A LEVEL

GEOGRAPHY
For EDEXCEL Exam Board

PDF

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Table of Contents
*Disclaimer/ Instructions* .................................................................................... 6
TOPIC 1: TECTONIC PROCESSES & HAZARDS .................................................. 7
QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................... 7
Causes & Nature of Tectonic Hazards .............................................................. 7
Impacts, Vulnerability and Risk ........................................................................ 8
Management of Tectonic Hazards & Disasters.................................................. 9
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 10
Causes & Nature of Tectonic Hazards ............................................................ 10
Impacts, Vulnerability and Risk ...................................................................... 11
Management of Tectonic Hazards & Disasters................................................ 12
TOPIC 2A: GLACIATED LANDSCAPES & CHANGE........................................... 13
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 13
Climate Change & the Glacial System ............................................................ 13
Glacier Systems & Processes ........................................................................ 14
Glacial Landforms & Landscape Development ............................................... 14
Human Use, Value & Management of Glaciated Landscapes .......................... 15
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 16
Climate Change & the Glacial System ............................................................ 16
Glacier Systems & Processes ........................................................................ 17
Glacial Landforms & Landscape Development ............................................... 17
Human Use, Value & Management of Glaciated Landscapes .......................... 18
TOPIC 2B: COASTAL LANDSCAPES & CHANGE .............................................. 19
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 19
Coastal Systems & Landscape Variation ........................................................ 19
Coastal Landforms: Erosion, Deposition & Subaerial Processes ..................... 19
Sea Level Change, Coastal Recession & Flood Risk ...................................... 20
Coastal Management Strategies & Governance ............................................. 20
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 21
Coastal Systems & Landscape Variation ........................................................ 21
Coastal Landforms: Erosion, Deposition & Subaerial Processes ..................... 21
Sea Level Change, Coastal Recession & Flood Risk ...................................... 22

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 Coastal Management Strategies & Governance ............................................. 22
TOPIC 3: GLOBALISATION ................................................................................ 23
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 23
Causes & Acceleration of Globalisation .......................................................... 23
Impacts of Globalisation on People, Places & Environments ........................... 24
Globalisation & Development: Winners & Losers ............................................ 24
Responses to Globalisation: Managing the Impacts ........................................ 25
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 26
Causes & Acceleration of Globalisation .......................................................... 26
Impacts of Globalisation on People, Places & Environments ........................... 26
Globalisation & Development: Winners & Losers ............................................ 27
Responses to Globalisation: Managing the Impacts ........................................ 27
TOPIC 4A: REGENERATING PLACES ................................................................ 28
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 28
Understanding Place: Economic & Social Variation......................................... 28
The Need for Regeneration............................................................................ 28
Managing Regeneration: Policies & Strategies ............................................... 29
Measuring the Success of Regeneration ........................................................ 29
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 30
Understanding Place: Economic & Social Variation......................................... 30
The Need for Regeneration............................................................................ 30
Managing Regeneration: Policies & Strategies ............................................... 31
Measuring the Success of Regeneration ........................................................ 31
TOPIC 4B: DIVERSE PLACES ............................................................................ 32
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 32
Demographic & Cultural Variation Between Places ......................................... 32
Perceptions & Lived Experience of Urban & Rural Places ............................... 32
Diversity, Segregation & Tensions in Communities.......................................... 33
Managing Change in Diverse Places .............................................................. 33
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 34
Demographic & Cultural Variation Between Places ......................................... 34
Perceptions & Lived Experience of Urban & Rural Places ............................... 34

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 Diversity, Segregation & Tensions in Communities.......................................... 34
Managing Change in Diverse Places .............................................................. 35
TOPIC 5: THE WATER CYCLE & WATER INSECURITY ...................................... 36
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 36
The Global & Local Water Cycle .................................................................... 36
Storm Hydrographs & Water Insecurity Factors .............................................. 36
Impacts & Consequences of Water Insecurity ................................................. 37
Managing Water Supply & Water Security ...................................................... 37
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 38
The Global & Local Water Cycle .................................................................... 38
Storm Hydrographs & Water Insecurity Factors .............................................. 38
Impacts & Consequences of Water Insecurity ................................................. 39
Managing Water Supply & Water Security ...................................................... 39
TOPIC 6: THE CARBON CYCLE & ENERGY INSECURITY ................................. 40
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 40
The Carbon Cycle as a System ...................................................................... 40
Carbon & Climate Change ............................................................................. 40
Energy Security & the Carbon-Energy Relationship ........................................ 41
Managing the Carbon Cycle & Energy Future ................................................. 41
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 42
The Carbon Cycle as a System ...................................................................... 42
Carbon & Climate Change ............................................................................. 42
Energy Security & the Carbon-Energy Relationship ........................................ 43
Managing the Carbon Cycle & Energy Future ................................................. 43
TOPIC 7: SUPERPOWERS.................................................................................. 44
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 44
Superpower Characteristics & Changing Patterns of Power ............................ 44
Emerging Powers & Global Influence ............................................................. 44
Geopolitical Tensions & Spheres of Influence ................................................. 45
Superpowers & the Future ............................................................................. 45
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 46
Superpower Characteristics & Changing Patterns of Power ............................ 46

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 Emerging Powers & Global Influence ............................................................. 46
Geopolitical Tensions & Spheres of Influence ................................................. 47
Superpowers & the Future ............................................................................. 47
TOPIC 8A: HEALTH, HUMAN RIGHTS & INTERVENTION .................................. 48
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 48
The Geography of Health & Human Rights ..................................................... 48
Political, Social & Cultural Influences on Rights & Health ................................ 48
The Role of Global Governance in Promoting Health & Human Rights ............ 49
Military and Non-Military Intervention: Effectiveness & Ethics .......................... 49
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 50
The Geography of Health & Human Rights ..................................................... 50
Political, Social & Cultural Influences on Rights & Health ................................ 50
The Role of Global Governance in Promoting Health & Human Rights ............ 51
Military and Non-Military Intervention: Effectiveness & Ethics .......................... 51
TOPIC 8B: MIGRATION, IDENTITY & SOVEREIGNTY ........................................ 52
QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 52
Globalisation, Migration & National Identity..................................................... 52
Sovereignty, Borders & the Nation State......................................................... 52
Global Governance & the Role of International Institutions.............................. 53
Managing Migration & National Identity in a Changing World .......................... 53
ANSWERS ....................................................................................................... 54
Globalisation, Migration & National Identity..................................................... 54
Sovereignty, Borders & the Nation State......................................................... 54
Global Governance & the Role of International Institutions.............................. 55
Managing Migration & National Identity in a Changing World .......................... 55
EXAM TIPS ......................................................................................................... 56
Assessment Objectives Overview: ................................................................. 56
1. Short Answer Questions (1-4 marks): ..................................................... 56
2. Explain Questions (6-8 marks): ............................................................... 57
3. Assess/Evaluate Questions (12-20 marks): ............................................ 57

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TOPIC 1: TECTONIC PROCESSES & HAZARDS
QUESTIONS
Causes & Nature of Tectonic Hazards

1. What are the global causes of earthquakes?

2. What are the global causes of volcanic eruptions?
3. What are the global causes of tsunamis?
4. What are the three types of plate boundary movements?
5. What plate movements occur at divergent boundaries?
6. What plate movements occur at convergent boundaries?
7. What plate movements occur at conservative boundaries?
8. What are intra-plate earthquakes caused by?
9. What causes volcanic activity at hotspots?
10. What is the theory of plate tectonics?
11. What are the key elements of the Earth’s internal structure relevant to plate
tectonics?
12. What is mantle convection and how does it drive plate movement?
13. What is subduction?
14. What is ridge push?
15. What is slab pull?
16. What is sea-floor spreading?
17. What is palaeomagnetism and how does it support plate tectonics?
18. What processes occur at destructive plate boundaries?
19. What processes occur at constructive plate boundaries?
20. What processes occur at collision plate boundaries?
21. What processes occur at transform plate boundaries?
22. What determines the magnitude and type of a volcanic eruption?
23. What determines the magnitude and focal depth of an earthquake?
24. What are P-waves and what do they cause?
25. What are S-waves and what do they cause?
26. What are L-waves and what do they cause?
27. What secondary hazards are caused by earthquakes?
28. What are the primary hazards of volcanic eruptions?
29. What are the secondary hazards of volcanic eruptions?
30. How do submarine earthquakes cause tsunamis?

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Impacts, Vulnerability and Risk

1. What is the definition of a natural hazard?

2. What is the definition of a disaster?
3. What is vulnerability in the context of hazards?
4. What is resilience in the context of hazards?
5. What is the hazard risk equation?
6. What is the Pressure and Release (PAR) model used for?
7. What are the three components of the PAR model?
8. What are the social impacts of earthquakes?
9. What are the social impacts of volcanic eruptions?
10. What are the social impacts of tsunamis?
11. What are the economic impacts of earthquakes?
12. What are the economic impacts of volcanic eruptions?
13. What are the economic impacts of tsunamis?
14. What are the environmental impacts of earthquakes?
15. What are the environmental impacts of volcanic eruptions?
16. What are the environmental impacts of tsunamis?
17. What are the three main scales used to measure tectonic hazards?
18. What does the Mercalli scale measure?
19. What does the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) measure?
20. What does the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) measure?
21. What does hazard profiling compare?
22. What characteristics are included in hazard profiles?
23. How do hazard profiles help us understand impacts and vulnerability?
24. How does access to education affect vulnerability and resilience?
25. How does access to housing affect vulnerability and resilience?
26. How does access to healthcare affect vulnerability and resilience?
27. How does income opportunity affect vulnerability and resilience?
28. How does governance affect vulnerability and resilience?
29. How does population density affect vulnerability and resilience?
30. How does isolation or accessibility affect vulnerability and resilience?
31. How does urbanisation affect vulnerability and resilience?
32. Why do similar magnitude events cause different impacts in different countries?

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Management of Tectonic Hazards & Disasters

1. What are the three key trends in tectonic disasters since 1960?
2. Why is data on tectonic disasters sometimes unreliable?
3. What makes tectonic mega-disasters globally or regionally significant?
4. What are three examples of tectonic mega-disasters?
5. What is a multiple-hazard zone?
6. How can hydrometeorological hazards contribute to tectonic disasters?
7. What country is used as an example of a multiple-hazard zone?
8. What affects the accuracy of prediction and forecasting?
9. Who plays a key role in prediction and forecasting?
10. What are the four stages of the hazard management cycle?
11. What is the role of emergency planners in hazard management?
12. What does Park’s Model (disaster response curve) show?
13. How can Park’s Model be used comparatively?
14. What are three strategies to modify the hazard event?
15. What is land-use zoning?
16. What is hazard-resistant design?
17. What is lava flow diversion?
18. What are strategies to modify vulnerability and resilience?
19. What is hi-tech monitoring used for?
20. What role does education play in disaster preparedness?
21. What is community preparedness?
22. What are strategies to modify loss?
23. What is the role of NGOs and insurers in managing losses?
24. What are the three types of aid used post-disaster?
25. What role do affected communities themselves play?

