Biology Notes- Semester II

Breathing and Gas Exchange

1. The Purpose of Breathing

 Breathing (ventilation) is the mechanical process of moving air in

and out of the lungs.
 It ensures oxygen is brought in for respiration and carbon dioxide, a
waste product, is removed.

2. Structure of the Respiratory System

 Trachea – windpipe; carries air to lungs; supported by cartilage.

 Bronchi – two tubes that branch from the trachea, one to each lung.
 Bronchioles – smaller branches of bronchi.
 Alveoli – tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.
 Diaphragm – muscle beneath lungs aiding breathing.
 Intercostal muscles – between ribs; help expand and contract the
chest.

3. Alveoli and Gas Exchange

 Alveoli adaptations:
o Large surface area – for efficient gas exchange.
o Thin walls (1 cell thick) – short diffusion distance.
o Moist lining – gases dissolve and diffuse faster.
o Good blood supply – maintains steep concentration gradient.
 Gas Exchange Process:
o Oxygen diffuses from alveoli → blood (into red blood cells).
o Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood → alveoli (to be exhaled).

4. Breathing Mechanism
  Inhalation:
o Diaphragm contracts and flattens.
o Intercostal muscles contract, ribs move up and out.
o Volume of thorax increases → pressure decreases → air moves in.
 Exhalation:
o Diaphragm relaxes and domes.
o Intercostal muscles relax, ribs move down and in.
o Volume of thorax decreases → pressure increases → air pushed
out.

5. Effects of Exercise on Breathing

 Breathing rate and depth increase.

 More oxygen delivered to muscles, and more carbon dioxide
removed.
 Helps maintain aerobic respiration during activity.

6. Investigating Breathing

 Use limewater to test for carbon dioxide (turns cloudy).

 Use spirometer or breathing rate measurements to assess lung
function.

7. Common Misconceptions

 Breathing is not the same as respiration (respiration is a chemical

process in cells).
 Oxygen goes into blood, not directly into cells from alveoli.
Chemical Coordination in Humans –
1. The Endocrine System

 The endocrine system uses hormones to control and coordinate body

processes.
 Hormones are:
o Chemical messengers.
o Produced by endocrine glands.
o Transported in the blood.
o Act on target organs.

2. Major Endocrine Glands and Hormones

Gland Hormone Function

Pituitary ADH, FSH, LH Controls other glands; water balance,
etc.
Thyroid Thyroxine Controls metabolic rate
Pancreas Insulin, Glucagon Controls blood glucose levels
Adrenal glands Adrenaline Prepares body for "fight or flight"
Ovaries Oestrogen, Controls menstrual cycle
(females) Progesterone
Testes (males) Testosterone Controls development of male features

3. Hormonal vs Nervous Control

Feature Nervous System Endocrine System

Type of signal Electrical impulses Hormones (chemical)
Speed of Very fast Slower
response
Duration Short-term Long-term
Target Specific More general
(neurons/muscles) (organs/tissues)

4. Blood Glucose Regulation

 Controlled by the pancreas using:

o Insulin (lowers blood glucose):
 Converts glucose → glycogen (stored in liver).
o Glucagon (raises blood glucose):
 Converts glycogen → glucose (released into blood).
Diabetes:

 Type 1 Diabetes:
o Pancreas produces no insulin.
o Controlled by insulin injections.
 Type 2 Diabetes:
o Body becomes insensitive to insulin.
o Controlled by diet and exercise.

5. Adrenaline (Fight or Flight Hormone)

 Produced by adrenal glands in times of stress.

 Increases:
o Heart rate.
o Blood flow to muscles.
o Blood sugar levels (for energy).

6. Thyroxine and Metabolism

 Thyroxine (from thyroid gland) regulates metabolic rate.

 Controlled by negative feedback:
o Low thyroxine → more TSH released by pituitary → increases thyroxine.
o High thyroxine → less TSH → reduces thyroxine production.

7. The Menstrual Cycle (Basic Overview)

 Controlled by hormones:
o FSH – matures egg (from pituitary).
o LH – triggers ovulation (from pituitary).
o Oestrogen – rebuilds uterus lining (from ovaries).
o Progesterone – maintains uterus lining (from ovaries).
 Plants And Food
1. Photosynthesis

Definition

The process by which plants make glucose using sunlight, carbon

dioxide, and water:

Key Components

 Light energy: Absorbed by chlorophyll in chloroplasts.

