Unit 1: Ecology of Environmental Science and Engineering

Q1. Define Ecosystem. Describe the Structure or Components of an Ecosystem.

Definition of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where living organisms interact among
themselves and with the surrounding physical environment. It includes both biotic (living)
and abiotic (non-living) components.

Structure/Components of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem has two main components:

1. Biotic Components (Living Organisms):

o Producers (Autotrophs): Green plants, algae – they synthesize food via
photosynthesis.
o Consumers (Heterotrophs):
 Primary consumers – herbivores (e.g., deer).
 Secondary consumers – carnivores (e.g., fox).
 Tertiary consumers – top carnivores (e.g., tiger).
o Decomposers (Saprotrophs): Fungi and bacteria – break down dead
organisms.
2. Abiotic Components (Non-living Factors):
o Physical factors: Light, temperature, air, water, soil.
o Chemical factors: Nutrients (N, P, K), pH, minerals, gases.

Diagram Suggestion: A labeled diagram showing a pond/forest ecosystem with sun,

producers, consumers, decomposers, and arrows for energy flow.

Q2. Describe Ecological Pyramid. Define Environment. Give its Classification. Define
Deforestation. Describe Descriptive Parameters.

Ecological Pyramid:
A graphical representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem. It shows the number, biomass,
or energy at each level.

Types:

1. Pyramid of Number
2. Pyramid of Biomass
3. Pyramid of Energy (always upright)

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Definition of Environment:
The environment refers to the total surroundings of living organisms, including air, water,
land, and biological life.

Classification of Environment:

1. Natural Environment: Air, water, soil, flora & fauna.

2. Anthropogenic Environment: Man-made structures and urban systems.

Definition of Deforestation:
The permanent removal of forests or tree cover to make land available for other uses like
agriculture, urbanization, or mining.

Descriptive Parameters of Environment:

1. Physical: Temperature, light, rainfall.

2. Chemical: pH, nutrients, gases (CO₂, O₂).
3. Biological: Biodiversity, species composition.

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Q3. Define Environmental Descriptors. Explain Environmental Quantity, Quality, and
its Parameters.

Environmental Descriptors:
These are measurable factors used to describe the state or change in the environment.
Examples: air temperature, CO₂ level, noise level, etc.

Environmental Quantity:
Refers to how much of a resource is available.
Example: Amount of water, forest area, fossil fuel reserves.

Environmental Quality:
Indicates the condition or health of the environment.
Example: Air purity, water cleanliness, biodiversity richness.

Key Parameters:

 Air quality: PM2.5, CO₂, NOx levels.

 Water quality: BOD, COD, pH.
 Soil quality: Organic matter content, texture, pH.

Q4. What is Ecology? Write Down its Importance.

Definition of Ecology:
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their
environment, including both biotic and abiotic components.

Importance of Ecology:

 Understands the balance of natural systems.

 Aids in biodiversity conservation.
 Helps manage natural resources sustainably.
 Assists in pollution control and waste management.
 Provides insight for climate change mitigation.

Q5. Define Food Chain. Classify Ecological System.

Definition of Food Chain

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which energy and nutrients flow in
an ecosystem.
It starts with producers (plants) and proceeds through various consumers (herbivores →
carnivores → top predators) and ends with decomposers.

Example:

Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle

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Classification of Ecological System

An ecological system (ecosystem) is a functional unit where living organisms interact with
each other and with their physical (non-living) environment.

A. Based on Habitat

 Terrestrial Ecosystem:
Land-based.
Examples: Forest, desert, grassland, mountain.
 Aquatic Ecosystem:
Water-based.
Types:
o Freshwater: Rivers, lakes, ponds.
o Marine: Oceans, seas, estuaries.

B. Based on Human Influence

 Natural Ecosystem:
Occurs naturally without human interference.
Examples: Forest, ocean, river.
 Artificial (Man-Made) Ecosystem:
Created and maintained by humans.
Examples: Cropland, garden, aquarium.

C. Based on Energy Flow

 Autotrophic Ecosystem:
Producers like plants make food using sunlight.
Examples: Forest, grassland.
 Heterotrophic Ecosystem:
Depends on intake of organic material.
Examples: Deep-sea ecosystems, caves.

Q6. Short Note on Environmental Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystem

Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystems:

 Temperature rise: Alters species distribution and behavior.