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 ANSWERS
Causes & Nature of Tectonic Hazards

1. Sudden release of energy from plate movement along faults or subduction zones.
2. Movement of magma due to subduction, rifting, or hotspots.
3. Displacement of water column due to submarine earthquakes at subduction zones.
4. Divergent, convergent, conservative.
5. Plates move apart, forming new crust at mid-ocean ridges.
6. Plates move together, with oceanic crust subducting beneath continental/oceanic
crust.
7. Plates slide past each other laterally.
8. Local stress accumulation within tectonic plates, often from ancient fault zones.
9. Rising magma from mantle plumes that penetrate the crust.
10. A theory explaining plate movement due to internal Earth processes.
11. Core, mantle, crust; heat causes mantle convection.
12. Movement of heat and material in the mantle pushes plates.
13. One plate sinks beneath another into the mantle.
14. Gravity pushes plates from elevated mid-ocean ridges.
15. Subducting plate is pulled downward by gravity.
16. New crust forms as magma rises at mid-ocean ridges.
17. Magnetic minerals align with Earth’s magnetic field, recording reversals as plates
spread.
18. Subduction leads to earthquakes and explosive volcanoes.
19. Plates diverge, causing shallow earthquakes and gentle eruptions.
20. Two continental plates collide, forming fold mountains.
21. Plates slide past each other causing shallow, destructive earthquakes.
22. Viscosity of magma, gas content, tectonic setting.
23. Plate boundary type, fault mechanics, depth of focus (Benioff zone).
24. Primary waves cause compression and extension.
25. Secondary waves cause side-to-side shaking.
26. Surface waves cause the most intense ground motion.
27. Liquefaction and landslides.
28. Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash falls, gas eruptions.
29. Lahars and jökulhlaups.
30. Sea-bed uplift displaces water column, generating waves.

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Impacts, Vulnerability and Risk

1. A natural event that threatens people or has the potential to cause damage.
2. A hazard that causes significant impacts exceeding a community’s capacity to cope.
3. The degree to which a population is likely to suffer damage or loss.
4. A community’s ability to recover and adapt after a hazard.
5. Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability ÷ Capacity to Cope.
6. To explain disaster causation through root causes, dynamic pressures and unsafe
conditions.
7. (A) Root causes. (B) Dynamic pressures. (C) Unsafe conditions.
8. Death, injury, homelessness, trauma.
9. Respiratory issues, casualties, displacement.
10. Drowning, trauma, destruction of coastal communities.
11. Damage to infrastructure, economic loss, business disruption.
12. Cost of rebuilding, tourism decline, loss of agriculture.
13. Destruction of ports, damage to fishing and tourism industries.
14. Landslides, ground rupture, destruction of ecosystems.
15. Acid rain, ash damage to vegetation, long-term ecosystem disruption.
16. Saltwater intrusion, destruction of marine habitats.
17. Mercalli, MMS, VEI.
18. Intensity based on observed impacts and damage.
19. Energy released at the earthquake source.
20. Volume of erupted material and eruption style.
21. Magnitude, duration, speed of onset, areal extent, spatial predictability, frequency.
22. Magnitude, duration, speed of onset, areal extent, spatial predictability, frequency.
23. By comparing hazard characteristics to assess likely impacts.
24. Improves awareness, preparedness and recovery.
25. Poor housing increases collapse risk and casualties.
26. Limits treatment of injuries and disease spread.
27. More income improves insurance, emergency resources and rebuilding.
28. Affects planning, response, and recovery speed.
29. High density increases casualties and stress on infrastructure.
30. Isolated areas face delayed aid and communication issues.
31. Increases exposure, especially in informal settlements.
32. Differences in development level, governance, preparedness, and response capacity.

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Management of Tectonic Hazards & Disasters

1. Number of deaths, number of people affected, level of economic damage.

2. Inconsistent definitions, underreporting, political bias.
3. High death toll, economic disruption, global supply chain or energy market impacts.
4. (A) 2004 Asian tsunami. (B) 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption. (C) 2011 Japanese
tsunami.
5. A region at risk from more than one natural hazard.
6. They combine or trigger tectonic impacts (e.g. typhoons causing landslides post-
earthquake).
7. The Philippines.
8. Type of hazard, plate boundary, technology availability.
9. Scientists and monitoring agencies.
10. Response, recovery, mitigation, preparedness.
11. Planning evacuation, emergency services, infrastructure.
12. Impacts and recovery stages of a hazard over time.
13. To compare hazard impact and response in countries of different development.
14. (A) Land-use zoning. (B) Hazard-resistant design. (C) Lava diversion.
15. Prevents development in high-risk zones.
16. Structures built to withstand earthquakes and eruptions.
17. Engineering channels or barriers to divert lava.
18. Monitoring, forecasting, education, planning, adaptation.
19. Detects early signs of volcanic or seismic activity.
20. Raises awareness and improves behavioural response.
21. Local training, drills and emergency planning.
22. Aid (emergency, short-term, long-term), insurance.
23. Provide financial support and logistical recovery assistance.
24. Emergency relief, medium-term rebuilding, long-term development aid.
25. Self-recovery, reconstruction, community-led response.

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TOPIC 2A: GLACIATED LANDSCAPES &
CHANGE
QUESTIONS
Climate Change & the Glacial System

1. What are the three main types of long-term climate change influencing glacial
landscapes?
2. What are the three Milankovitch cycles?
3. How does volcanic activity influence long-term climate change?
4. How does solar variation influence long-term climate change?
5. What is the Quaternary period?
6. What are the characteristics of glacial, periglacial and fluvioglacial environments?
7. What are the current global distributions of warm-based and cold-based glaciers?
8. What are the main characteristics of warm-based glaciers?
9. What are the main characteristics of cold-based glaciers?
10. What are periglacial environments?
11. What are the conditions required for periglacial environments?
12. What is permafrost?
13. What is continuous permafrost?
14. What is discontinuous permafrost?
15. What is sporadic permafrost?
16. What are ice wedges and how do they form?
17. What are pingos and how do they form?
18. What is patterned ground and how does it form?

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Glacier Systems & Processes

1. What are the inputs to a glacial system?

2. What are the outputs of a glacial system?
3. What are the transfers in a glacial system?
4. What is the zone of accumulation?
5. What is the zone of ablation?
6. What is the equilibrium line?
7. What is the mass balance of a glacier?
8. What causes a positive mass balance?
9. What causes a negative mass balance?
10. What is dynamic equilibrium in a glacial system?
11. What are the two main types of glacial movement?
12. What is internal deformation?
13. What is basal sliding?
14. Under what conditions does basal sliding occur?
15. What are the four main processes of glacial erosion?
16. What is plucking?
17. What is abrasion?
18. What is nivation?
19. What is freeze-thaw weathering?
20. What are the three main processes of glacial transport?
21. What are supraglacial, englacial and subglacial transport?
22. What is lodgement till?
23. What is ablation till?

Glacial Landforms & Landscape Development

1. What are the main erosional landforms created by glaciers?

2. How does a corrie form?
3. How does an arête form?
4. How does a pyramidal peak form?
5. How does a U-shaped valley form?
6. What is a truncated spur?
7. What is a hanging valley?
8. How does a roche moutonnée form?
9. What are the main depositional landforms formed by glaciers?
10. What is a terminal moraine?
11. What is a recessional moraine?
12. What is a lateral moraine?
13. What is a medial moraine?
14. What is a ground moraine?
15. What is a drumlin?
16. What are the characteristics of a drumlin?
17. What are the main fluvioglacial landforms?
18. What is a kame?
19. What is an esker?
20. What is an outwash plain (sandur)?
21. What is a kettle hole?
22. What is meltwater erosion?

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Human Use, Value & Management of Glaciated Landscapes

1. What are the environmental values of glaciated landscapes?

2. What are the economic values of glaciated landscapes?
3. What are the cultural values of glaciated landscapes?
4. What types of land use occur in glaciated areas?
5. What are the threats to glaciated landscapes from economic development?
6. How does tourism impact glaciated landscapes?
7. How does climate change threaten glaciated landscapes?
8. What are the different players involved in managing glaciated landscapes?
9. What are the conflicts between players in glaciated areas?
10. What is the difference between protection and sustainable management?
11. What are examples of protection strategies in glaciated areas?
12. What are examples of sustainable management strategies in glaciated areas?

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 ANSWERS
Climate Change & the Glacial System

1. Milankovitch cycles, volcanic activity, solar variation.

2. (A) Eccentricity. (B) Axial tilt. (C) Precession.
3. Volcanic eruptions release aerosols and gases that reduce solar radiation and cause
cooling.
4. Changes in sunspot activity affect incoming solar energy.
5. Geological time period covering the last 2.6 million years with alternating glacial and
interglacial periods.
6. Glacial = covered by ice. Periglacial = near glaciers, dominated by freeze-thaw.
Fluvioglacial = shaped by meltwater.
7. Warm-based = temperate regions (e.g. Alps). Cold-based = polar regions (e.g.
Antarctica).
8. Basal temperature at or above pressure melting point, meltwater present, fast
movement.
9. Basal temperature below pressure melting point, frozen to bedrock, slow movement.
10. Areas near glaciers affected by freeze-thaw processes.
11. Low temperatures, limited snow cover, permafrost presence.
12. Ground that remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years.
13. Unbroken area of permafrost with >90% ground coverage.
14. Patches of permafrost with 50–90% ground coverage.
15. Small isolated patches of permafrost <50% ground coverage.
16. Cracks in frozen ground filled with meltwater that refreezes, expanding over time.
17. Ice-cored hills formed by groundwater freezing and expanding.
18. Surface stones and soil form circular or polygonal patterns due to freeze-thaw
sorting.