 Carbon dioxide: Diffuses into the leaf through stomata.
 Water: Absorbed by roots and transported to leaves via
xylem.
 Chlorophyll: Pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light
energy.

2. Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis

Feature Adaptation
Large surface Maximizes light absorption.
area
Thin Short diffusion distance for gases.
Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll to absorb light energy.
Stomata Allow gas exchange (CO₂ enters, O₂ exits).
Veins (xylem Transport water to the leaf (xylem) and
and phloem) glucose away from the leaf (phloem).
Transparent Allows light to penetrate.
cuticle
3. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

1. Light Intensity:
o Higher light intensity increases photosynthesis up to a
point.
2. Carbon Dioxide Concentration:
o More CO₂ increases the rate of photosynthesis, until
another factor becomes limiting.
3. Temperature:
o Enzymes involved in photosynthesis work best at
optimal temperatures (too high = enzymes denature).

Graphical Representation:

 Light and CO₂ show plateau when another factor becomes

limiting.
 Temperature shows a bell-shaped curve (optimum point
before denaturation).

4. Testing for Photosynthesis

1. Testing for Starch in a Leaf

 Boil the leaf in water: Stops all chemical reactions.

 Place the leaf in ethanol: Removes chlorophyll for better
visualization.
 Rinse in warm water: Softens the leaf.
 Add iodine: Starch presence turns blue-black.
2. Investigating Factors

 Light: Cover part of a leaf with foil and test for starch
(uncovered areas turn blue-black).
 CO₂: Use soda lime (absorbs CO₂); the leaf will not produce
starch without CO₂.
 Chlorophyll: Use variegated leaves; only green areas turn
blue-black.

5. Uses of Glucose

Plants use glucose produced during photosynthesis for:

 Respiration: To release energy.

 Storage: Converted to starch for energy storage.
 Transport: Converted to sucrose and transported in the
phloem.
 Making other substances:
o Cellulose: Builds cell walls.
o Proteins: Requires nitrates absorbed from the soil.
o Lipids: Stored in seeds.
o

6. Minerals Required by Plants

Mineral Function Deficiency Symptoms
Nitrates Needed to make amino Stunted growth, yellowing
acids and proteins. leaves.
Magnesiu Needed to make Leaves turn yellow
m chlorophyll. (chlorosis).
Phosphat Needed for DNA and Poor root growth, purple
es cell membranes. leaves.
Potassiu Helps enzymes in Poor flower and fruit
m photosynthesis and development, yellow leaves
respiration. with dead spots.

Transport in Plants
Xylem

 Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.

 Made of dead cells with lignified walls for strength.

Phloem

 Transports sucrose and amino acids (translocation).

 Made of living cells with sieve plates.

8. Importance of Photosynthesis

 Produces oxygen for respiration.

 Provides food (glucose) for plants and indirectly for animals.
 Removes CO₂ from the atmosphere.

Transport Systems in Plants

Plants have specialized systems to transport water, minerals, and food

throughout the plant. These systems include:

a. Xylem

 Function: Transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the
leaves.
 Structure:
o Made of dead cells joined end to end, forming hollow tubes.
o Walls are strengthened with lignin (provides support and
prevents collapse).
 Direction: One-way (from roots to leaves).
 Process: Water moves through the xylem via transpiration.
b. Phloem

 Function: Transports sucrose and amino acids (products of

photosynthesis) to different parts of the plant.
 Structure:
o Made of living cells.
o Sieve plates allow substances to move between cells.
 Direction: Two-way (can move nutrients up or down).
 Process: Movement in the phloem is called translocation.

2. Transport Mechanisms

a. Water Uptake and Transport (Xylem)

1. Root Hair Cells: Absorb water from the soil by osmosis.

o Water moves from a region of higher water potential (soil) to
lower water potential (root hair cells).
2. Mineral Ion Absorption:
o Active transport is used to absorb minerals from the soil.
3. Movement in Xylem:
o Water moves up the xylem due to transpiration pull, root
pressure, and capillary action.

b. Transpiration

 Definition: The loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of the plant,
mainly through stomata.
 Process:
1. Water evaporates from the mesophyll cells in the leaves.
2. Water vapor diffuses out through the stomata.
3. This creates a suction force (transpiration pull) that draws water
up the xylem.
 Factors Affecting Transpiration:

o Light intensity (increases stomatal opening).

o Temperature (increases evaporation).
 o Humidity (decreases water vapor gradient).
o Wind speed (removes water vapor around the leaf).

c. Translocation (Phloem)

 Definition: The transport of sucrose and amino acids from source

(e.g., leaves) to sink (e.g., roots, growing regions).
 Source: Leaves (where photosynthesis occurs).
 Sink: Roots, fruits, flowers, and growing tissues.
 Process:
o Active transport loads sucrose into the phloem.
o Pressure differences drive movement within the phloem.

