metal Content (Plastic Mines)

 Many modern landmines are made with minimal metal, making them
hard to detect with metal detectors and challenging for GPR due to their
weak dielectric contrast.

3. Small Target Size and Weak Signals

 Landmines are small and often buried shallowly, producing weak and
diffuse radar reflections that are hard to distinguish from background
noise.

4. Target Depth and Orientation

 The radar signature varies with mine orientation and burial depth. Deeper
mines produce weaker reflections, and tilted or unevenly shaped mines
may distort expected echo patterns.

5. Signal Attenuation

 Impulse GPR signals degrade with depth and are strongly attenuated in
conductive soils (e.g., saline or high-clay content soils), reducing
detection performance.

6. Environmental Interference

 Vegetation, surface irregularities, and surface water (e.g., puddles) can

generate reflections or noise that obscure subsurface echoes.

7. Data Interpretation Complexity

 Echoes from landmines often overlap with other subsurface features,

requiring advanced signal processing and machine learning techniques for
effective classification.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 23

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

 High false alarm rates are common due to difficulty in distinguishing

between landmines and clutter.

8. Speed vs. Resolution Trade-off

 Higher-resolution scans require slower movement and more data,

reducing operational efficiency in large-area demining efforts.

3.7 APPLICATIONS :

 It is useful for locating buried drums and oil tanks which could leak and
contaminate the earth.

 Ground penetrating radar is also used by the military as a tool for

detecting unexploded items.

 GPR is used in forensic investigations to locate buried evidence, such as

human remains.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 24

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
The GPR system has been tested in different environments, e.g. sand, clay,
forest ground, etc. A-scans have been measured along straight lines with a step
of 2.2cm, while the distance between lines equals 5cm. Sampling time in each
A-scan equals 60ps. It was found that the magnitude of a typical target response
is usually large enough to be detected by the system. However a direct air wave
from transmit to receive antenna and surface clutter create a background which
often masks the response of the target. In order to remove this background pre-
processing of data has been used. This pre- processing includes subtraction of
the system response due to the direct air wave, averaging within the footprint of
the transmit antenna and subtraction of the averaged ground reflection from
each A-scan. In order to limit the magnitude of artifacts due to subtraction of
time domain signals, before the subtraction the time drift is numerically
compensated within each A-scan. As a reference signal for the time drift
compensation the direct air wave has been used. Despite of fluctuations in the
arrival time of the direct air wave due to mechanical vibration of the system and
other factors, the quality of compensation was good.

Fig 4.1: Output signal from the 0.8ns generator

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 25

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

In (GPR), a 0.8ns monocycle pulse generator produces a short, high-frequency

signal that is then transmitted into the ground. The resulting output signal from
this generator has a spectrum with a maximum at frequencies where ground
attenuation begins to increase. This spectral content, both below and above this
maximum, contributes to both penetration depth and resolution.

Fig 4.2: Footprint (in dB) of the DTEM antenna at the

distance 54cm from the aperture

The "footprint" of a STEM antenna in impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR)

at a distance of 54cm from the aperture is typically measured in decibels (dB)
and represents the strength of the antenna's signal at that point. Without specific
details about the antenna's design or the experimental setup, it's impossible to
give a precise value. However, the expected level of sidelobes according to
[Link] for such a design can be less than -50 dB.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 26

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Fig 4.3: Spectrum of the output signal

from the 0.8ns generator.

In ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, a 0.8ns generator output produces a

spectrum of frequencies that is useful for both penetration and resolution. The
spectrum, which covers a wide band from 500MHz to 2GHz, includes lower
frequencies for deeper penetration and higher frequencies for fine detail. This
allows for the detection of subsurface features and the identification of their
characteristics.

Fig 4.4: Target response after background subtraction

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 27

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

After background subtraction in impulse ground-penetrating radar (GPR), the

resulting signal primarily highlights the target reflections, making it easier to
identify and analyze. The background subtraction process aims to remove or
significantly reduce the strong signals from the ground surface and other clutter,
leaving behind the target's unique signature. This technique enhances the signal-
to-clutter ratio (SCR), making the target more distinct and facilitating its
detection.