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Glacier Systems & Processes

1. Snow, avalanches, wind-blown snow.

2. Meltwater, sublimation, calving.
3. Ice flow, meltwater movement, debris transport.
4. Area of net gain of snow and ice.
5. Area of net loss of ice through melting, calving or sublimation.
6. Boundary between accumulation and ablation zones.
7. Balance between accumulation and ablation over time.
8. Accumulation > ablation.
9. Ablation > accumulation.
10. A self-regulating system that returns to balance after disturbance.
11. Internal deformation and basal sliding.
12. Ice crystals deform and move under pressure.
13. Ice slides over a thin film of meltwater.
14. Occurs in warm-based glaciers with meltwater at base.
15. Plucking, abrasion, freeze-thaw weathering, nivation.
16. Ice pulls away loosened rock fragments from the bed.
17. Ice and debris scrape against the bedrock.
18. Freeze-thaw and chemical weathering beneath snow patches.
19. Water enters cracks, freezes and expands to break rock apart.
20. Supraglacial, englacial, subglacial.
21. Supraglacial = surface. Englacial = within ice. Subglacial = at base.
22. Debris deposited beneath a glacier due to pressure.
23. Debris deposited by melting ice near glacier snout.

Glacial Landforms & Landscape Development

1. Corries, arêtes, pyramidal peaks, U-shaped valleys, truncated spurs, hanging

valleys, roches moutonnées.
2. Snow accumulates in hollows, compresses into ice, plucks and abrades back wall
and floor.
3. Two corries erode back-to-back, forming a sharp ridge.
4. Three or more corries erode a central point.
5. Glacier erodes V-shaped valley into wider, deeper U-shape.
6. Former river valley spur cut off by glacial erosion.
7. Smaller tributary valley left hanging above main U-shaped valley.
8. Asymmetrical rock hill smoothed on upstream side, plucked on lee side.
9. Moraines, drumlins, till plains.
10. Ridge of debris deposited at maximum glacier advance.
11. Ridges formed during temporary glacier retreats.
12. Debris deposited along the glacier sides.
13. Debris deposited in the centre where two glaciers meet.
14. Debris spread across valley floor beneath ice.
15. Streamlined hill of glacial till.
16. Steep blunt end faces upstream, tapered tail faces downstream.
17. Kames, eskers, outwash plains, kettle holes.
18. Mounds of sorted sand and gravel from meltwater in depressions.
19. Long sinuous ridges formed by subglacial meltwater streams.
20. Flat areas of sorted sediment deposited by meltwater.
21. Depressions formed when buried ice blocks melt.
22. Meltwater erodes channels and transports material.

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Human Use, Value & Management of Glaciated Landscapes

1. Biodiversity, unique landforms, freshwater storage, carbon sink.

2. Hydroelectric power, tourism, agriculture, quarrying.
3. National identity, heritage, recreation.
4. Tourism, energy generation, farming, mining, conservation.
5. Infrastructure, pollution, erosion, habitat loss.
6. Overcrowding, path erosion, litter, visual pollution.
7. Glacier retreat, permafrost thaw, changing ecosystems.
8. Governments, NGOs, local residents, tourists, businesses.
9. Competing priorities: conservation vs development.
10. Protection = no development. Sustainable management = balance between use and
conservation.
11. National parks, nature reserves, legal designations.
12. Zoning, visitor limits, education programmes, eco-tourism.

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TOPIC 2B: COASTAL LANDSCAPES &
CHANGE
QUESTIONS
Coastal Systems & Landscape Variation

1. What type of system is the coast and why?

2. What are the main inputs into the coastal system?
3. What are the main outputs of the coastal system?
4. What are the key stores/components within the coastal system?
5. What are the main flows/transfers in a coastal system?
6. What is dynamic equilibrium in a coastal system?
7. What are the two types of coastal landscape?
8. What is the difference between high-energy and low-energy coasts?
9. What factors influence coastal landscape development?
10. How does geology influence coastal form?
11. What are concordant and discordant coastlines?
12. What is a cliff profile and what does it depend on?
13. What is differential erosion?
14. What are the main sub-aerial processes that affect coasts?
15. What are the main marine processes affecting coasts?
16. What are the four main types of marine erosion?
17. What are the four main types of marine transportation?
18. What is longshore drift and how does it occur?
19. What is sediment cell theory?
20. What are sediment cells and how many are there around England and Wales?

Coastal Landforms: Erosion, Deposition & Subaerial Processes

1. What erosional landforms are found on rocky coastlines?

2. How are wave-cut platforms formed?
3. How are cliffs formed by marine processes?
4. How are headlands and bays formed?
5. How are caves, arches, stacks, and stumps formed?
6. What depositional landforms are found on coastal plains?
7. How are beaches formed?
8. What are berms and how do they form?
9. What are ridges and runnels?
10. What is a spit and how does it form?
11. What is a recurved spit and what causes it?
12. What is a bar and how does it form?
13. What is a tombolo?
14. What is a cuspate foreland?
15. What are sand dunes and how do they form?
16. What are the types of sand dunes from sea to inland?
17. What are salt marshes and how do they develop?
18. What are mudflats and where are they found?
19. What sub-aerial processes influence landform formation?
20. What is the role of vegetation in coastal deposition?

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Sea Level Change, Coastal Recession & Flood Risk

1. What causes eustatic sea level change?

2. What causes isostatic sea level change?
3. What is thermal expansion?
4. How does glacial melting affect sea levels?
5. What are emergent coastlines?
6. What are submergent coastlines?
7. What are raised beaches and where do they form?
8. What is a fjord and how does it form?
9. What is a ria and how does it form?
10. What are the current global trends in sea level?
11. What physical factors influence coastal recession?
12. What human activities increase coastal erosion?
13. What are the impacts of coastal recession on people?
14. What are the impacts of coastal recession on the environment?
15. What makes some communities more vulnerable to sea level rise?
16. What factors affect coastal flood risk?
17. What are storm surges and how do they cause flooding?
18. What is the role of climate change in coastal flood risk?
19. How does coastal topography influence flood impact?
20. What case study illustrates coastal recession and flood risk?

Coastal Management Strategies & Governance

1. What is the difference between hard and soft engineering?

2. What are examples of hard engineering strategies?
3. What are examples of soft engineering strategies?
4. What are the advantages of hard engineering?
5. What are the disadvantages of hard engineering?
6. What are the advantages of soft engineering?
7. What are the disadvantages of soft engineering?
8. What is Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)?
9. What are the principles of ICZM?
10. What is the difference between ICZM and traditional management?
11. What is the sediment cell approach?
12. What are Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs)?
13. What are the four SMP policy options?
14. What is “hold the line”?
15. What is “advance the line”?
16. What is “managed realignment”?
17. What is “do nothing”?
18. What are the challenges in implementing SMPs?
19. What players are involved in coastal governance?
20. What conflicts can arise in coastal management?

20
 ANSWERS
Coastal Systems & Landscape Variation

1. An open system with inputs, outputs, stores, and transfers.

2. Wave energy, wind, sediment, tides, currents.
3. Erosion, deposition, sediment transfer out of system.
4. Beaches, dunes, estuaries, bars, spits.
5. Longshore drift, mass movement, wave action.
6. Balance between inputs and outputs in the system.
7. Rocky (high relief) and coastal plains (low relief).
8. High-energy = strong waves, erosion > deposition. Low-energy = weak waves,
deposition > erosion.
9. Geology, wave energy, sediment supply, human activity.
10. Rock type and structure influence erosion rates and cliff shape.
11. Concordant = parallel strata. Discordant = alternating strata at right angles.
12. Shape of cliffs depends on lithology and sub-aerial processes.
13. Different rock types erode at different rates.
14. Weathering, mass movement (slumping, soil creep, rockfall).
15. Erosion, transportation, deposition.
16. Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution.
17. Traction, saltation, suspension, solution.
18. Zig-zag movement of sediment due to prevailing wind and wave approach.
19. Concept that sediment moves within self-contained coastal units.
20. Eleven sediment cells around England and Wales.

Coastal Landforms: Erosion, Deposition & Subaerial Processes

1. Wave-cut platforms, cliffs, headlands, bays, caves, arches, stacks, stumps.

2. Wave erosion undercuts cliff, collapse leaves a flat platform.
3. Erosion at base leads to undercutting and collapse.
4. Discordant coasts erode softer rock faster, leaving bays and headlands.
5. Caves eroded through headlands form arches, which collapse into stacks and
stumps.
6. Beaches, spits, bars, tombolos, cuspate forelands, sand dunes.
7. Accumulation of sediment in low-energy zones.
8. Ridges formed by swash depositing coarse material at high tide.
9. Parallel ridges and dips on lower beach formed by backwash.
10. Long narrow ridge of sand or shingle attached to land at one end.
11. Wind or wave refraction causes end to curve landward.
12. Spit grows across a bay, sealing it off.
13. Spit connects mainland to offshore island.
14. Triangular-shaped feature from deposition by longshore drift from opposite directions.
15. Sand trapped by vegetation and wind builds up over time.
16. Embryo dune, foredune, yellow dune, grey dune, dune slack.
17. Vegetation traps sediment in sheltered areas, building intertidal wetlands.
18. Sheltered, low-energy environments such as estuaries.
19. Weathering, slumping, soil creep, runoff shape landforms.
20. Binds sediment, reduces erosion, enables dune/salt marsh development.

21
Sea Level Change, Coastal Recession & Flood Risk

1. Global sea level changes due to volume of ocean water.

2. Land rises or sinks due to loading/unloading of ice.
3. Ocean water expands as it warms.
4. Melting ice adds water to oceans, raising levels.
5. Coastline rises due to isostatic rebound, exposing features.
6. Coastline submerged due to sea level rise.
7. Old beach terraces left above sea level from uplift.
8. Drowned glacial valley with steep sides.
9. Drowned river valley with gentle slopes.
10. Rising globally due to thermal expansion and ice melt.
11. Geology, rock type, wave energy, fetch, sub-aerial processes.
12. Coastal defences, dredging, construction, sediment disruption.
13. Loss of homes, infrastructure, cultural sites, livelihoods.
14. Habitat loss, erosion of ecosystems, salinisation.
15. Low elevation, poor infrastructure, population density.
16. Storm events, sea level rise, human vulnerability.
17. Abnormally high tides and waves caused by low pressure and strong winds.
18. Increases storm intensity and sea level, worsening impacts.
19. Low-lying, flat coastlines are more exposed.
20. Holderness Coast (UK) is a key example of erosion and flood risk.

Coastal Management Strategies & Governance

1. Hard = physical barriers. Soft = working with natural processes.

2. Sea walls, groynes, revetments, rock armour.
3. Beach nourishment, dune regeneration, managed retreat.
4. Immediate and effective protection.
5. Expensive, unnatural, can cause downstream erosion.
6. Sustainable, cheaper, more environmentally friendly.
7. Less reliable, may need regular maintenance.
8. Holistic strategy considering the whole coastal zone.
9. Long-term, sustainable, stakeholder inclusive, adaptive.
10. ICZM looks at entire systems, not isolated sections.
11. Managing coasts within distinct sediment movement units.
12. Plans guiding coastal strategy within sediment cells.
13. Hold the line, advance the line, managed realignment, do nothing.
14. Maintain current defences.
15. Build new defences seaward.
16. Allow controlled retreat.
17. Allow natural processes with no intervention.
18. Funding limits, stakeholder conflict, uncertainty of outcomes.
19. Local authorities, DEFRA, landowners, residents, businesses.
20. Competing priorities, property value loss, differing risk perception.

