Compilation of

Daily Class Notes

Ancient History
 List of Lectures
1. Pre-Historic India
2. Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

3. Indus Valley Civilization (Part-02)

4. Vedic Period

5. Jainism and Buddhism

6. Rise of Mahajanapadas

7. Iranian, Macedonian Invasion, Mauryan Empire, and its Administration

8. Mauryan Society and Central Asian Contacts

9. Central Asian Contacts and the Age of the Satavahanas

10. Age of Satavahanas
11. Chola, Chera, and Pandya (Deep South)

12. Craft, Trade, Town in post Mauryan Age and Gupta Period
13. Harsha & His Times

14. Chalukya and Pallavas (New States in Peninsula)

15. Philosphies

16. Chapter 1 to 4 of R S Sharma

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 01
Pre-Historic India
 2

Pre-Historic India

History:

❖ History is divided into three parts such as:

➢ Prehistory: It is a phase of early man, where we found the evidence of bones and
tools through excavation.

➢ Proto-History: Archeological sources suggest Proto-history is a phase of early

civilization.

➢ History: It is the phase of complete civilization, and pieces of evidence include

inscriptions, literary sources, etc.

Prehistory:

❖ Earth is approximately 4000 Million Years old, and its evolution occurred in four stages.

❖ The 4th stage is called the Quaternary stage, and it is divided into two parts:

➢ Pleistocene period (Most recent)

✓ The period of Pleistocene was between 20,000,00 to 10,000 BC.

✓ This period is also called the Ice Age. In this age there were mammoth animals
like true elephants, true ox, etc.

✓ According to recent studies, the Pleistocene period was around 3 MYA.

➢ Holocene period (Present)

✓ The period of the Holocene was between 10, 000 to present.

✓ The condition of the Holocene period is warmer.

Note:

❖ BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, Latin for “In the Year of Our Lord”) are
terms used to denote time before and after the estimated birth of Jesus Christ,
respectively.

❖ According to Bori, Maharashtra’s artifacts human beings existence is around 1.4 MYA
in India.
 3

Stone Age:

❖ The Stone Age is divided into three parts:

➢ Paleolithic Age
✓ It means old Stone Age.
➢ Mesolithic Age
✓ It means middle or late Stone Age.
➢ Neolithic Age
✓ It means the new Stone Age.
❖ The Paleolithic is Age divided into three parts:
➢ Lower Paleolithic Age (5,00,000 to 50,000 BC)
➢ Middle Paleolithic Age (50,000 to 40,000 BC)

➢ Upper Paleolithic Age (40,000 to 10,000 BC)

Note:

❖ The Paleolithic period occurred within the Pleistocene epoch.

❖ The Mesolithic and Neolithic periods occurred within the Holocene epoch.

❖ Homosapiens (Modern human beings), and Ostrich egg shells occurred in the upper

Paleolithic age.

Paleolithic Age:

❖ We can cover the Paleolithic age under four

heads: Climate, Settlement, Occupation, and
Tools.
❖ Lower Paleolithic Age (5,00,000 to 50,000
BC):
➢ Climate: Lower Paleolithic or early Stone
Age covers the greater part of the ice age.

➢ Settlement & Occupation: Men had no knowledge of building houses or settlements.

They used to live in caves. He had no idea of cultivation and lived on Hunting and
gathering edible plants and tubes. This is why they are called Hunters-gatherers.
 4

➢ Tools: They are made up of Quartzite

& Sandstone Unpolished, Undressed,

Rough Stones.

✓ Tools were made from Core.

Early Paleolithic tools were fairly

large tools made up of quartzite

or other hard rocks.

➢ Sites: Sites are found in Son/ Sohan

valley (now Pakistan), Kashmir, Thar

desert, Belan valley (UP), and

Didwana (Rajasthan).

➢ Chirki-Nevasa in Maharashtra: 2000

tools found, and tools found in southern regions as well.

➢ Hand axes found during the second Himalayan interglaciation.