 Glacial melting & sea level rise: Affects coastal and marine life.
 Extreme weather: Increases forest fires, floods, droughts.
 Loss of biodiversity: Some species may go extinct.
 Ecosystem imbalance: Affects food chains and nutrient cycling.

Example: Coral bleaching due to ocean warming.

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Unit 2: Water Pollution

Write down the sources of surface water and groundwater

Answer:
Surface Water: River, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, ocean

 Contaminants:
o Industrial discharge
o Domestic sewage
o Agricultural runoff
o Oil spill

Groundwater: Aquifer, wells, spring

 Contaminants:
o Sewage from septic tanks
o Landfills
o Industrial sewage
o Agricultural leaching

Q2. Define point and non-point sources of water pollution?

A. Point Source Pollution:

Pollution that comes from a single identifiable source, e.g. a pipe discharging industrial
waste into the river.

 How it works:
o Wastewater from an industrial sewage treatment plant or oil spill is directly
released into the river, lakes, or oceans.
 This direct discharge of water degrades the quality of the water body.

Non-Point Source Pollution:

 Pollution that comes from scattered sources rather than a single source.
 It is difficult and harder to control,
 Example; Agricultural run-offs carrying fertilizers and harmful pesticides into the
nearby stream.

Q3. Describe the chemical parameters of water quality.

1. pH: Indicates acidity or basicity of water (Ideal: 6.5-8.5).

2. Alkalinity: Ability to neutralize acids, due to carbonates and bicarbonates.
3. Turbidity: Measures cloudiness due to suspended particles (Should be <5 NTU for
drinking water).
4. Heavy Metals: Toxic metals like lead, mercury, arsenic, present in small amounts.

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 5. Hardness: Caused by calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions, making water
unsuitable for soaps.
6. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Amount of oxygen available for sustaining aquatic life.
7. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Oxygen required by microorganisms to
decompose organic matter.
8. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Oxygen required to chemically oxidize organic
and inorganic substances.
9. Oil & Grease: Presence of petroleum-based pollutants that create surface films on
water.

Q4.Describe Water Treatment Process

Step 1: Screening
• Water from the source is first passed through screens
• Purpose: Remove large floating materials like leaves, plastic, branches, debris

Step 2: Intake and initial settling

• After screening, water enters a primary settling tank
• Here larger and heavier particles like sand and grit settle down naturally

Step 3: Coagulation
• It is the process where a coagulant (like alum) is added to water to neutralize the charges on
small suspended particles
• This helps in clumping the tiny impurities together

Step 4: Flocculation
• It is the process of slow mixing that encourages clumped particles to grow into bigger,
heavier flocs
• Paddle mixers are often used

Step 5: Final settling

• Water enters the final settling tank
• Flocs settle down at the bottom as sludge which is collected and removed

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Step 6: Filtration
• The clean water is passed through sand filter and gravel filter
• This removes any remaining fine particles, improving clarity and quality

Step 7: Disinfection
• After filtration, disinfection is done with chlorine, UV light
• This kills harmful bacteria, viruses and microorganisms or ozone

Step 8: Storage and Distribution

• The clean water is either stored in storage tank or distributed for use

Q. Heavy Metal Pollutants and their Health effects

Metal Source Health effect

Lead (Pb) Paint, batteries, pipes Brain damage, Anemia
Mercury (Hg) Thermometer, industries Nerve damage, kidney failure
Cadmium (Cd) Batteries, plastics Bone damage, kidney problem
Arsenic (As) Groundwater Skin cancer, organ failure

Q. Potable Water:

Potable water is water that is safe to drink and free of harmful substances.

Characteristics:

 pH: 6.5 – 8.5

 No harmful microbes
 Low TDS (<500 mg/l)
 Good taste, no bad odor or color

Q. Pollutant Chemicals and their Causes

 Nitrates: Fertilizer runoff → Blue baby syndrome

 Phosphates: Detergents → Algal Blooms
 Pesticides: Agricultural runoff → Poisoning, cancers
 Heavy metals: Industrial discharge → Bioaccumulation, toxicity

1. BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand

Definition:
It is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms (like bacteria) to break down biodegradable
organic matter present in water over a specific period (usually 5 days at 20°C).

Explanation:

 Organic matter in dirty water (like from sewage) is food for microorganisms.
 As they digest it, they consume oxygen.

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  Higher BOD = More pollution → More organic waste → Less oxygen available for aquatic life →
Poor water quality.