22
TOPIC 3: GLOBALISATION
QUESTIONS
Causes & Acceleration of Globalisation

1. What are the main flows involved in globalisation?

2. What does time–space compression mean?
3. How has transport development accelerated globalisation?
4. How has ICT accelerated globalisation?
5. What is containerisation and why is it important?
6. How have mobile technologies contributed to globalisation?
7. What is the role of the World Bank in globalisation?
8. What is the role of the IMF in globalisation?
9. What is the role of the WTO in globalisation?
10. What are the key characteristics of trade blocs?
11. What are examples of trade blocs?
12. How do national governments promote globalisation?
13. What is a Special Economic Zone (SEZ)?
14. How has China used SEZs to encourage globalisation?
15. How did the UK promote globalisation through policy?
16. What are TNCs and how do they spread globalisation?
17. What is outsourcing?
18. What is offshoring?
19. What is glocalisation?
20. What is the KOF Index and what does it measure?
21. What is the AT Kearney Index and what does it measure?
22. What are ‘switched-on’ places?
23. What are ‘switched-off’ places?
24. Why is North Korea considered a switched-off place?
25. Why are some Sub-Saharan African countries considered switched-off?

23
Impacts of Globalisation on People, Places & Environments

1. What is the global shift?

2. What are the positive impacts of the global shift on developing countries?
3. What are the negative impacts of the global shift on developing countries?
4. What are the negative impacts of the global shift on developed countries?
5. What is deindustrialisation?
6. How has global shift impacted cities like Detroit or Sheffield?
7. What environmental issues are associated with global shift?
8. What are megacities?
9. What are the causes of rapid megacity growth in developing countries?
10. What is rural–urban migration?
11. What are the impacts of rapid urban growth on infrastructure?
12. What is the concept of global hub cities?
13. What role does elite international migration play in global hubs?
14. What role does low-waged international migration play in global hubs?
15. What is cultural diffusion?
16. What is cultural erosion?
17. How has globalisation influenced food consumption patterns?
18. What are examples of cultural diffusion through media?
19. What are examples of opposition to globalisation?
20. What are the environmental consequences of globalisation?

Globalisation & Development: Winners & Losers

1. What indicators are used to measure development?

2. What does the Human Development Index (HDI) measure?
3. What does the Gender Inequality Index (GII) measure?
4. What does the Gini Coefficient measure?
5. How has globalisation impacted income inequality globally?
6. How has globalisation impacted national inequality?
7. What social and environmental tensions has globalisation caused in emerging
economies?
8. How has globalisation led to political tensions in developed countries?
9. What are examples of backlash against globalisation?
10. What are the arguments for globalisation being beneficial?
11. What are the arguments against globalisation?
12. Who are the ‘winners’ of globalisation?
13. Who are the ‘losers’ of globalisation?

24
Responses to Globalisation: Managing the Impacts

1. What is localism?
2. What are transition towns?
3. What are the goals of the transition movement?
4. What is ethical consumption?
5. What is Fair Trade?
6. How can consumer actions reduce the negative impacts of globalisation?
7. What is the role of NGOs in promoting ethical trade?
8. What is supply chain transparency?
9. What are the limits of ethical consumption?
10. What is recycling?
11. How does recycling help manage ecological footprints?
12. What are ecological footprints?
13. What are the limitations of recycling?
14. What is the role of government in regulating globalisation impacts?
15. What are environmental laws that manage globalisation’s impacts?
16. What are some examples of sustainable globalisation strategies?

25
 ANSWERS
Causes & Acceleration of Globalisation

1. Capital, labour, products, services, information.

2. The idea that the world feels smaller due to faster communication and transport.
3. Cheap air travel, high-speed rail, container shipping reduce distance friction.
4. Internet, mobile phones, and satellite communication speed up flows.
5. Standardised cargo units improve efficiency in shipping.
6. Enable instant communication and digital commerce.
7. Provides loans and supports development to integrate economies.
8. Offers loans in return for structural economic reforms.
9. Promotes free trade by reducing tariffs and trade barriers.
10. Groups of countries that trade freely with each other.
11. EU, NAFTA (USMCA), ASEAN, MERCOSUR.
12. Through open-door policies, tax incentives, deregulation.
13. Zones with favourable tax and regulation to attract foreign investment.
14. Shenzhen attracted FDI through relaxed economic laws.
15. 1980s deregulation of finance and encouragement of FDI.
16. Large companies operating across many countries.
17. Contracting business functions to external suppliers.
18. Relocating operations to lower-cost overseas locations.
19. Adapting global products to local markets.
20. Measures economic, social and political globalisation.
21. Measures business activity, political engagement and technology.
22. Highly connected areas with strong global links.
23. Areas poorly integrated into global networks.
24. Politically isolated with limited external trade or investment.
25. Poor infrastructure, political instability, low human capital.

Impacts of Globalisation on People, Places & Environments

1. The relocation of industry and services to emerging economies.

2. Increased employment, rising incomes, improved infrastructure.
3. Exploitation, poor working conditions, environmental degradation.
4. Job losses, dereliction, social inequality.
5. Decline in manufacturing in developed countries.
6. Loss of industry led to unemployment and urban decline.
7. Pollution, habitat destruction, deforestation, land degradation.
8. Cities with over 10 million people.
9. Rural–urban migration, natural increase, FDI.
10. Movement from countryside to cities in search of jobs.
11. Strain on housing, sanitation, transport and services.
12. Highly connected cities that attract talent, FDI, and migrants.
13. Wealthy individuals invest and influence urban development.
14. Fill labour gaps in construction, services, low-wage jobs.
15. Spread of cultural ideas, customs and products globally.
16. Loss of traditional languages, food, or customs.
17. Increased meat and processed food consumption.
18. Western films, music, social media platforms.
19. Anti-globalisation protests, protectionism, censorship.
20. Increased emissions, transport impacts, resource exploitation.

26
Globalisation & Development: Winners & Losers

1. HDI, GII, Gini Coefficient, income, literacy, life expectancy.

2. Life expectancy, education, income per capita.
3. Reproductive health, empowerment, labour market equality.
4. Income inequality within a population.
5. Reduced global poverty but widened the rich–poor gap.
6. Increased gap between wealthy and poor within countries.
7. Pollution, worker exploitation, urban crowding, water stress.
8. Immigration, job losses, cultural identity concerns.
9. Brexit, US protectionist policies, rise of populist politics.
10. Economic growth, technological transfer, poverty reduction.
11. Inequality, environmental harm, cultural loss.
12. TNCs, consumers in developed countries, skilled migrants.
13. Workers in deindustrialised regions, exploited labourers, unconnected regions.

Responses to Globalisation: Managing the Impacts

1. Preference for local products and services over global ones.

2. Grassroots initiatives to reduce environmental and economic dependency.
3. Promote local food, renewable energy, community resilience.
4. Buying goods that minimise social and environmental harm.
5. Trade partnership ensuring fair wages and sustainable practices.
6. Support local producers, boycott unethical firms, demand transparency.
7. Raise awareness, monitor standards, push for accountability.
8. Tracking product origins and working conditions.
9. Higher prices, limited access, inconsistent standards.
10. Reusing materials to reduce landfill and resource use.
11. Lowers waste, reduces emissions and resource depletion.
12. Measure of human demand on natural resources.
13. Not all materials recyclable, energy still used.
14. Set regulations, enforce standards, incentivise sustainable business.
15. Emission controls, waste policies, land use regulations.
16. Local sourcing, ethical trade, renewable energy promotion.

27
TOPIC 4A: REGENERATING PLACES
QUESTIONS
Understanding Place: Economic & Social Variation

1. What are the four economic sectors?

2. How do employment types vary between places?
3. What is the difference between full-time and part-time employment?
4. What is the difference between permanent and temporary employment?
5. What is the Clark-Fisher model?
6. What are the causes of economic change in the UK?
7. What are the consequences of economic change in the UK?
8. How can social inequality be measured?
9. What is the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)?
10. What is the Gini coefficient and what does it show?
11. What factors influence how people perceive a place?
12. How does media representation differ from lived experience?
13. How can past and present connections shape place identity?
14. What are formal representations of place?
15. What are informal representations of place?

The Need for Regeneration

1. What is urban decline?

2. What is a sink estate?
3. What is a commuter village?
4. What is a gated community?
5. What is a declining rural settlement?
6. What factors indicate the need for regeneration?
7. What are the impacts of inequality on urban places?
8. What are the impacts of inequality on rural places?
9. What is social polarisation?
10. How can perceptions of the need for regeneration differ?
11. What role do lived experiences play in perceptions of need?
12. How can evidence be used to justify regeneration?
13. What quantitative data is used to assess regeneration need?
14. What qualitative data is used to assess regeneration need?

28
Managing Regeneration: Policies & Strategies

1. What are the roles of local and national governments in regeneration?

2. What are planning laws and how do they influence regeneration?
3. How does deregulation encourage investment?
4. How does migration policy affect regeneration?
5. What are enterprise zones?
6. What is infrastructure investment and why is it important?
7. What is the role of local interest groups in regeneration?
8. What is a Chamber of Commerce?
9. What is the role of local preservation societies?
10. What are the main types of regeneration strategies?
11. What is retail-led regeneration?
12. What is leisure-led regeneration?
13. What is tourism-led regeneration?
14. What is sport-led regeneration?
15. What is rural diversification?
16. What is rebranding?
17. What strategies are used in rebranding?
18. What are the aims of rebranding?
19. How can rebranding be contested?

Measuring the Success of Regeneration

1. What are the criteria used to assess regeneration success?

2. How can economic success be measured?
3. How can social success be measured?
4. How can environmental success be measured?
5. What is social progress and how is it assessed?
6. What role does community engagement play in assessing success?
7. How do different stakeholders assess success differently?
8. What are examples of stakeholders in regeneration?
9. How can rural regeneration be assessed?
10. What are challenges to measuring success in rural areas?
11. How can urban regeneration be assessed?
12. What are examples of contested regeneration outcomes?

29
 ANSWERS
Understanding Place: Economic & Social Variation

1. (A) Primary. (B) Secondary. (C) Tertiary. (D) Quaternary.