➢ Important Sites:

✓ The Soan Valley and Potwar plateau in northwestern India

✓ The Siwalik hills

✓ Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh

✓ Adamgrah hills in Narmada Valley

✓ Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh

✓ Belan Valley (Mirzapur, UP)

✓ Several rock shelters and caves used by paleolithic people are scattered around
the subcontinent.

✓ These are found all over India including Deccan, Chota Nagpur Plateau, etc.

➢ Bhimbetka Rock Shelters: People lived here in the Middle, Upper Paleolithic Ages.
This site remained attractive for the people of Stone Age due to shelter, food, and

raw materials availability for tools.

 5

❖ Middle Paleolithic Age (50,000 to 40,000 BC):

➢ Climate: It covers the part of the ice age.

There was high Rainfall in Tropical Regions.
Geographical Horizon roughly coincides with
that of the Lower Paleolithic Age.

➢ Settlement & Occupation: People lived on

Hunting and Food Gathering. Fire was invented in this Age, but the Wheel,
Cultivation, Domestication, and House Building were not there.

➢ Tools:

✓ In this age there were upgraded Tools.

✓ Here tools were made up of flakes, and tools included blades, points, borers,
and scrapers.

➢ Sites: Found along the Narmada River and south of the Tungabhadra River. Belan
Valley (UP) is rich in stone tools and animal fossils-cattle, and deer. Other sites
include Didwana in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Ajmer, Bhimbetka Caves, and region
south of Tungabhadra

❖ Upper Paleolithic Age (40,000 to 10,000 BC):

➢ Climate: Last Phase of Ice Age, and Climate became relatively warm. In the Thar
Desert region, Rajasthan, number of paleolithic sites is fewer than those of
preceding sites, due to the increasing aridity.

➢ Settlement & Occupation: Homo Sapiens are found here. Fire was invented in this
age, but Wheel and Cultivation was not there. Domestication was started in this
phase.

➢ Tools Upgradation: Parallel Sided Blades was made up of Stones. The Blade length
is more than twice of the width like Burins (Similar to modern day screwdrivers
are used as engraving tools or making grooves in wood or bones for making tools.

➢ Sites:

✓ Belan Valley(Mirzapur, UP): Evidence of Domestication of Animals found, and

Animal bones of Cattle, Sheep, Goats are found.
 6

a. Sheeps, Goats are not indigenous to

this area Bought from North West - It
could represent an early stage of
animal domestication.

✓ Andhra Pradesh: Upper paleolithic Cave

sites found in Kurnool, Munchutta
Chintamani Gavi, and tools made up of
Animal bones are also found here.

✓ Soan Valley:
a. Settlements: 566 Sites in India: Mostly
in Kashmir, Rajasthan, Vindhyas,
Central India, Chota Nagpur Plateau, West Bengal, and Bhimbetka Rock
Shelters are their favourite place.

b. In Pakistan: Sanghao Caves, Rohri Hills.

Mesolithic Age: (9000-6000 BC)

❖ This was a transitional phase between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Age.
❖ Climate: The Ice Age Ended, and climate changes starting taking place. It was warm
and rainy too. It was favorable to Flora and Fauna (Lead to Spread of Settlements to
new ecological niches), but this was not same everywhere like Birbhanpur, West Bengal
showed increased aridity Didwana, Rajasthan had higher rainfall. In Eastern Madhya
Pradesh, Climate became hot and warm.
❖ Settlements & Occupation:
➢ Lived on Hunting, Food Gathering, Fishing, Animal Husbandry.
➢ The Mesolithic Age marked a transitional phase in the mode of subsistence leading
to Animal Husbandry (It is a science of breeding and farming of Animals and
Developed fully in the Neolithic Age).
➢ Transition from hunting gathering to beginning of settled agriculture can be traced
(Eg: Chopani Mando in Belan Valley)
❖ Sites: Rajasthan (Bagor), UP (Belan Valley), Gujarat (Lotheswar, Ratanpur) show traces
of plant cultivation and animal Domestication.
 7

➢ Central India (Adamgarh, MP), South of River Krishna, Bhimbetka, Pasira

➢ Traces of pottery at Mirzapur (UP). Burials are also found (Damdama, Mahapada).