Unit: mg/L (milligrams of oxygen per liter)

2. COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand

Definition:
It is the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize both organic and inorganic substances in
water.

Explanation:

 COD includes both biodegradable and non-biodegradable matter (unlike BOD).

 It uses strong chemicals to break down everything in water to see how much oxygen would be
needed.
 COD is usually higher than BOD.

Unit: mg/L

3. pH – Potential of Hydrogen

Definition:
It measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in water to determine whether it is acidic, neutral, or
basic (alkaline).

Explanation:

 pH scale ranges from 0 to 14:

o pH < 7 → Acidic (e.g., lemon juice)
o pH = 7 → Neutral (pure water)
o pH > 7 → Basic/Alkaline (e.g., soap water)
 Affects corrosion, water taste, and effectiveness of disinfection.

4. Turbidity

Definition:
Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by suspended particles (like silt, microorganisms,
organic matter).

Explanation:

 Clear water = low turbidity. Dirty or muddy water = high turbidity.

 High turbidity blocks light, affects aquatic life, and may carry germs.

Unit: NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit)

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5. Hardness

Definition:
It is the amount of dissolved calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions in water.

Explanation:

 Hard water forms scale in kettles/pipes, reduces soap lathering.

 Caused by minerals like limestone dissolving in water.
 Not harmful to health but affects plumbing and washing.

Unit: mg/L as CaCO₃ (calcium carbonate equivalent)

Unit 3: Air Pollution and Noise Pollution

Q15. Mention Two Ways to Reduce Air Pollution Caused by Automobiles

1. Use of Clean Fuels:

o Switching from petrol/diesel to cleaner fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural
Gas), LPG, Electric Vehicles (EVs), and biofuels reduces emissions of
harmful gases like CO, NOx, and unburnt hydrocarbons.
o Government initiatives like FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of
Electric Vehicles) promote EVs.
o
2. Emission Control Technologies:
o Installing catalytic converters in vehicle exhausts helps convert harmful gases
(CO, NOx) into harmless ones (CO₂, N₂).
o Enforcing Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) emission norms reduces pollutants at
source.
o Promoting carpooling, public transport, and vehicle fitness checks also help.

Q16. Define Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants. Define AQI (Air Quality Index)

 Primary Air Pollutants:

o Directly emitted from identifiable sources.
o Examples: Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and particulate matter (PM).
 Secondary Air Pollutants:
o Not emitted directly. They form in the atmosphere through chemical reactions.
o Examples: Ozone (O₃), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), photochemical smog.
 AQI (AIR QUALITY INDEX):
o A numerical scale used to report and compare the quality of air.
o Ranges from 0 (Good) to 500 (Severely Polluted).
o Categorized into Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe
levels with associated health warnings.

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Q17. Name Four Pollutants Measured to Express AQI

The AQI is calculated based on concentration levels of the following pollutants:

1. PM2.5 – Fine particulate matter (≤2.5 µm diameter)

2. PM10 – Coarse particulate matter (≤10 µm diameter)
3. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)
4. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)
(Bonus: Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O₃), and Ammonia (NH₃) are also included
in Indian AQI)

Q18. Mention Natural Sources of Air Pollution

1. Volcanic Eruptions:
Emit sulfur dioxide, ash, and particulates into the atmosphere.
2. Forest Fires:
Release carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and smoke particles.
3. Dust Storms:
Contribute large amounts of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5) to the air.
4. Ocean Spray:
Adds salt particles (NaCl aerosols) to the atmosphere.
5. Pollen Grains:
Act as biological pollutants and allergens.

Q19. Discuss the Reason Behind Depletion of Ozone Layer

 Main Cause:
Man-made chemicals like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and freons rise to
the stratosphere.
 Mechanism:
CFCs release chlorine (Cl) atoms that react with ozone (O₃) and break it down.

Chemical Reaction:

Cl + O₃ → ClO + O₂
ClO + O → Cl + O₂
Net: O₃ + O → 2O₂

 Impact:
Leads to the thinning of the ozone layer, especially over polar regions, allowing
harmful UV radiation to reach Earth, causing skin cancer, cataracts, and damaging
ecosystems.

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Q20. Define Photochemical Smog and Acid Rain with Chemical Reactions

Photochemical Smog:

 Formed by the reaction of sunlight with NOx and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).
 Contains ozone (O₃), PAN, and aldehydes.
 Common in urban areas with high traffic.