2. Rural areas = primary/secondary. Urban = tertiary/quaternary.
3. Full-time = contracted, long-term. Part-time = fewer hours, flexible.
4. Permanent = ongoing contract. Temporary = fixed-term or casual.
5. Model showing shift from primary to tertiary/quaternary through development.
6. Deindustrialisation, globalisation, automation, policy changes.
7. Job losses, regional disparities, new service jobs, urban regeneration.
8. Income, employment, health, education, crime, housing, environment.
9. Composite UK government index ranking areas by deprivation.
10. Measure of income inequality from 0 (equal) to 1 (unequal).
11. Age, ethnicity, gender, experience, socio-economic status.
12. Media may simplify, exaggerate or stereotype places.
13. Industrial history, migration, infrastructure, global links.
14. Census data, official statistics, government reports.
15. TV, film, music, art, social media.

The Need for Regeneration

1. Physical, economic and social deterioration of urban areas.

2. Housing estates with high levels of poverty and crime.
3. Villages with residents commuting to urban jobs.
4. Secure residential areas with restricted access.
5. Rural areas losing population, services and viability.
6. Deprivation, unemployment, poor housing, low environmental quality.
7. Housing shortages, crime, poor health and education outcomes.
8. Isolation, service loss, limited opportunity, ageing population.
9. The separation of rich and poor into distinct areas.
10. Depends on age, class, ethnicity, ownership and attachment.
11. Personal experiences influence views on quality and value.
12. Justifies funding and support based on identified issues.
13. IMD, census, employment stats, house prices.
14. Interviews, media, historical records, photographs.

30
Managing Regeneration: Policies & Strategies

1. Funding, planning, policy-making, infrastructure, marketing.

2. Control development, land use and environmental standards.
3. Reduces regulation to attract business and FDI.
4. Influences labour supply, demographics and demand.
5. Areas with tax breaks and support for start-ups.
6. Improves connectivity and accessibility (e.g. HS2, Heathrow).
7. Represent local needs, influence decisions, lobby.
8. Represent business interests and local economic development.
9. Protect local heritage and historic environment.
10. Retail, leisure, sport, tourism, culture, diversification.
11. Focus on shopping centres or anchor stores.
12. Centres on entertainment or recreation (e.g. theatres).
13. Uses natural or historic assets to attract visitors.
14. Uses events or stadiums to regenerate (e.g. Olympics).
15. Adding non-farming income: shops, glamping, activities.
16. Creating a new identity or improving image.
17. Slogans, logos, public art, community branding.
18. Attract tourists, investors, change perception.
19. Disputes over identity, exclusion, cost, priorities.

Measuring the Success of Regeneration

1. Economic, social, environmental and demographic indicators.

2. Employment rates, income, business growth, investment.
3. Crime reduction, education, health, community services.
4. Environmental quality, pollution levels, green spaces.
5. Improvements in well-being, equality and access.
6. Indicates buy-in, legitimacy and long-term viability.
7. Residents, businesses, governments have different priorities.
8. Local people, councils, developers, NGOs, investors.
9. Farm income, diversification, service access, population change.
10. Limited data, slower change, harder engagement.
11. Infrastructure, housing, social services, employment change.
12. Gentrification, loss of identity, uneven benefits.

31
TOPIC 4B: DIVERSE PLACES
QUESTIONS
Demographic & Cultural Variation Between Places

1. What factors influence population structure in the UK?

2. What are the three main elements of population structure?
3. How does age structure vary across the UK?
4. How does population density vary between rural and urban areas?
5. What are the causes of population change in the UK?
6. What is internal migration?
7. What is international migration?
8. What are the causes of ethnic diversity in the UK?
9. What is ethnic clustering?
10. What is cultural diversity?
11. What are the influences shaping cultural characteristics of places?
12. What is meant by ‘sense of place’?
13. What are formal representations of place?
14. What are informal representations of place?

Perceptions & Lived Experience of Urban & Rural Places

1. What is perception of place?

2. What influences how people perceive urban areas?
3. What influences how people perceive rural areas?
4. How does gender influence perception of place?
5. How does age influence perception of place?
6. How does ethnicity influence perception of place?
7. How does socio-economic status influence perception of place?
8. What is a lived experience of place?
9. How do lived experiences affect engagement with a place?
10. What are examples of qualitative sources showing perception?
11. What are examples of quantitative sources showing place characteristics?
12. What is counter-urbanisation?
13. What is re-urbanisation?

32
Diversity, Segregation & Tensions in Communities

1. What is segregation?
2. What causes ethnic segregation in cities?
3. What is social clustering?
4. How can housing affect community diversity?
5. How can services affect community diversity?
6. What are pull factors for in-migration?
7. What are push factors from urban areas?
8. What are the impacts of international migration on communities?
9. What are the impacts of internal migration on rural areas?
10. What are the impacts of second-home ownership on rural communities?
11. What are sources of community tension in diverse places?
12. What are the positive impacts of cultural diversity?
13. What are the negative impacts of cultural diversity?
14. How does built environment reflect community characteristics?

Managing Change in Diverse Places

1. What is community engagement?

2. How can local authorities engage communities?
3. What is regeneration?
4. What are the goals of regeneration in diverse communities?
5. What are the challenges of managing demographic change?
6. What are the challenges of managing cultural change?
7. What is assimilation?
8. What is multiculturalism?
9. What is an example of successful community integration?
10. What are the roles of stakeholders in managing place change?
11. What are local strategies to manage change?
12. What is a case study of local place change?
13. How can place change be measured?
14. What are the risks of ignoring local views in regeneration?

33
 ANSWERS
Demographic & Cultural Variation Between Places

1. Migration, fertility, mortality, economic activity, policy.

2. Age, gender, ethnicity.
3. Urban = younger. Rural = older, ageing population.
4. Urban areas have higher population density than rural.
5. Natural change, international and internal migration.
6. Movement within a country (e.g. city to rural).
7. Movement across borders to settle in a new country.
8. Colonial links, economic migration, refugee flows.
9. When ethnic groups concentrate in specific areas.
10. Coexistence of multiple cultures, traditions and values.
11. History, migration, globalisation, local traditions.
12. Personal and emotional attachment to a location.
13. Census, statistics, maps, official reports.
14. Art, music, TV, film, social media.

Perceptions & Lived Experience of Urban & Rural Places

1. Individual or group views of a place based on experience or image.

2. Safety, opportunity, diversity, congestion.
3. Peace, community, isolation, beauty.
4. Women may feel unsafe in certain urban areas.
5. Young people may value nightlife; older people may prefer services.
6. Ethnic minorities may feel more or less welcome in certain areas.
7. Wealth influences access to housing, services and public spaces.
8. Day-to-day experience of living in or interacting with a place.
9. Positive experiences increase belonging and participation.
10. Interviews, photography, blogs, social media.
11. Census, IMD, crime stats, income data.
12. Movement from cities to rural or suburban areas.
13. Population growth in urban centres after decline.

Diversity, Segregation & Tensions in Communities

1. Separation of groups by ethnicity, income or social factors.

2. Housing affordability, discrimination, cultural networks.
3. When groups choose to live near similar people.
4. Affordability and availability influence diversity and inclusion.
5. Access to schools, healthcare and shops attracts or deters groups.
6. Jobs, education, safety, freedom.
7. Cost of living, pollution, stress.
8. Cultural richness, tension, strain on housing and services.
9. Ageing population, service loss, rising house prices.
10. Raises prices, limits access, reduces full-time population.
11. Competition, inequality, racism, lack of integration.
12. Enriched culture, cuisine, language, innovation.
13. Segregation, misunderstanding, prejudice.
14. Architecture, signage, shop types, places of worship.

34
Managing Change in Diverse Places

1. Involvement of residents in decision-making and planning.

2. Consultations, forums, surveys, partnerships.
3. Investment and policy to improve social, economic and physical environments.
4. Improve cohesion, services, equity, and identity.
5. Population growth, ageing, service provision, housing demand.
6. Language barriers, education gaps, integration tensions.
7. Absorbing minority cultures into majority culture.
8. Coexistence of diverse cultures within society.
9. Slough: youth engagement and cultural awareness projects.
10. Councils, residents, schools, businesses, developers.
11. Education, language classes, festivals, youth initiatives.
12. Example: London Docklands regeneration or Slough initiatives.
13. Demographics, service usage, economic and health indicators.
14. Resistance, protest, exclusion, failure to meet needs.

35
TOPIC 5: THE WATER CYCLE & WATER
INSECURITY
QUESTIONS
The Global & Local Water Cycle

1. What type of system is the global hydrological cycle?

2. What are the key water stores in the global hydrological cycle?
3. What are the key flows in the global hydrological cycle?
4. What are residence times in the water cycle?
5. Why is the global water cycle considered a closed system?
6. What are the main inputs into a drainage basin?
7. What are the main outputs from a drainage basin?
8. What are the flows/transfers within a drainage basin?
9. What are the stores in a drainage basin system?
10. What is a water budget?
11. What is river regime?
12. How do seasonal variations affect river regimes?
13. What is the difference between flashy and subdued hydrographs?
14. What physical factors affect storm hydrographs?
15. What human factors affect storm hydrographs?
16. What is the effect of deforestation on the water cycle?
17. How do dams and reservoirs affect the water cycle?
18. How does groundwater abstraction affect the water cycle?
19. How does urbanisation affect the water cycle?
20. What is fossil water?

Storm Hydrographs & Water Insecurity Factors

1. What is a storm hydrograph?

2. What is lag time in a hydrograph?
3. What causes a short lag time?
4. What causes a long lag time?
5. What physical factors cause water insecurity?
6. How does climate affect water availability?
7. How does geology affect water availability?
8. What is saltwater intrusion?
9. What human factors cause water insecurity?
10. How does over-abstraction contribute to water stress?
11. How does contamination of water sources cause water insecurity?
12. How does pollution impact water availability?
13. How does agriculture contribute to water insecurity?
14. How does industry contribute to water insecurity?
15. How does urban growth affect water availability?

36
Impacts & Consequences of Water Insecurity

1. What is water insecurity?

2. What are the social consequences of water insecurity?
3. What are the economic consequences of water insecurity?
4. What are the environmental consequences of water insecurity?
5. How does water insecurity affect food security?
6. How does water insecurity affect energy security?
7. How can water insecurity lead to conflict?
8. What is a transboundary water conflict?
9. What are two case studies of transboundary water issues?
10. Why is the Nile a contested river?
11. Why is the Mekong a contested river?
12. What is the water–food–energy nexus?
13. What are the future risks of water insecurity?