Fig 4.5: B-scan over a deeply buried AT mine

In a B-scan image from impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR), a deeply

buried antipersonnel (AT) mine would appear as a hyperbolic reflection. The
shape and location of this hyperbola, combined with other GPR data analysis,
can be used to determine the depth and approximate location of the mine

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 28

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE
5.1 CONCLUSION:
Hence, impulse ground penetrating Radar offers a effective solution for
detecting buried landmine. It improves the detection rate and reduces the false
alarms. overall, the impulse GPR technology has the potential to save lives and
improve safety in areas contaminated with landmines.

Impulse GPR system is using for detecting anti-tank and anti-personal

mines. Anti tank mines are using destroying the vehicles and anti-personal
mines which are designed to kill the maim people. Active programs by the U.S
Army in both land mine detection sensor development existing technologies,
increasing the probability of detection, reducing the false alarm rate, and
planning out useable development scenarios.

Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a promising technology for

landmine detection, offering a non-invasive and effective solution for detecting
buried landmines. With its high resolution, real-time results, and ability to
detect non-metallic landmines, impulse GPR has the potential to significantly
improve landmine detection capabilities. By leveraging advancements in signal
processing and system design, impulse GPR can play a crucial role in
humanitarian demining and military applications, ultimately saving lives and
enhancing safety in areas contaminated with landmines.

Impulse GPR system is using for detecting anti – tank and anti – personal
mines. Currently, very little technology is used in real – world demining
activities. Active programs by the U.S Army in both land mine detection sensor
development and systems integration are evaluating new technologies,
incrementally improving existing technologies, increasing the probability of

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 29

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

detection, reducing the false alarm rate, and planning out useable deployment
scenarios. Through iterative design, build test cycles, and blind and scored
testing at army mine lanes, steady progress is being made.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE :

The future of GPR looks promising, with continued advancements in

technology and expanding applications across various fields. GPR will likely
become an even more indispensable tool for understanding and managing the
subsurface in the years to come.

Army mine fields is to measure detection probabilities under realistic

conditions. Plans to speed up the scan rate with advanced arrays are under the
way. Vehicular based system are being developed to enhance landmine
detection capabilities. Integration with drones or other unmanned aerial vehicles
for aerial landmine detection.

Impulse Ground Penetrating Radar holds promise for enhanced accuracy,

expanded applications, and integration with other technologies like AI. GPR
will likely see improvements in data processing, real-time interpretation, and
potentially automated surveys using robotics. Increased depth penetration and
resolution are also anticipated, along with the development of more advanced
GPR systems for specific applications.

The future development of Ground Penetrating Radar systems for

landmine detection will take into account the advancements in signal generation
technology, signal-processing technology, imaging technology, semiconductor
technology and user interface technology. Advanced signal synthesizing
techniques prove to be promising avenues for GPR deployment in differing
fields of operation. Signal-processing techniques will enhance the data
acquisition capabilities of GPR systems. Hence, advanced analytical solutions
can be implemented. Therefore, the future of GPR will develop several key
Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 30
 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

areas of operation. AI in GPR will be used to detect patterns and identify

objects in the data, reducing the need for manual analysis. Research in this area
shows how AI can enhance GPR systems. Multi-Frequency and Ultra-
Wideband Systems are being developed to provide both, deep penetration and
high-resolution images as discussed in other works. Tools like the MALA
Object Mapper are examples of how such images can be obtained. Improved
Material Characterization involves developing new techniques to better
distinguish between different types of materials underground, which is
important for accurate readings. Energy Efficiency and Sustainability is another
focus with efforts to create low power GPR systems and use renewable energy
sources as discussed. Enhanced User Interfaces and Accessibility aim to make
GPR systems easier to use, even for those with little expertise. In conclusion,
GPR systems can develop further in all aspects of technology, promising a
robust and wide array of operational application.