❖ Tools:

➢ The microliths were Micro Tools whose Length

was around 1-5 cm.

➢ They were used after fitting them on bone or

woof.

➢ Microliths: there are two types of tools like

✓ Geometric, which was a regular Geometric Shape like Triangles, Rhomboids,
Trapezes, and Trapezoids.

✓ Non-Geometric: Miniature version of some upper paleolithic tools like Burins,

Points & Scrapers

➢ They are made up of Quartzite, Chert, Jasper and Agate.

➢ The use of bow and arrow also began during this period.

➢ Animal bones of dogs, deer, boar and ostrich are found in these sites. Occasionally,
burials of the dead along with some microliths and sheel seem to have been
practiced.

❖ Significant Sites:

➢ Bagor (Rajasthan): Occupied for 5000

years from the fifth millennium BC
onwards, provides evidence of early
animal domestication.

➢ Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): Earliest

evidence of animal domestication in the
Indian subcontinent, possibly around
5000 BC.

➢ Sambhar (Rajasthan): Study suggests

cultivation of plants around 7000-
6000 BC based on deposits from the former salt lake.
 8

Neolithic Age: (6000-1000 BC)

❖ Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages coincide with each

other.

❖ Around 6500 Years Ago, Invention of the

Potters wheel also happened.

❖ Now hunting Gathering converted into

Domestication, and food. animals and plants are
also in the Neolithic age.

❖ Earliest Rural Settlements in Balochistan:

➢ Neolithic Age: Started in 9000 BC.

➢ Mehrgarh: Only known Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent (7000 BC)
Located in Balochistan, Pakistan situated on the bank of Bolan river in the Kochi
plain.

❖ Plant Domestication:

➢ After harvesting, some grain is consumed for food and the rest is put aside and
intentionally planted. This is Domestication of Plants.

➢ Wheat, Barley, Rice, Millets are cultivated in different areas at different points in
time.

➢ Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.

❖ Animal Domestication:

➢ Species of Animals were captured and kept.

➢ Wild Animals removed from natural habitat, maintained, bred under artificial
conditions by people for sake of their profits. This is Domestication of Animals.

➢ Domestication of Sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent. Cattle were used
for cultivation and for transport.

➢ This Domestication of Plants and Animals marked a new stage in the relationship
between people, animals, and plants. This involved removing plants and animals
from their natural habitat, a process of selective breeding and rearing under
artificial conditions under human control for the purpose of human gains.
 9

❖ Important Sites:

➢ Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan Valley in UP and in several places of Deccan

➢ Mehragh: Oldest and largest Neolithic Sites of the Neolithic Age. Lived in Mud Brick
Houses (Bricks of same size used here).

➢ Used to produce wheat and barley from very beginning.

➢ Granaries are also found - Breadbasket of Balochistan.

❖ It seems the potters wheel came to Baluchistan from western Asia and from here it
spread across the subcontinent after
4500 BC. Pots rapidly multiplied &
they began to be painted.

❖ Animals husbandry can be seen since

Goats, Sheep's, Cattles are
domesticated.

❖ At Kashmir:

➢ Burzahom - Place of Birch(Type

of wood).

➢ Gufkral - Cave of Potter.

➢ Here people used to live on a lake
side in pits called Dwelling Pits.
 10

➢ Tools: Complete absence of Microlith Tools.

➢ Burzal: Polished Stone Tools and Bone Tools were found. They were primarily used
to do hunting, fishing along with Agriculture and Animal Husbandry.

❖ At Burzahom:

➢ People used Coarse grey pottery.

➢ It is interesting that here domestic dogs were buried with their masters in their
graves. This practice does not seem evident in any other neolithic sites.

❖ At Chirand (North of Ganga Valley):

➢ Only place, other than kashmir where bone tools were found.

❖ At Kodihwa & Mahagara (UP): Traces of Rice

➢ Cultivation found in these neolithic sites.

❖ Chopani Mando, Assam and Garo Hills: Other Important sites of Neolithic Age.