Managing Water Supply & Water Security

1. What is hard engineering in water management?

2. What are examples of hard engineering water projects?
3. What are the pros of hard engineering?
4. What are the cons of hard engineering?
5. What is sustainable water management?
6. What are examples of sustainable water strategies?
7. What is integrated water resource management (IWRM)?
8. What are the principles of IWRM?
9. What is greywater recycling?
10. What is smart irrigation?
11. What is rainwater harvesting?
12. What is desalination and where is it used?
13. What are the environmental concerns of desalination?
14. What are the social issues linked to water mega-projects?
15. What are the economic challenges of large-scale water projects?
16. What is a bottom-up water management approach?
17. What is a top-down water management approach?
18. What are the advantages of bottom-up strategies?
19. What are the disadvantages of bottom-up strategies?
20. What are the advantages of top-down strategies?
21. What are the disadvantages of top-down strategies?
22. What is a case study of sustainable water management?

37
 ANSWERS
The Global & Local Water Cycle

1. Closed system.
2. Oceans, atmosphere, cryosphere, groundwater, surface water.
3. Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, percolation, runoff.
4. Time water spends in a store before moving on.
5. Water is neither lost nor gained from space.
6. Precipitation.
7. Evapotranspiration, river discharge.
8. Infiltration, percolation, throughflow, baseflow, runoff.
9. Interception, soil moisture, groundwater, surface storage.
10. Balance between inputs and outputs over time.
11. Annual variation in river discharge.
12. Rainfall, snowmelt, evapotranspiration vary through seasons.
13. Flashy = steep, short lag time. Subdued = low peak, long lag.
14. Rock type, soil, slope, vegetation, rainfall intensity.
15. Urbanisation, deforestation, dams, farming.
16. Reduces infiltration, increases runoff.
17. Alters flow regime, increases evaporation, delays discharge.
18. Lowers water table, reduces baseflow.
19. Increases runoff, reduces infiltration.
20. Ancient groundwater not being replenished.

Storm Hydrographs & Water Insecurity Factors

1. Graph showing river discharge in response to rainfall.

2. Time between peak rainfall and peak discharge.
3. Steep slopes, impermeable surfaces, intense rain.
4. Gentle slopes, permeable soils, vegetation cover.
5. Climate variability, geology, saltwater intrusion.
6. Aridity and seasonal variability reduce supply.
7. Impermeable rock limits groundwater recharge.
8. Seawater enters freshwater aquifers due to overuse.
9. Overuse, pollution, agriculture, industrial demand, urban growth.
10. Removes water faster than it’s replenished.
11. Reduces safe drinking water and ecosystem health.
12. Industrial and agricultural waste makes water unusable.
13. High irrigation use reduces water for other needs.
14. Industrial processes require large water volumes.
15. Increases demand, degrades sources, creates waste.

38
Impacts & Consequences of Water Insecurity

1. When available water cannot meet demand.

2. Poor health, sanitation, reduced quality of life.
3. Reduced productivity, higher costs, limited development.
4. Habitat loss, reduced river flow, pollution.
5. Limits irrigation, lowers crop yields.
6. Reduces hydropower and cooling water for energy.
7. Competing users and scarcity increase tension.
8. Disputes between countries sharing water sources.
9. Nile and Mekong Rivers.
10. Upstream dams (Ethiopia) threaten downstream flow (Egypt).
11. Upstream dams (China, Laos) reduce flow to Vietnam.
12. Interdependence of water, food and energy systems.
13. Climate change, population growth, pollution, demand rise.

Managing Water Supply & Water Security

1. Large-scale infrastructure to control water flow.

2. Dams, reservoirs, water transfer schemes.
3. Reliable supply, supports cities and farming.
4. Expensive, displaces people, environmental harm.
5. Meets needs without harming future use.
6. Water metering, greywater, rainwater harvesting.
7. Coordinated management of water across sectors.
8. Equity, sustainability, participatory planning.
9. Reuse of domestic wastewater for irrigation.
10. Monitors crop needs to minimise water use.
11. Collects and stores rooftop rainwater.
12. Removing salt from seawater; used in Israel, UAE.
13. High energy use, brine disposal harms marine life.
14. Displacement, unequal access, cultural impacts.
15. High cost, long construction times, maintenance.
16. Community-led, low-cost, locally appropriate solutions.
17. Government-led, large-scale, top-down planning.
18. Empowering, low-cost, fits local context.
19. Limited scale, depends on NGO support.
20. High capacity, long-term national planning.
21. Can ignore local needs, costly and inflexible.
22. Israel’s integrated tech use (drip irrigation, desalination, recycling).

39
TOPIC 6: THE CARBON CYCLE & ENERGY
INSECURITY
QUESTIONS
The Carbon Cycle as a System

1. What type of system is the carbon cycle?

2. What are the main stores in the carbon cycle?
3. What are the key flows in the carbon cycle?
4. What is sequestration?
5. What is the biological pump?
6. What is the physical pump in the ocean carbon cycle?
7. What is the geological carbon cycle?
8. What is the role of weathering in the long-term carbon cycle?
9. What is the role of volcanic activity in the carbon cycle?
10. What is the role of fossil fuels in the geological carbon cycle?
11. What is photosynthesis?
12. What is respiration?
13. What is decomposition?
14. What is combustion in terms of carbon?
15. What are the short-term carbon fluxes?
16. What is the difference between a carbon source and a carbon sink?
17. What is a carbon budget?
18. What is the carbon residence time?
19. What physical factors affect the carbon cycle?
20. What human activities disrupt the carbon cycle?

Carbon & Climate Change

1. What is the greenhouse effect?

2. What are the key greenhouse gases?
3. What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
4. What role does carbon dioxide play in climate regulation?
5. What role does methane play in climate regulation?
6. What are feedback loops in the carbon cycle?
7. What is the albedo effect and how does it relate to climate?
8. What is permafrost thaw and why is it significant?
9. What is forest dieback?
10. How does ocean acidification relate to the carbon cycle?
11. How are marine ecosystems affected by carbon changes?
12. How does changing climate affect terrestrial ecosystems?
13. What is ocean warming and how is it linked to carbon?
14. What is coral bleaching and why does it happen?
15. What role do forests play in the carbon cycle?

40
Energy Security & the Carbon-Energy Relationship

1. What is energy security?

2. What is energy insecurity?
3. What are the causes of energy insecurity?
4. What are fossil fuels?
5. What are the main types of fossil fuels?
6. What is the relationship between energy use and carbon emissions?
7. What is the global pattern of energy consumption?
8. What are the environmental costs of fossil fuel use?
9. What are unconventional fossil fuels?
10. What are the risks of using unconventional fossil fuels?
11. What is the carbon intensity of fossil fuels?
12. How does development influence energy demand?
13. What is an energy mix?
14. What factors influence a country’s energy mix?
15. What are energy pathways?
16. What risks are associated with energy pathways?
17. What role does geopolitics play in energy security?

Managing the Carbon Cycle & Energy Future

1. What are mitigation strategies for climate change?

2. What is carbon capture and storage (CCS)?
3. What are the pros and cons of CCS?
4. What is afforestation?
5. What is energy efficiency?
6. What is the role of renewable energy in mitigation?
7. What are examples of renewable energy sources?
8. What is adaptation in climate management?
9. What is the difference between adaptation and mitigation?
10. What is the IPCC?
11. What is the Kyoto Protocol?
12. What is the Paris Agreement?
13. What are the challenges of international climate agreements?
14. What is carbon trading?
15. What are the advantages of carbon trading?
16. What are the limitations of carbon trading?
17. Who are the key players in carbon management?
18. What are national policies for energy transition?
19. What is the UK’s approach to reducing carbon emissions?
20. What are the barriers to a low-carbon future?

41
 ANSWERS
The Carbon Cycle as a System

1. Closed system globally, open system locally.

2. Atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, lithosphere.
3. Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion, ocean exchange.
4. Carbon storage in oceans, soil, vegetation or rock.
5. Phytoplankton absorb CO₂; organisms sink to ocean floor.
6. CO₂ dissolves into surface water, moved by currents.
7. Long-term processes involving rock formation and tectonics.
8. Carbon in rocks is dissolved and transported to oceans.
9. Releases CO₂ from mantle to atmosphere.
10. Store carbon long-term; burning releases it.
11. Plants absorb CO₂ to produce glucose.
12. Organisms release CO₂ by breaking down glucose.
13. Breakdown of dead matter releases CO₂ and CH₄.
14. Burning biomass or fossil fuels releases CO₂.
15. Daily exchanges via biological processes.
16. Source = emits CO₂. Sink = absorbs CO₂.
17. Balance between inputs and outputs of carbon.
18. Average time carbon stays in a store.
19. Climate, temperature, vegetation, soil type.
20. Deforestation, fossil fuel burning, farming, land use change.

Carbon & Climate Change

1. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.

2. CO₂, CH₄, water vapour, nitrous oxide.
3. Human-enhanced increase of GHGs causing warming.
4. Absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation.
5. Traps more heat than CO₂ per molecule but shorter-lived.
6. Processes that amplify or dampen change (e.g. albedo loss).
7. Ice reflects heat; melting reduces reflection, increases warming.
8. Releases CO₂ and CH₄ from frozen organic matter.
9. Stress or warming reduces photosynthesis and carbon storage.
10. More CO₂ = more carbonic acid = lower pH.
11. Affects coral, plankton and shell formation.
12. Alters growth seasons, species distribution, fire risk.
13. Warmer oceans store less CO₂, disrupting carbon pump.
14. Warm water stresses corals, causing them to expel algae.
15. Store and absorb carbon through photosynthesis.

42
Energy Security & the Carbon-Energy Relationship

1. Reliable, affordable access to energy.

2. Lack of reliable, affordable energy access.
3. Rising demand, political instability, depleted reserves.
4. Natural fuels formed from ancient biomass.
5. Coal, oil, natural gas.
6. Fossil fuel use releases CO₂, increasing emissions.
7. High in developed nations, rising in emerging economies.
8. Emissions, pollution, land degradation, spills.
9. Shale gas, tar sands, deep-water oil, fracking.
10. High cost, water use, earthquakes, leaks.
11. Amount of CO₂ emitted per energy unit.
12. Higher development = higher demand and consumption.
13. Proportions of energy sources in national supply.
14. Resources, technology, policy, costs, climate goals.
15. Routes energy takes from producer to consumer.
16. Disruption from conflict, piracy, political pressure.
17. Access, control and trade create power imbalances.