Reactions:

NO₂ + sunlight → NO + O
O + O₂ → O₃ (ozone, harmful at ground level)

Acid Rain:

 Caused when SO₂ and NOx react with water vapor to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
and nitric acid (HNO₃).

Reactions:

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CopyEdit
SO₂ + O₂ → SO₃
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
2NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₂ + HNO₃

 Effects:
Acidifies soil and water bodies, corrodes buildings, harms aquatic life and vegetation.

Q21. What is Global Warming? Name the Greenhouse Gases

 Global Warming:
The rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to the greenhouse effect —
trapping of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere.
 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) – fossil fuel burning.
2. Methane (CH₄) – agriculture, livestock, wetlands.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) – fertilizers, industries.
4. Water Vapor (H₂O) – natural component.
5. Ozone (O₃) – at the troposphere level.
6. CFCs – refrigerators, aerosols (though banned).

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Q22. Describe Advanced Air Pollution Control Methods

1. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP):

o Applies a high-voltage charge to dust particles in flue gases, which are then
attracted to oppositely charged collector plates.
2. Wet Scrubber:
o Gases are passed through water or chemical solution to remove SO₂, NOx, or
particulate matter.
3. Baghouse Filters (Fabric Filters):
o Use woven/pleated fabric to trap fine dust particles; common in cement and
chemical industries.
4. Catalytic Converter:
o Used in vehicles to convert CO, NOx, and unburnt hydrocarbons into CO₂,
N₂, and H₂O.

Q23. Short Note on Cyclone Separator, Precipitator, Electrostatic

 Cyclone Separator:
o Uses centrifugal force to separate heavy dust particles from air streams.
o Effective for large-sized particles in industries like cement, sawmills.
 Precipitator (ESP):
o Best for removing fine particulate matter from exhaust gases using electric
charge.
o Common in thermal power plants and steel plants.

Q24. Define Decibel. What is the Threshold Value of Noise?

 Decibel (dB):
Logarithmic unit used to measure sound intensity or pressure.
 Threshold of Hearing:
0 dB – softest sound a human can hear.
 Threshold of Pain:
Around 120–130 dB – can cause ear damage.

Q25. Mention Two Hazardous Effects of Noise Pollution on Public Health

1. Hearing Loss:
Long exposure to high noise levels damages the eardrum and inner ear.
2. Psychological Stress and Hypertension:
Constant noise leads to mental fatigue, irritability, disturbed sleep, and increased
blood pressure.

Other effects:

 Reduced concentration
 Interference with communication
 Cardiovascular diseases

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Q26. Write Down Name of Noise Pollution Devices, Describe Main Sources of Noise
Pollution, How to Measure Noise Pollution

Devices Used:

1. Sound Level Meter:

Measures ambient noise in decibels (dB), usually dB(A) scale.
2. Dosimeter:
Worn by workers to measure personal noise exposure over time.

Main Sources of Noise Pollution:

 Transportation: Road traffic, railway, aircraft.

 Construction: Drilling, piling, hammering.
 Industrial Machines: Generators, compressors, factory equipment.
 Social Activities: Loudspeakers, music concerts, festivals.

Measurement:

 Sound Level Meter held at ear level in affected area.

 Measured over time to calculate Leq (Equivalent Noise Level).
 Acceptable Limits:
o Residential area: ≤55 dB (day), ≤45 dB (night)
o Industrial area: ≤75 dB (day), ≤70 dB (night)

Unit 4: Solid Waste and Soil Pollution (Q27–Q31)

Q27. Describe Solid Waste. Classification of Solid Waste. Sources of Solid Waste

Solid Waste:

Solid waste refers to any unwanted or discarded solid material generated from human and
animal activities that is not liquid or gas. It includes household garbage, industrial refuse,
agricultural debris, and biomedical waste.

Classification of Solid Waste:

1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

o Household garbage, street sweeping, market waste.
2. Industrial Waste:
o Chemicals, scrap, fly ash, and process waste from factories.
3. Hazardous Waste:
o Toxic, flammable, corrosive, or reactive materials.
4. Biomedical Waste:
o Waste from hospitals and clinics, like used syringes, tissues.
5. Electronic Waste (E-Waste):
o Discarded electronic gadgets like computers, mobiles.

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 6. Agricultural Waste:
o Crop residue, fertilizers, pesticides, manure.