GPR has been successfully used almost in every possible near

surface investigation including polar studies, lunar exploration, geotechnical
investigation, agricultural purposes, land mine detection, tunnel surveys,
monitoring active fault etc. Present review work finds that high resolution GPR
with both shielded and un-shielded antennas can be efficiently used in several
river valley and hydroelectric projects to detect cavities below the concrete
dam, seepage path of the canals, assessment the health of old concrete
structures etc. GPR also can detect the near surface fractures, lineaments,
lithological boundaries and active faults and very useful for near surface
geological characterization of the civil project site. GPR also has proven
its tremendous potential to study the glaciers, sub-glacial lakes, permafrost,
crevasses, yearly snow depositional pattern etc. Presently the use of GPR
for utility surveys has been increase many fold and tens of Indian
companies are providing GPR services.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 31

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Ease, speed, resolution, availability and scope have made GPR the
most celebrated near-surface geophysical technique of the present decade.
In future, we may expect few advanced features as following: i. Artificial
intelligence (AI) for automatic 3D object mapping facilities ii. Remote
controlled surveys with robotics iii. Significantly increased survey depth iv.
Anisotropic 3D modeling software v. 4D GPR surveys for hazard monitoring
and real time alarming system etc.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 32

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

[1] S. Saranya;G. Sudha; Rithika B; Alagappan A; and Sanjeev D "Ground Penetrating

Radar For Identifying Mines In A Minefield," 2024 International Conference on Power,
Energy, Control and Transmission Systems (ICPECTS), Chennai, India, 2024, volume:57 pp.
1-5.

[2] R. Salvini, L. Beltramone, V. D. Lucia, A. Ermini, C. Vanneschi, C. Zei, D. Silvestri,

and A. Rindinella, “Uav-mounted ground penetrating radar: an example for the stability
analysis of a mountain rock debris slope,” Journal of Mountain Science, vol. 20, pp. 2804–
2821, 2023.

[3] M. Garc´ıa-Ferna´ndez, G. A’lvarez-Narciandi, Y. A’. Lo‘pez, and F. Las-Heras, “Array-

based ground penetrating synthetic aperture radar on board an unmanned aerial vehicle for
enhanced buried threats detection,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing,
vol. 61, pp. 1–18, 2023.

[4] Y. A. Lo’pez, M. Garc“ıa-Ferna‘ndez, G. A’lvarez-Narciandi, and F. L. H. Andr‘es,

“Unmanned aerial vehicle-based ground-penetrating radar systems: A review,” IEEE
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine, vol. 10, pp. 66–86, 2022.

[5] Y. S. Alqudsi, A. S. Alsharafi, and A. Mohamed, “A review of airborne landmine

detection technologies: Unmanned aerial vehicle-based approach,” in Proc. Int. Congr. Adv.
Technol. Eng. (ICOTEN), 2021, pp. 1–5

[6] L. Yoo, J. Lee, S. Ko, S. Jung, S. Lee, and Y. Lee, “A drone fitted with a magnetometer
detects landmines,” IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett., vol. 17, no. 12, pp. 2035–2039, Dec.
2020.

[7] Fernández, M.G.; Narciandi, G.Á.; Arboleya, A.; Antuña, C.V.; Andrés, F.L.-H.; López,
Y.Á. Development of an Airborne-Based GPR System for Landmine and IED Detection:
Antenna Analysis and Intercomparison. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 127382–127396

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 33

 LANDMINE DETECTION USING IMPULSE GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

[8] Fischer, C.; Wiesbeck, W. Multistatic GPR for antipersonnel mine detection. In
Proceedings of the IGARSS 2001. Scanning the Present and Resolving the Future.
Proceedings. IEEE 2001 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium Sydney,
NSW, Australia, 9–13 July 2001; pp. 2721–2723

[9] K. Ho and P. Gader, “A linear prediction land mine detection algorithm for hand held
ground penetrating radar ”, IEEE Transactions of Geoscience and Remote Sensing. vol. 40.
no. 6. pp. 963–976. June 2002.

[10] A. Zoubir, I. Chant, C. Brown, B. Barkat and C. Abeynayake, “Signal processing

techniques for landmine detection using impulse ground penetrating radar ”, IEEE Sensors
Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 41–51, February 2002.

[11] A. Zoubir, I. Chant, C. Brown, B. Barkat, and C. Abeynayake, “Signal processing

techniques for landmine detection using impulse ground penetrating radar,” IEEE Sensors J.,
vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 41–51, Feb. 2002.

Dept of ECE, VEMU IT Page 34