Managing the Carbon Cycle & Energy Future

1. Reduce GHG emissions or increase carbon sinks.

2. Capturing CO₂ and storing it underground.
3. Reduces emissions but costly, energy-intensive, uncertain.
4. Planting trees to absorb atmospheric CO₂.
5. Reducing energy use through technology or behaviour.
6. Replaces fossil fuels with low-emission sources.
7. Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, tidal, biomass.
8. Adjusting to climate effects (e.g. sea defences).
9. Mitigation = prevention. Adaptation = response.
10. UN body assessing climate science and policy.
11. 1997 treaty setting emission targets for developed nations.
12. 2015 agreement to limit warming below 2°C.
13. Varying national interests, enforcement, finance.
14. Buying/selling emission allowances to reduce GHGs.
15. Encourages efficiency and innovation.
16. Can allow continued pollution, difficult to regulate.
17. Governments, IGOs, NGOs, businesses, individuals.
18. Renewable investment, emissions targets, tax incentives.
19. Net zero by 2050, offshore wind, carbon budgets.
20. Cost, political resistance, energy demand, infrastructure.

43
TOPIC 7: SUPERPOWERS
QUESTIONS
Superpower Characteristics & Changing Patterns of Power

1. What are the core characteristics of a superpower?

2. What is the role of economic power in superpower status?
3. How does military power contribute to superpower influence?
4. What is soft power?
5. What is hard power?
6. What is smart power?
7. How is cultural influence linked to superpower status?
8. What is a unipolar world?
9. What is a bipolar world?
10. What is a multipolar world?
11. What were the main features of the British Empire’s global influence?
12. What characterised the Cold War’s bipolar world?
13. How has global power changed since the end of the Cold War?
14. What role do demographic factors play in power status?
15. What is geostrategic location theory?

Emerging Powers & Global Influence

1. What are emerging powers?

2. Which countries are typically classed as BRICS?
3. Which countries are typically classed as MINT?
4. What strengths do emerging powers bring?
5. What weaknesses may limit emerging power influence?
6. How does China challenge the current global order?
7. What is the role of TNCs in global power?
8. What is neo-colonialism?
9. What is the role of the IMF in global influence?
10. What is the role of the WTO in global influence?
11. What is the role of the World Bank in global influence?
12. What is the role of aid in global power relations?
13. What is the role of IGOs in reinforcing superpower dominance?
14. How do TNCs reflect soft and hard power?
15. How do different superpowers exert global economic influence?

44
Geopolitical Tensions & Spheres of Influence

1. What is a sphere of influence?

2. What are examples of current contested spheres of influence?
3. Why is the South China Sea geopolitically significant?
4. How has Russia asserted its sphere of influence?
5. What are flashpoints in global geopolitics?
6. What is the role of NATO in superpower geopolitics?
7. What is the Arctic increasingly contested?
8. What are the risks of resource tension?
9. How do superpowers use foreign policy to manage influence?
10. What are sanctions and how do they reflect power?
11. How do alliances reinforce superpower status?
12. What role does military presence play in asserting influence?
13. What are the environmental risks of contested resources?
14. What are the implications of contested spheres for global stability?
15. What is an example of a proxy conflict?

Superpowers & the Future

1. What is hegemony?
2. What is the current global hegemon?
3. How is China’s rise challenging US hegemony?
4. What are future power scenarios?
5. What is a unipolar future?
6. What is a bipolar future?
7. What is a multipolar future?
8. What are the strengths of a multipolar world?
9. What are the weaknesses of a multipolar world?
10. How do superpowers impact the global environment?
11. What is the carbon footprint of superpowers?
12. What are superpowers’ roles in climate governance?
13. Why do superpowers have differing views on climate action?
14. How do resource demands from superpowers affect sustainability?
15. What are the main uncertainties in future global power?

45
 ANSWERS

Superpower Characteristics & Changing Patterns of Power

1. Economic strength, military capability, political influence, cultural impact,

demographic weight.
2. Enables investment, aid, trade dominance, influence in IGOs.
3. Provides global reach, deterrence, and intervention power.
4. Influence through culture, diplomacy and values.
5. Coercion via military or economic pressure.
6. Combination of hard and soft power.
7. Global spread of media, language, values boosts influence.
8. One dominant global superpower (e.g. USA post-Cold War).
9. Two major powers competing globally (e.g. USA vs USSR).
10. Several powers share influence (e.g. BRICS, G7).
11. Colonialism, naval dominance, resource extraction, soft power.
12. Military standoff, ideological competition, proxy wars.
13. Rise of emerging powers and challenge to US hegemony.
14. Large populations can provide labour, markets, military.
15. Strategic control of important locations determines power.

Emerging Powers & Global Influence

1. Countries increasing their influence economically and politically.

2. Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.
3. Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey.
4. Large markets, growing economies, resource access.
5. Internal inequality, political instability, environmental issues.
6. Investment in Africa, military expansion, Belt and Road.
7. Control global supply chains, reinforce home state power.
8. Indirect control through debt, trade, aid dependency.
9. Offers loans with conditions shaping economic policy.
10. Regulates trade rules, settles disputes.
11. Funds development, often in line with Western priorities.
12. Builds alliances, increases political leverage.
13. Reflect interests of dominant economies (e.g. G7 nations).
14. Cultural export = soft. Economic leverage = hard.
15. Trade dominance, FDI, debt diplomacy, currency reserves.

46
Geopolitical Tensions & Spheres of Influence

1. Region where a state dominates or influences others politically or economically.

2. South China Sea, Ukraine, Arctic, Taiwan.
3. Shipping lanes, energy reserves, territorial claims.
4. Annexation of Crimea, influence in Eastern Europe.
5. Areas where confrontation could escalate to conflict.
6. Military alliance deterring aggression, led by USA.
7. Melting ice opens access to oil, gas, trade routes.
8. Escalates tensions, increases risk of conflict.
9. Diplomacy, alliances, military intervention, investment.
10. Economic penalties to change state behaviour.
11. Provide security, spread ideology, strengthen ties.
12. Bases, patrols, exercises show readiness and reach.
13. Oil spills, habitat damage, greenhouse emissions.
14. Increases likelihood of conflict and diplomatic strain.
15. Syrian Civil War (USA, Russia backing different sides).

Superpowers & the Future

1. Dominance of one state in global politics or economy.

2. United States (since 1991).
3. Expanding economy, military, diplomatic influence.
4. Continuation of US dominance, rise of China, regional powers.
5. One global superpower dominates.
6. Two powers share control and compete.
7. Several powers influence different regions.
8. Shared responsibility, balanced power, diverse leadership.
9. Unpredictable alliances, instability, lack of coordination.
10. High emissions, large ecological footprints.
11. USA, China and BRICS have major carbon outputs.
12. Influence climate treaties, funding, and compliance.
13. Development status, priorities, political ideology.
14. Overconsumption, deforestation, fossil fuel dependency.
15. Economic shifts, political instability, climate change.

47
TOPIC 8A: HEALTH, HUMAN RIGHTS &
INTERVENTION
QUESTIONS
The Geography of Health & Human Rights

1. What is health in a geographical context?

2. What are human rights?
3. What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)?
4. What is the Geneva Convention?
5. What is the link between health and human rights?
6. What are global variations in health linked to?
7. What are global variations in human rights linked to?
8. What are development indicators used to assess health and rights?
9. What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
10. What is the Gender Inequality Index (GII)?
11. What does maternal mortality rate (MMR) indicate?
12. What does access to education suggest about human rights?
13. What are freedom indices?
14. How does income affect access to healthcare?
15. What factors influence health and human rights patterns?

Political, Social & Cultural Influences on Rights & Health

1. How do political systems influence health and rights?

2. How does corruption impact human rights?
3. How do cultural beliefs influence gender equality?
4. What are examples of gender-based rights violations?
5. How does religion influence attitudes to health and rights?
6. How does lack of education reinforce inequality?
7. What is the relationship between conflict and human rights?
8. How are women’s rights limited in some societies?
9. What are child marriage and female genital mutilation (FGM)?
10. What are honour killings and why do they occur?
11. How does social exclusion affect access to rights?
12. What groups are most vulnerable to rights violations?
13. How does traditional gender division of labour affect women?
14. What role does civil society play in challenging rights abuse?

48
The Role of Global Governance in Promoting Health & Human Rights

1. What are IGOs and what do they do?

2. What is the role of the United Nations in promoting rights?
3. What is the role of the World Health Organization (WHO)?
4. How do NGOs contribute to improving health and rights?
5. What is humanitarian aid?
6. What is development aid?
7. What is the difference between humanitarian and development aid?
8. What is the role of the Red Cross in global health?
9. What is the role of Amnesty International in human rights?
10. What are the challenges of aid delivery in conflict zones?
11. What is the responsibility to protect (R2P)?
12. What is the purpose of international laws and conventions?
13. What are the limits of global governance in promoting rights?
14. What is the role of trade and investment in development?

Military and Non-Military Intervention: Effectiveness & Ethics

1. What is military intervention?

2. What are the justifications for military intervention?
3. What are examples of recent military interventions?
4. What is non-military intervention?
5. What are examples of non-military interventions?
6. What is peacekeeping?
7. What are the ethical concerns of intervention?
8. What are the short-term impacts of military intervention?
9. What are the long-term impacts of intervention?
10. What role does development aid play post-intervention?
11. What are the arguments for intervention?
12. What are the arguments against intervention?
13. What are the success criteria for intervention?
14. What case study shows a successful intervention?
15. What case study shows a controversial intervention?

49
 ANSWERS
The Geography of Health & Human Rights

1. Physical and mental well-being influenced by environment and services.

2. Basic freedoms and protections all people are entitled to.
3. 1948 UN agreement defining universal rights.
4. International treaties on humanitarian treatment in conflict.
5. Poor rights often lead to poor health outcomes.
6. Wealth, conflict, governance, infrastructure.
7. Governance, corruption, law enforcement, conflict.
8. HDI, GII, MMR, literacy rates, freedom indices.
9. Composite of life expectancy, education, income.
10. Measures reproductive health, empowerment, economic status.
11. Deaths per 100,000 births; reflects healthcare and equality.
12. Shows inclusion, gender equality, development.
13. Rank countries on political rights and civil liberties.
14. Higher income improves healthcare access and quality.
15. Poverty, gender, ethnicity, conflict, education.

Political, Social & Cultural Influences on Rights & Health

1. Democratic systems generally support rights; authoritarian regimes may not.

2. Undermines law, services, and protection of freedoms.
3. May limit women’s rights or healthcare access.
4. FGM, restricted education, pay gaps, violence.
5. May support or restrict access to health and equality.
6. Limits awareness of rights and health practices.
7. Violates rights, disrupts services, increases vulnerability.
8. Through law, custom, education, and social norms.
9. Harmful practices violating health and autonomy.
10. Killing to protect family honour due to perceived shame.
11. Marginalises minorities from services and participation.
12. Women, ethnic minorities, children, disabled, poor.
13. Limits employment, education, and decision-making.
14. NGOs, activists and media expose and oppose abuse.