Sources of Solid Waste:

1. Residential: Food leftovers, paper, plastic, glass.

2. Commercial: Waste from shops, offices, restaurants.
3. Industrial: Scrap, chemicals, packaging.
4. Institutional: Schools, colleges, government buildings.
5. Construction and Demolition: Bricks, concrete, wood.
6. Biomedical: Syringes, bandages, expired medicines.

Q28. Short Notes:

A. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW):

 Generated by households and communities.

 Includes organic (biodegradable) and inorganic (non-biodegradable) waste.
 Needs proper segregation and collection for disposal or recycling.
 Example: Food scraps, paper, cans, plastic, garden waste.

B. Industrial Solid Waste:

 Comes from manufacturing and processing industries.

 May include hazardous chemicals, metal scraps, and fly ash.
 Requires specialized treatment before disposal due to toxicity.

C. Hospital Solid Waste (Biomedical Waste):

 Generated from diagnosis, treatment, or immunization activities.

 Includes infectious waste, sharps (needles), body parts, and chemicals.
 Needs proper color-coded segregation and incineration/autoclaving.

Define E-Waste:

E-Waste (Electronic Waste) refers to discarded electrical or electronic devices such as old
computers, TVs, refrigerators, mobile phones, and batteries.

 Hazards: Contains toxic heavy metals like lead, mercury, cadmium.

 Impact: Can contaminate soil and groundwater if not properly recycled.

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Q30. Explain Briefly on Solid Waste Management. Write Its Main Objectives. Point
Out Municipality Solid Waste Disposal

Solid Waste Management (SWM):

It refers to the collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal of solid waste in a

scientific and environmentally sustainable manner.

Main Objectives of SWM:

1. Public Health Protection: Prevent spread of diseases.

2. Environmental Safety: Minimize soil, air, and water pollution.
3. Resource Recovery: Promote reuse and recycling.
4. Aesthetic Value: Keep cities clean and livable.
5. Energy Recovery: From waste-to-energy plants.

Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Methods:

1. Landfilling: Waste is buried underground in engineered landfills.

2. Composting: Biodegradable waste is decomposed into organic manure.
3. Incineration: Burning waste at high temperatures to reduce volume.
4. Recycling: Paper, plastic, glass, and metals are processed for reuse.
5. Vermicomposting: Using earthworms to convert organic waste into nutrient-rich
compost.

Q31. Define Incineration. What is Leaching? What is the Impact of Leaching on Soil
Pollution? Define Poor Fertility, Septicity Concentration of Infecting Agents in Soil.

Ans:

Incineration:

 A thermal waste treatment method where solid waste is burned at high temperatures
(800°C to 1100°C).
 Reduces waste volume significantly.
 Destroys harmful pathogens and toxic substances.
 Sometimes recovers energy (waste-to-energy).
 Produces ash, heat, and flue gases as by-products.

Leaching:

 Process where water percolates through soil, dissolving and carrying substances (e.g.,
fertilizers, salts, toxins) downward.
 Commonly caused by rainfall or irrigation.

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 Impact of Leaching on Soil Pollution:

 Loss of nutrients from topsoil → reduced soil fertility.

 Contaminates groundwater with harmful chemicals.
 Affects soil microorganisms and leads to imbalance.
 Can acidify the soil.
 Build-up of toxins in lower soil layers.

Poor Fertility:

 Condition where soil lacks nutrients (N, P, K), organic matter, or good structure.
 Cannot support healthy plant growth.
 Results in low productivity and poor crop yield.
 Caused by over-farming, erosion, chemical use, or pollution.

Septicity Concentration of Infecting Agents in Soil:

 Septicity refers to anaerobic decomposition in soil, often from organic waste.

 Leads to release of foul-smelling gases.
 Increases disease-causing organisms (bacteria, viruses, parasites).
 Indicates severe soil contamination and poor sanitation.
 Common near garbage dumps or decaying organic matter.

Unit 5 questions (Q32–Q38) in clear point format for easy memorization:

Q32. Basic Working Principle of Solar PV Cell, Types of Cells

 Working Principle:
o Converts sunlight directly into electricity using the photovoltaic effect.
o When sunlight hits the semiconductor material (usually silicon), it excites
electrons, creating electron-hole pairs.
o These free electrons flow through the material to generate electric current.
 Types of Solar Cells:
1. Monocrystalline Silicon Cells – made from single crystal silicon, high
efficiency.
2. Polycrystalline Silicon Cells – made from multiple silicon crystals, moderate
efficiency.
3. Amorphous Silicon Cells (Thin-Film) – non-crystalline silicon, flexible, lower
efficiency but cheaper.
4. Other Thin-Film Cells – e.g., CdTe (Cadmium Telluride), CIGS (Copper Indium
…………………………………………………………………………….Gallium Selenide).