❖ Vindhyas and Kaimur Hills:

➢ Neolithic settlements in Vindhyas and Kaimur hills

➢ Koldihwa and Mahagra known for rice cultivation in 5th millennium BC

➢ Senuwar in Rohtas district a significant site

➢ Taradih close to Bodh-Gaya temple also notable

❖ Southern Sites of Neolithic Age-Found south to Godavari River:

➢ Southern India has the largest number of neolithic settlements because of easy
availability of stone (Top of Granite hills or near river banks of plateau)
➢ Over 850 Settlements spread across AP, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are found.
Important are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paitampalli in
Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.

❖ Millet and Pulse farming is found:

➢ Preferred granite hills and river bank plateaus.

➢ Used stone axes and blades Tools.

❖ Ar Utnur, Piklihal, Kupgal: Ash mounds have been found

➢ Piklihal settlers were cattle-herders.

 11

➢ Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, etc

➢ Set up seasonal camps with cowpens.

➢ Moving to new camp: Ground set afire and cleared

➢ Piklihal: Ash mounds and habitation sites found.

➢ The people of the Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.

❖ Neolithic Settlements and Housing:

➢ Circular or rectangular mud and reed houses.

➢ Circular house inhabitants possibly owned

property jointly.

➢ Led settled life, cultivated ragi, horse gram,

and rice.

➢ Mehargarh Neolithic people: More advanced,

produced wheat and barley

➢ Lived in mud-brick houses.

❖ Neolithic Pottery:

➢ Need for food storage and cooking vessels.

➢ Handmade pottery in the early stage.

➢ Introduction of foot wheels for pottery-making, and

Spread of potter's wheel from Baluchistan to
subcontinent.

➢ Types of Neolithic pottery: black-burnished ware, grey ware, mat-impressed ware.

Chalcolithic Age:

❖ The Neolithic Age is followed by the Chalcolithic Age (Chalco-Copper, Lithic-Stone)

❖ Timeline: 4000-700 BC.

❖ The Chalcolithic Age was a subset of the Neolithic Age which started from 4000 B.C.

❖ Chalcolithic people mostly used stone and copper objects, but they also occasionally used
low grade bronze and even iron.

❖ Copper was the first metal to be used by man for making tools, However, Copper has
not replaced stone.
 12

❖ Copper is not as useful as stone because copper is comparatively weaker than stone
were used together and was designated as the stone copper phase.

❖ The Chalcolithic people were skilled in copper smithing and pottery.

❖ They were well-versed in the trade of copper smelting and were also skilled at stone
masonry.

❖ People were mostly rural.

❖ Chalcolithic Sites in India:

➢ South-eastern Rajasthan-
Two sites-Ahar and Gilund.
Dry zones of the Banas
valley

➢ Western MP or Malwa-
Kayatha and Eran have
been excavated. Malwa
Chalcolithic culture of
central and western India is
considered the richest
among Chalcolithic
ceramics, and some of this
pottery and other related cultural elements also appear in Maharashtra.

➢ Western Maharashtra:

✓ Ahmadanagar district: Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad.

✓ Pune district-Chandauli, Songaon, and Inamgaon.

• All relate to the Jorwe culture named after Jorwe, the type-site situated
on the left bank of the Pravara river, a tributary of the Godavari.

• Jorwe culture owed much to the Malwa culture, but it also shared elements
of the Neolithic culture of the south.

• Located in semi-arid areas mostly on brown-black soil which had ber and
babul vegetation but fell in riverine tracts.
 13

Major Chalcolithic Cultures:

Major Chalcolithic Cultures Associated Key Sites

❖ Ahar-Banas culture (2600 BCE-1900 ❖ Ahar near Udaipur and Gilund

BCE) in south-east Rajasthan

❖ Kayatha culture (2100 BCE-1800 BCE) ❖ Kayatha in Chambal as its chief

site in Madhya Pradesh

❖ Malwa culture (1700 BCE - 1400 BCE) ❖ Navdatoli in Western Madhya

Pradesh

❖ Jorwe culture (1400 BCE-700 BCE) ❖ Inamgaon and Chandoli near

Pune in Maharashtra

Distinct Chalcolithic Cultures:

Culture Details

Ahar-Banas ❖ The Ahar culture, also known as the Banas culture, was a
Chalcolithic archaeological culture that concentrated on the
banks of the Ahar River in south-eastern Rajasthan state in
India.