50
The Role of Global Governance in Promoting Health & Human Rights

1. Intergovernmental organisations that set standards and coordinate action.

2. Promotes peace, rights, health and development.
3. Coordinates international health response and advice.
4. Deliver aid, educate, advocate and raise awareness.
5. Short-term aid during emergencies or disasters.
6. Long-term aid to support sustainable improvements.
7. One is immediate relief; the other is structural change.
8. Emergency healthcare, conflict zone support, medical aid.
9. Investigates and reports on abuses; pressures governments.
10. Insecurity, corruption, lack of infrastructure.
11. UN principle to intervene when states fail to protect citizens.
12. Provide legal framework for human rights enforcement.
13. Sovereignty, funding, enforcement, political conflict.
14. Can increase resources but may exploit or bypass rights.

Military and Non-Military Intervention: Effectiveness & Ethics

1. Use of armed forces to restore peace or protect rights.

2. Genocide, ethnic cleansing, state failure, human rights abuse.
3. Libya (2011), Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria.
4. Diplomacy, sanctions, aid, education, media pressure.
5. Sanctions on regimes, aid to rights groups, UN missions.
6. Neutral military forces to maintain ceasefires and protect civilians.
7. Sovereignty violation, civilian harm, political motives.
8. Death, destruction, displacement, trauma.
9. Political change, instability, recovery challenges.
10. Rebuilds health, education, justice systems.
11. Protects vulnerable, upholds rights, deters abuse.
12. Can worsen conflict, cause dependency, selective use.
13. Stability, rights improvement, governance, public support.
14. Sierra Leone: UK-led intervention restored order and supported reform.
15. Iraq: controversial motives, long instability, human cost.

51
TOPIC 8B: MIGRATION, IDENTITY &
SOVEREIGNTY
QUESTIONS
Globalisation, Migration & National Identity

1. What is globalisation?
2. How has globalisation influenced migration patterns?
3. What is international migration?
4. What is internal migration?
5. What are economic migrants?
6. What are refugees and asylum seekers?
7. What is a source country in migration?
8. What is a host country in migration?
9. What are push factors for migration?
10. What are pull factors for migration?
11. What is national identity?
12. What factors shape national identity?
13. How can migration influence national identity?
14. What are examples of multicultural societies?
15. What are the tensions created by changing national identity?

Sovereignty, Borders & the Nation State

1. What is sovereignty?
2. What is a nation state?
3. What are political borders?
4. What are physical borders?
5. What are contested borders?
6. What are examples of border disputes?
7. What is territorial integrity?
8. What is supranationalism?
9. What is the European Union (EU)?
10. How can supranationalism challenge sovereignty?
11. What are separatist movements?
12. What is an example of a separatist movement?
13. What are the causes of border conflict?
14. What is the role of the UN in border disputes?

52
Global Governance & the Role of International Institutions

1. What is global governance?

2. What are IGOs and their purpose?
3. What is the United Nations’ role in sovereignty and borders?
4. What is the role of the WTO in global governance?
5. How does the IMF influence national policy?
6. What is the World Bank’s role in global development?
7. What is the aim of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
8. What are NGOs and how do they contribute to global governance?
9. How does global governance affect less developed countries?
10. What are criticisms of global institutions?
11. What is economic interdependence?
12. How does interdependence affect sovereignty?
13. What is a failed state?
14. How does intervention affect sovereignty?

Managing Migration & National Identity in a Changing World

1. What is migration policy?

2. What are open border policies?
3. What are managed migration policies?
4. What are points-based immigration systems?
5. What are examples of national migration controls?
6. What is citizenship?
7. What are the criteria for gaining citizenship?
8. How can governments promote national identity?
9. What are examples of identity policies?
10. What are the tensions caused by immigration policy?
11. What are the benefits of migration for host nations?
12. What are the challenges of migration for host nations?
13. What are the impacts of migration on source countries?
14. What are the impacts of migration on identity?
15. What are examples of countries managing national identity?

53
 ANSWERS
Globalisation, Migration & National Identity

1. Increasing interconnectedness of people, economies and cultures.

2. Increased flows of people due to open borders and transport.
3. Movement across national borders to live or work.
4. Movement within the same country.
5. Move for work or economic opportunity.
6. Flee conflict or persecution; seek protection under law.
7. Country people leave from.
8. Country people migrate to.
9. Poverty, conflict, persecution, disaster.
10. Jobs, safety, freedom, education.
11. Shared sense of belonging to a nation.
12. Culture, language, history, law, citizenship.
13. Adds diversity; may challenge traditional values.
14. UK, USA, Canada, Australia.
15. Fear of loss of identity, racism, cultural conflict.

Sovereignty, Borders & the Nation State

1. Legal authority of a state to govern itself.

2. Sovereign country with a population and defined territory.
3. Boundaries created by governments.
4. Borders based on rivers, mountains, coasts.
5. Disputed ownership or control of land.
6. Crimea (Russia–Ukraine), South China Sea.
7. Recognition of territorial boundaries and political unity.
8. Organisations where countries pool sovereignty.
9. Political and economic union of European countries.
10. Limits national decision-making power.
11. Groups seeking independence or autonomy.
12. Catalonia in Spain; Scotland in UK.
13. Resources, identity, history, colonial legacies.
14. Peacekeeping, diplomacy, legal frameworks.

54
Global Governance & the Role of International Institutions

1. Coordination of global issues through cooperation.

2. Intergovernmental organisations like UN, WTO, IMF.
3. Protects sovereignty and promotes peace.
4. Promotes free trade and settles trade disputes.
5. Loans and conditions affect domestic policy.
6. Funds infrastructure and development projects.
7. End poverty, protect planet, ensure prosperity.
8. Deliver aid, advocate for rights, monitor issues.
9. May benefit from aid but lose autonomy.
10. Western bias, conditional aid, lack of accountability.
11. Mutual reliance through trade, migration, policy.
12. States depend on others, reducing independence.
13. State with weak governance and public services.
14. Can protect or undermine sovereignty.

Managing Migration & National Identity in a Changing World

1. Rules on entry, residence, and rights of migrants.

2. Few restrictions on entry and movement.
3. Controls based on labour needs and quotas.
4. Evaluates skills, language, and employment status.
5. UK visa rules, US border enforcement, Australia’s system.
6. Legal membership in a nation with rights and duties.
7. Residency length, language, culture, background checks.
8. National holidays, education, media campaigns.
9. French secularism; UK citizenship test.
10. Labour shortages, social divisions, political debate.
11. Fills jobs, boosts economy, enriches culture.
12. Strain on housing, services, integration challenges.
13. Remittances, brain drain, changing demographics.
14. May reshape traditions, symbols, and values.
15. Singapore’s social harmony policy; Brexit immigration reform.

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EXAM TIPS
Assessment Objectives Overview:

• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of places, environments,

concepts, processes, interactions, and change at various scales.
• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding in different contexts to interpret,
analyse, and evaluate geographical information and issues.
• AO3: Use a variety of relevant quantitative, qualitative, and fieldwork skills to
investigate geographical questions and issues, interpret, analyse, and
evaluate data and evidence, and construct arguments and draw conclusions.

1. Short Answer Questions (1-4 marks):

These questions typically assess AO1 and may require brief explanations or
definitions.

• Strategy:
o Provide concise, accurate definitions or explanations.
o Use specific terminology relevant to the question.
o For 3-4 mark questions, include a brief example if applicable.
• Example Question: Define the term “hydrological cycle.”
• Approach:
o Begin with a clear definition.
o If marks allow, add a brief example or elaboration.

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2. Explain Questions (6-8 marks):

These questions assess AO1 and AO2, requiring you to demonstrate understanding
and apply it to explain processes or concepts.

• Strategy:
o Start with a topic sentence that addresses the question directly.
o Use the PEEL structure for each paragraph:
▪ Point: Make a clear point related to the question.
▪ Evidence: Provide factual information or data.
▪ Explain: Elaborate on how the evidence supports your point.
▪ Link: Connect back to the question.
o Aim for two well-developed PEEL paragraphs.
• Example Question: Explain how urbanisation can impact local climates.
• Approach:
o Paragraph 1:
▪ Point: Urbanisation leads to the urban heat island effect.
▪ Evidence: Increased concrete and asphalt surfaces absorb and
retain heat.
▪ Explain: These materials have high thermal capacities, leading
to higher temperatures in urban areas compared to rural
surroundings.
▪ Link: Therefore, urbanisation contributes to localised warming.
o Paragraph 2:
▪ Point: Urbanisation affects precipitation patterns.
▪ Evidence: Increased pollution and particulates from vehicles and
industries.
▪ Explain: These particulates act as condensation nuclei,
potentially increasing cloud formation and precipitation.
▪ Link: Thus, urban areas may experience altered rainfall patterns
due to urbanisation.

3. Assess/Evaluate Questions (12-20 marks):

These higher-mark questions assess AO1, AO2, and AO3, requiring knowledge,
application, analysis, and evaluation.

• Strategy:
o Begin with an introduction that outlines your understanding of the
question and indicates the direction of your argument.
o Use the PEEL structure for each main point, ensuring a balance of
perspectives.
o Incorporate case studies or examples to support your points.
o Critically evaluate by considering different viewpoints and the relative
significance of factors.
o Conclude by summarizing your argument and making a substantiated
judgement.
• Example Question: Evaluate the effectiveness of coastal management
strategies in mitigating erosion.
• Approach:

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o Introduction:
▪ Briefly define coastal erosion and introduce the concept of
management strategies.
▪ State that the effectiveness of these strategies varies based on
multiple factors.
o Paragraph 1:
▪ Point: Hard engineering strategies, such as sea walls, can be
effective in protecting specific areas.
▪ Evidence: Sea walls have been used in locations like Blackpool
to prevent erosion.
▪ Explain: They provide a physical barrier against wave energy.
▪ Link: However, they can be expensive and may lead to
increased erosion downstream.
o Paragraph 2:
▪ Point: Soft engineering approaches, like beach nourishment,
offer more sustainable solutions.
▪ Evidence: The use of beach nourishment in Miami Beach has
helped maintain beach width.
▪ Explain: By adding sand, these methods work with natural
processes.
▪ Link: Yet, they require ongoing maintenance and can be less
effective in high-energy environments.
o Paragraph 3:
▪ Point: Managed retreat allows for the natural realignment of the
coastline.
▪ Evidence: In areas like the Sussex coast, managed retreat has
been implemented.
▪ Explain: This strategy can create new habitats and reduce the
need for hard defences.
▪ Link: Nevertheless, it involves relocating communities and
infrastructure, which can be contentious.
o Conclusion:
▪ Summarise the varying effectiveness of different strategies.

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