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Q33. Short Notes on Working and Working Principle of Solar Devices

1. Solar Photovoltaic Panel

 Definition: A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity
using the photovoltaic (PV) effect, which occurs in semiconductors.
 Structure: Made up of multiple solar cells, usually constructed using silicon-based
materials, arranged in arrays to form modules.
 Application: Used for both grid-connected and off-grid applications, such as in
homes, industries, calculators, and remote telecom towers.
 Working Principle:
o When sunlight (photons) strikes the surface of the solar cell, it excites electrons
in the semiconductor material.
o This creates an electric current as electrons move through the circuit, generating
DC electricity.
o The DC electricity is either used directly, stored in batteries, or passed through
inverters to convert it to AC for home or grid use.

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2. Solar Water Heater

 Definition: A device that uses solar energy to heat water for domestic or industrial
use without using electricity or gas.
 Structure: Consists of solar collectors (flat plate or evacuated tubes), a storage tank,
and pipes to circulate water.
 Application: Common in households, hotels, and hospitals for reducing electricity
bills and promoting green energy.
 Working Principle:
o Sunlight is absorbed by the solar collectors and transferred to water or a heat
transfer fluid.
o The heated fluid flows naturally (thermosiphon) or via a pump to the insulated
storage tank.
o The system delivers hot water throughout the day, even during non-sunny
hours with proper insulation.

3. Solar Battery Charger

 Definition: A system that uses solar energy to charge rechargeable batteries,

providing a clean and renewable source of energy.
 Structure: Includes a solar panel, a charge controller, and the battery.
 Application: Ideal for rural areas, outdoor activities, and emergency lighting systems
where grid power is unavailable.
 Working Principle:
o The solar panel generates DC electricity when exposed to sunlight.

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 o This electricity flows through a charge controller which manages current to
avoid overcharging and damage to the battery.
o The battery stores the energy and powers devices such as lights or small
electronics when needed.

4. Solar Lantern / Street Light

 Definition: Portable or fixed lighting systems powered by solar energy, using LEDs
for illumination.
 Structure: Includes a solar panel, a rechargeable battery, LED lamp, and a
controller with sensors.
 Application: Extensively used in rural electrification, streets, parks, and camping
due to low maintenance and independence from the grid.
 Working Principle:
o Solar panel charges the internal battery during daylight.
o The controller detects darkness using a light sensor and turns on the LED lamp.
o Energy-efficient LEDs use minimal power, making the stored energy last
longer
overnight.

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5. Solar Cooker

 Definition: A solar-powered cooking device that prepares food using concentrated

solar thermal energy instead of gas or electricity.
 Types: Box-type (most common), parabolic reflector (for high temperatures), and
panel-type cookers.
 Application: Useful in sunny rural regions, camps, and eco-friendly households to
reduce firewood or LPG use.
 Working Principle:
o Sunlight is focused on a cooking pot using reflective surfaces.
o Inside the cooker, heat is trapped using a transparent glass cover, creating a
greenhouse effect.
o The trapped heat gradually cooks the food, retaining nutrients and saving fuel.

6. Solar Pond

 Definition: A large man-made saltwater pond designed to collect and store solar
heat energy in the lower layers.
 Structure: Divided into three zones — upper convective, non-convective gradient,
and lower convective zone with high salt concentration.
 Application: Used for space heating, desalination, or as a low-cost heat source for
industrial use or power plants.
 Working Principle:
o Sunlight penetrates the top layer and reaches the high-salinity bottom layer.
o Salt prevents convection, trapping heat in the bottom zone.
o Heat is extracted through heat exchangers and used for thermal applications
like generating steam or heating water.

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7. Solar Still

 Definition: A device that purifies or distills water using solar energy, suitable for
converting saltwater or contaminated water into drinkable water.
 Structure: Consists of a transparent glass cover, black bottom basin, and a
collection channel.
 Application: Useful in coastal or arid areas, during disasters, or for survival
situations where clean water is scarce.
 Working Principle:
o Sunlight heats the impure water in the black basin, causing it to evaporate.
o The water vapor condenses on the cooler inner side of the glass cover.
o Condensed clean water runs down and is collected in a channel, while
impurities remain behind.