❖ Ahar was originally called "Tambawati", the place that has

copper, and beads of semi-precious stones including lapis
lazuli, Black and red ware.

❖ It had stone built houses.

❖ Findings of Bronze sheet.

❖ People knew smelting and metallurgy from the beginning.

 14

❖ In Gilund, there was a stone blade industry, microliths and

fragments of copper, beads of semi precious stones, and a wall
made of burnt brick.

❖ Ganeshwar is associated with Khetri mines (supply of copper).

It supplied copper to Harappal.

❖ Balathal is known for Mud fortification.

❖ Ahar pottery is mostly Black-and-Red ware (BRW), which has
a limited range of shapes, including bowls, bowls-on-stands,
elongated vases, and globular vases, painted on it in white
pigment with linear and dotted designs.

❖ The Ahar culture also had similar brightly slipped Red Ware,
Tan ware, ceramics in Burnished Black, as well as incised and
otherwise decorated Gray ware fabrics.

Kayatha Culture ❖ This Chalcolithic culture was named after the type site
Kayatha, in Ujjain district of Madhya Pradesh.

❖ It was a pre-Malwa Ware culture.

❖ Kayatha and Eran were fortified sites.

❖ Other features: jars, red combed ware, no complete house
plan, mud reed houses, mud plastered floors, ate tortoise, no
grains remains were found.

❖ Microliths found from this culture.

❖ Tools and Ornaments: Beads, Copper axes, bangles necklaces

❖ No plough or hoe has been found at these Chalcolithic sites

❖ Kayatha ware similar to early Harappan pottery and steatite
microbeads.
 15

❖ Out of over 40 sites of Kayatha Culture, two of them namely

Kayatha and Dangwada have been excavated.

Malwa Culture ❖ Sites of the Malwa Culture include Daimabad, Inamgaon,

Kayastha, Nagda, Vidisha, Eran, Mandsaur, and Navdatoli
(near Maheshwar).

❖ Their pottery was red or orange and painted with geometric,

floral, animal, and human designs in black. Copper and stone
were used to make tools. Beads of semi-precious stones have
been found.

❖ Findings from Navdatoli: Cereals, Fire altars, pit storage,

Human figure (Proto Rudra) in a pottery.

❖ It is preceded by the Kayatha, Ahar-Banas, and Savalda

cultures, and succeeded by the Jorwe culture and the Black
and red ware cultures.

Jorwe Culture ❖ Jorwe is a village and an archaeological site located on the

banks of the Godavari river in the Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra.

❖ Chalcolithic sites belonging to the Jorwe culture (ca. 1300-

700 BCE) have been discovered throughout Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and other states.)

❖ Basically, it was a semi-arid area with black soil.

❖ Natural Vegetation: Mainly babul and ber vegetation

❖ Crops cultivated: Barley, wheat and lentils

❖ Major Sites: Inamgaon and Daimabad, both fortified sites

 16

❖ Daimabad: One of the largest sites, had influence of Indus

Valley Civilization Seals, Bronze objects such as rhino, buffalo,
elephant, etc.

❖ Inamgaon: Crop rotation, settlement planning, artificial

irrigation, circular pit house, etc.

❖ The key features of this culture include red pottery, generally

with matt surface bearing paintings in black.

Chalcolithic Tools:

❖ Chalcolithic people used tiny stone tools and weapons.

❖ Stone blades and bladelets were significant.

❖ Flourishing stone blade industry in South India.

❖ Stone axes continued to be used.

Copper Usage in Chalcolithic Cultures (pointers):

❖ Ahar and Gilund showed a large number of copper objects.

❖ Ahar in Rajasthan used copper but no microlithic tools.

❖ Copper smelting and metallurgy practiced in Ahar (Tambavati).

❖ Gilund is considered a regional center of Ahar culture.

❖ Copper axes and chisels found in Jorwe and Chandoli (Maharashtra).