3. Adaptations for Transport

Root Hair Cells

 Large surface area for water and mineral uptake.

 Thin cell wall to facilitate diffusion.
 High concentration of mitochondria for active transport of minerals.

Xylem

 Lignified walls for strength and water conduction.

 No cytoplasm or organelles (unobstructed flow).

Phloem

 Sieve plates to allow movement of substances.

 Companion cells with mitochondria for energy-intensive active
transport.
4. Practical: Investigating Transpiration

Using a Potometer

 Measures water uptake, which is proportional to transpiration rate.

 Key steps:
1. Cut a plant shoot underwater to prevent air bubbles.
2. Assemble the potometer underwater to avoid introducing air
bubbles.
3. Measure the distance moved by a bubble in a capillary tube.

Factors to Investigate:

 Change in light intensity, temperature, wind speed, or humidity and

observe how it affects water uptake.

Key Definitions

 Transpiration: Loss of water vapor from the plant's surface.

 Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem.
 Osmosis: Movement of water from high to low water potential through
a semi-permeable membrane.
 Active Transport: Movement of substances against a concentration
gradient using energy.

1. Definition of Osmosis

 Osmosis: The movement of water molecules from an area of higher

water potential to an area of lower water potential across a semi-
permeable membrane.
 Occurs in plant cells through the cell membrane.
2. Osmosis in Plant Cells

a. Hypotonic Solution (Higher water potential outside the cell)

 Process: Water enters the cell by osmosis.

 Effect:
o The vacuole enlarges.
o The cytoplasm pushes against the cell wall, creating turgor
pressure.
o The cell becomes turgid (firm).
 Importance:
o Turgid cells help support the plant, keeping it upright.

b. Isotonic Solution (Equal water potential inside and outside the

cell)

 Process: No net movement of water occurs.

 Effect:
o The cell remains in its normal state.

c. Hypertonic Solution (Lower water potential outside the cell)

 Process: Water leaves the cell by osmosis.

 Effect:
o The vacuole shrinks, and the cytoplasm pulls away from the cell
wall in a process called plasmolysis.
o The cell becomes flaccid (soft and weak).
 Importance:
o If too many cells plasmolyze, the plant wilts.

3. Role of the Cell Wall in Osmosis

 Cell wall: Prevents the cell from bursting when it takes in water.
 It provides structural support and allows the plant to maintain its shape
during turgidity.
4. Practical Example: Experiment to Investigate Osmosis

Using Potato Tubes

1. Aim: Investigate the effect of different sugar solutions on osmosis in

plant cells.
2. Steps:
o Cut potato cylinders to equal size.
o Measure their initial mass or length.
o Place the cylinders in solutions of varying sugar concentrations.
o Leave for a set time, then measure the final mass or length.
3. Results:
o In a hypotonic solution, the potato gains mass (water enters).
o In a hypertonic solution, the potato loses mass (water leaves).
4. Conclusion: The direction and extent of osmosis depend on the
concentration gradient.

5. Key Terms

 Turgid: Swollen and firm due to water intake.

 Flaccid: Limp due to water loss.
 Plasmolysis: Cytoplasm shrinks and pulls away from the cell wall in
hypertonic conditions.
 Water Potential: The potential of water to move; pure water has the
highest water potential (0).

Summary of Effects on Plant Cells

Solution Water Effect on Cell Appearance

Type Movement
Hypotonic Water enters Turgid Firm, swollen
Isotonic No net Normal state Unchanged
movement
Hypertonic Water leaves Plasmolysed and Shrunken,
flaccid limp
 Chemical Coordination in Plants
1. What Are Plant Hormones?

 Plant hormones are chemical messengers that control and

coordinate growth and responses to stimuli.
 Key roles: control of germination, growth, flowering, fruit
ripening, leaf fall, and responses to light and gravity.

2. Main Plant Hormones

Hormone Functions
Auxin Controls cell elongation, phototropism, gravitropism.
Gibberellins Stimulate seed germination, stem elongation,
flowering.
Ethene Controls fruit ripening, leaf abscission (leaf fall).
(Ethylene)
Abscisic Acid Inhibits growth, promotes dormancy; controls stomatal
(ABA) closure during water stress.