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Q34. Wind Energy Systems

Basic Principle of Wind Energy:

Wind energy systems convert the kinetic energy of moving air (wind) into mechanical
energy using turbine blades. This mechanical energy is then transformed into electrical
energy via a generator.

Types of Wind Turbines:

1. HAWT (Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine):

o Most commonly used.
o The rotor shaft is parallel to the ground and the wind direction.
o Requires a yaw mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
o More efficient in large-scale applications like wind farms.
2. VAWT (Vertical Axis Wind Turbine): (Not mentioned but important for
completeness)
o The rotor shaft is perpendicular to the ground.
o Does not need to face the wind direction.
o Suitable for urban or turbulent wind environments.
3. SAWT (Self-Adjusting Wind Turbine):
o A modern innovation.
o Automatically adjusts blade pitch angle depending on wind speed.
o Helps in maintaining optimal efficiency and reduces wear on components.

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Major Components of a Wind Energy System:

Component Function
Rotor Blades Capture wind energy and cause rotation.
Shaft Transfers mechanical power from rotor to gearbox or generator.
Gearbox Increases rotational speed for efficient generator operation.
Generator Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Tower Supports the turbine at a height where wind speeds are higher and stable.
Control System Monitors wind speed/direction, controls yaw, blade pitch, and shut-down.

Bioenergy Systems

Definition:

Bioenergy refers to energy derived from organic materials (biomass), including plants,
crop residues, animal waste, and other biological matter.

Forms of Bioenergy:

1. Thermal Energy:
o Obtained by burning biomass to generate heat.
o Used directly for cooking, heating, or in boilers for electricity generation.
2. Chemical Energy:
o Stored in chemical bonds of biofuels (e.g., ethanol, biodiesel).
o Released during combustion or chemical reaction.
3. Electrical/Mechanical Energy:
o Derived from converting chemical or thermal bioenergy using engines or
turbines.

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Key Technologies in Bioenergy:

1. Gasifier:
o A device that partially combusts biomass to produce syngas (CO, H₂, CH₄).
o Operates under low oxygen conditions.
o Syngas can be used for direct combustion, power generation, or as chemical
feedstock.
2. TIGES (Thermochemical Integrated Gasifier and Engine System):
o A system that:
 Converts biomass into producer gas via gasification.
 Uses an internal combustion engine to generate electricity.
o Efficient for distributed rural electrification.
3. TERS (Thermochemical Energy Recovery System):
o Focuses on recovering energy from waste biomass through:
 Pyrolysis, gasification, or combustion.
o Useful in converting agricultural waste into usable heat or electricity.

Q36. Hydropower Systems

Hydro System

 Definition: A hydro system converts the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water
into mechanical energy using turbines, which is then converted to electrical energy
using a generator.
 Working Principle:
o Water is diverted from a river or reservoir and flows through penstocks to reach
the turbine.
o The force of water spins the turbine blades, which drives a generator to
produce electricity.
o After energy extraction, water is returned to the natural source with minimal
environmental impact.
 Application: Widely used in dams, large power plants, and hydroelectric stations
for bulk power generation.

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Micro-Hydro System

 Definition: A micro-hydro system is a small-scale hydroelectric setup that typically

generates less than 100 kW of power, ideal for individual communities or remote
villages.
 Components: Includes an intake, penstock, turbine, generator, and control system.
 Application: Especially suitable for hilly or mountainous areas with consistent
water flow like rivers or streams.

Advantages of Micro-Hydro

 Renewable and Clean Energy: Utilizes the natural flow of water without burning
fuel, making it a non-polluting and sustainable energy source.
 Low Operating & Maintenance Cost: After installation, these systems require
minimal human intervention, with low wear and tear, especially when using quality
turbines.
 Continuous Power Supply: Unlike solar or wind, water flow is more predictable
and stable, offering 24/7 power generation in most cases.
 Eco-Friendly: Minimal impact on the ecosystem compared to large hydro dams;
produces very low greenhouse gas emissions.
 Supports Local Energy Independence: Helps decentralize energy production,
allowing rural communities to become self-sufficient and reduce reliance on grid
electricity.

Q37. Geothermal Energy

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Sources of Geothermal Energy

 Earth's Core Heat: Geothermal energy originates from the natural heat deep within
the Earth's interior, which is a result of radioactive decay and residual heat from
Earth's formation.
 Natural Surface Features: This energy reaches the surface through geological
formations like hot springs, fumaroles, geysers, and volcanic regions, which
indicate the presence of underground heat reservoirs.

Types of Geothermal Power Plants

1. Dry Steam Plant:

o Working Principle: This type uses steam directly from geothermal
reservoirs to spin turbines connected to electricity generators.
o Requirement: Requires dry, high-temperature steam fields, which are rare
but efficient.
o Example: The Geysers in California, USA.
2. Flash Steam Plant:
o Working Principle: Extracts high-pressure hot water from the ground and
allows it to rapidly vaporize (flash) into steam as pressure drops.
o Usage: Most common geothermal plant type; effective for temperatures above
180°C.
o Steam Output: Drives a turbine to generate electricity.
3. Binary Cycle Plant:
o Working Principle: Geothermal water heats a secondary fluid (like isobutane
or pentane) that has a lower boiling point, which then vaporizes to spin the
turbine.
o Efficiency: Suitable for lower temperature sources (below 150°C).
o Closed-loop System: Environmentally friendly with minimal emission.

Q38. Utilization of Tidal Energy to Generate Electricity

Tidal Energy Basics

 Definition: Tidal energy is derived from the cyclical rise and fall of sea levels,
caused by gravitational interactions between the Earth, moon, and sun.
 Predictability: It is highly predictable compared to wind or solar energy due to
consistent lunar cycles.

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Electricity Generation Methods

1. Tidal Barrage System:

o Structure: A dam-like structure (barrage) is built across a tidal estuary or
bay.
o Working: As tides rise and fall, water flows through turbines embedded in
the barrage, generating electricity.
o Mode: Can operate in ebb, flood, or two-way generation modes.
2. Tidal Stream Generators:
o Design: Underwater turbines (similar to wind turbines) are placed in areas with
strong tidal currents.
o Working: These turbines rotate with water flow, converting kinetic energy
into electricity.
o Benefit: Less invasive and cheaper than barrages, suitable for narrow straits
and channels.

Advantages of Tidal Energy

 Renewable and Sustainable: Constant supply from ocean movement ensures long-
term viability.
 Predictable Output: Unlike solar or wind, tidal patterns are reliable and regular,
aiding grid stability.
 Eco-Friendly: No fuel combustion, thus zero greenhouse gas emissions during
operation.
 Long Lifespan: Tidal energy systems often have durable components and low
maintenance requirements.

Unit 6: Environmental Registration and Rules (India-based):

Q39. What is Environmental Registration? Define Sustainable Environmental

Management

 Environmental Registration:
o A formal process where industries, projects, or activities register with
environmental authorities before operation.
o Ensures compliance with environmental standards and regulations.
o Helps monitor and control pollution and environmental impact.
 Sustainable Environmental Management:
o Managing natural resources and environment to meet current needs without
compromising future generations.
o Integrates ecological, social, and economic considerations.
o Focuses on pollution control, conservation, renewable resource use, and
maintaining biodiversity.

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Q40. Objectives and Salient Features of Environmental Acts in India

Year Act Objective/Salient Features

1972 Water (Prevention & Control of Control and prevent water pollution;
Pollution) Act establish pollution control boards.
1974 Wildlife Protection Act Protection of wildlife species and their
habitats; regulate hunting and trade.
1980 Forest Conservation Act Regulate deforestation; protect forest land;
restrict non-forest use.
1981 Air (Prevention & Control of Prevent and control air pollution; empower
Pollution) Act authorities for regulation.
1986 Environment Protection Act Umbrella law to protect and improve the
environment; sets standards, regulates
industries.
1999 Hazardous Waste (Management Regulate generation, handling, treatment,
and Handling) Rules and disposal of hazardous wastes.
2002 Bio-Medical Waste Management Proper handling and disposal of hospital and
Rules biomedical waste.
2007 Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control noise pollution limits; regulate noise
Control) Rules sources like vehicles and industries.
2023 (Latest environmental regulations or Continuous updates to improve
amendments may vary; specify if environmental governance and compliance.
needed)

Q41. Environmental Sustainability: Brief Explanation

 The ability to maintain natural resources and ecological balance indefinitely.

 Ensures that environmental health supports human well-being, biodiversity, and
ecosystem services.
 Involves reducing pollution, conserving resources, promoting renewable energy, and
sustainable development.
 Key goal: balance economic growth with environmental protection for long-term
survival.

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