3. Auxin

 Produced in the shoot and root tips.

 Controls:
o Phototropism (response to light): shoots grow toward light.
o Gravitropism/geotropism (response to gravity): roots grow
toward gravity.
 In Shoots: Auxin promotes cell elongation.
 In Roots: High auxin levels inhibit growth.

4. Gibberellins

 Promote:
o Seed germination by stimulating enzyme production to break
down food reserves.
o Stem growth by increasing cell division and elongation.
o Flowering in some plants.
  Used commercially to increase fruit size and promote flowering out
of season.

5. Ethene (Ethylene)

 A gaseous hormone involved in:

o Ripening of fruit (e.g., bananas, tomatoes).
o Leaf abscission: stimulates leaves to fall off in autumn.
 Used in agriculture to control ripening during storage and transport.

6. Abscisic Acid (ABA)

 Helps plants survive stressful conditions:

o Inhibits seed germination – keeps seeds dormant until
conditions are right.
o Closes stomata to reduce water loss during drought.
 Works as part of the plant’s water conservation system.

7. Tropisms – Plant Responses to Stimuli

Type of Stimul Shoot Response Root Response

Tropism us
Phototropis Light Positive (toward Slight or none
m light)
Gravitropism Gravity Negative (grows up) Positive (grows
down)

8. Practical: Investigating Plant Hormone Responses

 Phototropism: Place seedlings with light from one direction → shoots

bend toward light.
 Gravitropism: Place seeds on a tilted surface → roots grow downward,
shoots upward.
 Reproduction In Plants
Asexual Reproduction

 Definition: Involves only one parent. Offspring are genetically

identical to the parent (clones).
 Examples:
o Natural asexual reproduction: Runners (e.g., strawberries),
tubers (e.g., potatoes).
o Artificial methods: Cutting and tissue culture (cloning plants in
a lab).

Advantages:

 Rapid population increase.

 No need for a mate.
 Identical plants can retain favorable characteristics.

Disadvantages:

 Lack of genetic variation makes plants vulnerable to diseases and

environmental changes.

Sexual Reproduction

 Definition: Involves the fusion of male and female gametes. Results in

genetic variation.
 Example: Flowering plants (e.g., peas, sunflowers).

Advantages:

 Genetic variation increases survival chances in changing

environments.
 Adaptation over time.

Disadvantages:

 Requires energy and time to find a mate and produce gametes.

2. Structure of a Flower
 Sepals: Protect the flower bud.
 Petals: Often brightly colored to attract pollinators.
 Stamens (male part):
o Anther: Produces pollen (male gametes).
o Filament: Supports the anther.
 Carpel (female part):
o Stigma: Sticky to catch pollen.
o Style: Supports the stigma.
o Ovary: Contains ovules (female gametes).

3. Pollination
Types of Pollination

 Self-pollination: Pollen from the same plant.

 Cross-pollination: Pollen from one plant to another of the same
species.

Agents of Pollination

1. Insect-pollinated flowers
o Bright petals, scent, nectar.
o Pollen is sticky and spiky to attach to insects.
2. Wind-pollinated flowers
o Small petals, no scent, no nectar.
o Pollen is light and smooth for easy transport by wind.
o Large, feathery stigmas to catch pollen.

4. Fertilization and Seed Formation

 Fertilization: Pollen tube grows from the stigma to the ovule in the
ovary. The nucleus of the pollen fuses with the ovule nucleus to form a
zygote.
 Seed and fruit formation:
o Zygote develops into an embryo.
o Ovule becomes the seed.
 o Ovary becomes the fruit.

5. Seed Dispersal
 Reduces competition for resources.
 Methods of dispersal:
1. Wind – e.g., dandelion, sycamore.
2. Animal – e.g., berries (internal), burdock (external).
3. Water – e.g., coconut.
4. Explosive mechanism – e.g., peas.

6. Germination
Conditions for Germination

 Water: Activates enzymes and softens the seed coat.

 Oxygen: Needed for respiration to provide energy.
 Warmth: Optimum temperature for enzyme activity.

Process of Germination

1. Water enters the seed, triggering enzyme activity.

2. Starch is broken down into glucose for energy.
3. Root (radicle) and shoot (plumule) grow out of the seed.
 Ecosystems
1. What is an Ecosystem?

 An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other

and their physical environment.
 Includes living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.

2. Key Terms

Term Definition
Habitat The place where an organism lives.
Population All individuals of one species in a habitat.
Community All different species living in a habitat.
Ecosystem Interaction of a community with its abiotic environment.
Biodiversity The variety of species in an ecosystem.
Biotic Living factors (e.g. predation, disease, competition).
factors
Abiotic Non-living factors (e.g. temperature, light, pH, water, soil
factors type).

3. Feeding Relationships

 Producers: Make their own food by photosynthesis (e.g. plants).

 Consumers: Eat other organisms.
o Primary consumers: herbivores.
o Secondary consumers: carnivores.
o Tertiary consumers: top predators.
 Decomposers: Break down dead organisms (e.g. bacteria, fungi).

4. Food Chains and Food Webs

 Food chain: A simple line showing energy flow.

 Food web: A network of interconnected food chains.
 Arrows show the direction of energy transfer.
5. Energy Transfer in Ecosystems

 Only ~10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level.

 Energy is lost due to:
o Respiration
o Heat
o Movement
o Undigested food (waste)

6. Pyramids

 Pyramid of numbers: Number of organisms at each level.

 Pyramid of biomass: Total mass of organisms at each level.
 Pyramid of energy: Most accurate – shows energy flow.

7. The Carbon Cycle

 Processes:
o Photosynthesis – plants absorb CO₂.
o Respiration – releases CO₂.
o Decomposition – decaying organisms release CO₂.
o Combustion – burning fossil fuels adds CO₂.
 Carbon is constantly recycled.

8. The Nitrogen Cycle (basic understanding)

 Plants take in nitrates from soil.

 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules convert nitrogen gas → nitrates.
 Decomposers break down proteins → ammonium → nitrates (by nitrifying
bacteria).
 Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates → nitrogen gas, returning it to the
atmosphere.
9. Human Impact on Ecosystems

 Deforestation: Reduces biodiversity, disrupts cycles.

 Pollution:
o Water: Eutrophication from fertilisers.
o Air: CO₂ and methane → global warming.
 Conservation efforts:
o Protect habitats.
o Reforestation.
o Sustainable practices.

Human Influences on the Environment

1. Air Pollution

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

 Produced by incomplete combustion (e.g. car engines).

 Toxic gas – binds to haemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport.
 Can cause fatal poisoning.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

 From burning fossil fuels.

 Causes acid rain:
o Damages leaves.

o Acidifies soil and water → harms plants and aquatic life.

2. Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming

Main Greenhouse Gases:

 Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

 Methane (CH₄)
 Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
 Water vapour
 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons – banned in many countries)
Sources:

 CO₂: burning fossil fuels, deforestation.

 CH₄: cattle farming, rice paddies, landfills.
 N₂O: fertilisers, vehicle engines.
 CFCs: old fridges, aerosols.

Consequences of Global Warming:

 Rising sea levels.

 Melting polar ice.
 Climate change (more extreme weather).
 Loss of biodiversity.
 Changes in migration and reproduction patterns.

3. Water Pollution

Eutrophication (caused by fertilisers and sewage):

1. Fertilisers run off into water.

2. Algae grow rapidly (algal bloom).

3. Algae block sunlight → aquatic plants die.

4. Decomposers use oxygen to break down dead material.
5. Oxygen levels drop → aquatic animals die.

Other Water Pollutants:

 Sewage: contains pathogens, promotes bacterial growth → oxygen

depletion.

 Industrial waste: toxic chemicals, heavy metals → harms aquatic life.

4. Land Pollution

 Pesticides and herbicides: toxic, enter food chains (bioaccumulation).

 Landfills: non-biodegradable waste (plastics) builds up.
 Industrial waste: can pollute soil and water.
5. Deforestation

Causes:

 Logging, agriculture (e.g. palm oil), urban development.

Consequences:

 Loss of biodiversity (habitat destruction).

 Soil erosion – roots no longer hold soil.
 Disruption of water cycle – less transpiration.
 Increased CO₂ – less carbon stored in trees + burning wood.

6. Conservation and Sustainable Living

Methods of Conservation:

 Breeding programmes.
 Protected areas (reserves, parks).
 Education and awareness.
 Legislation to reduce pollution.
 Recycling and waste reduction.

Sustainable Resources:

 Using resources at a rate that does not deplete them.

 Includes reforestation, renewable energy, fishing quotas.