Housing & Construction:

❖ They were not acquainted with burnt bricks but knew mud bricks (sun-dried bricks).

❖ Houses were circular/ rectangular in shape with mud walls and thatched roofs.

❖ The villages were small with huts close to each other.

❖ Most of the houses were single roomed but some had two or three rooms.

❖ Houses were made of wattle and daub.

❖ Some mud-brick and stone houses are found in Ahar.

❖ Burnt bricks rarely used, but found in Gilund.

 17

Chalcolithic Arts and Crafts:

❖ Expert coppersmiths and skilled stone workers.

❖ Unearthed copper tools, weapons, and bangles.

❖ Beads are made from carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

❖ Art of spinning and weaving evident (spindle whorls discovered in Malwa).

❖ Threads made from cotton, silk, and semal silk (cotton tree) found in Maharashtra.

❖ Artisans: potters, smiths, ivory carvers, lime makers, and terracotta artisans.

❖ The production in all fields was surplus i.e. he could sell it away for luxuries.
Pottery in Chalcolithic Phase:
❖ Different types of pottery used.
❖ Black-and-red pottery prevalent from 2000 BC onwards.
❖ Wheel-thrown and occasionally painted with white linear designs.

❖ Channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand, bowls on-stand in Maharashtra, MP, Bihar.

❖ Black-and-red-ware pottery varied across regions.
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP):
❖ It has red slipped ware.
❖ It was under fire and had a wash of Ochre.
❖ It looked like a degenerate form of Harappan pottery.
❖ This was made using the potter's wheel and was painted with a white line design.
❖ Important sites: Ahichhatra, Atranjikhera.
Domestication and Agriculture:
❖ People in south-eastern Rajasthan, western MP and western Maharashtra
domesticated animals and practiced agriculture.
❖ Domesticated animals: Cows, Sheep, Goats, Pigs, Buffaloes among others.
❖ Hunting of Deer, some knowledge of Camels, Horses, Donkeys, and wild Ass.
Crop Production:

❖ Wheat, rice, and bajra were staple crops.

❖ Cultivation of pulses: lentil, black gram, green gram, grass pea.

❖ Cotton production in the Deccan region; rai, bajra, and millets also cultivated.
 18

Burial Practices and Religious Cults (Tri):

❖ Maharashtra: Burial in urns beneath house floors, no separate cemeteries.

❖ Terracotta figures of women suggest veneration of mother goddesses.

❖ Stylized bull terracottas indicate a religious cult in Malwa and Rajasthan.

❖ There were simple as well as elaborate graves. This indicated social differences in society.

❖ Food items too were discovered in the grave. This indicated belief in the afterlife.

❖ Secondary burial (fragmented burial) represented multistage funerary practice.

❖ In Maharashtra, people buried their dead in urns beneath their houses and in North-
South position and no separate cemeteries as in harappans.

❖ In South India, burials were in the East-West position.

❖ In Eastern India, fractional burial was in practice.

❖ Pots and copper objects deposited to be used by the dead in the next world.


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 02
Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
 2

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Topic to be ❖ Town planning

covered
❖ Seals of IVC

❖ Harappa

❖ Mohenjodaro

❖ Sculpture

❖ Lothal

❖ Dholavira

❖ Kalibangan

❖ Harappan craft and techniques

❖ Weighting and measurement during Harappan civilization

❖ Post-Urban phase of Harappan culture

Important Earliest Civilizations of the World

1. Indus Valley civilization on the banks of the Indus River (3300 BCE to 1300 BCE)

2. Chinese civilization on the banks of the Hwang Ho River

3. Mesopotamian civilization on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

4. Egyptian Civilization on the banks of the Nile River.

 3

Features of civilizations

❖ To fulfill their water requirements, most of the civilizations existed near the river.

❖ Many civilizations are connected through trade and commerce.

 4

Learning Edge

❖ The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea (MR sir physics)

Indus Valley Civilizations

❖ Most extensive in the world due to:

➢ More than 1500 sites

➢ Spread over more than 1.5 million sq kilometers

❖ Why is it named Harappan Civilization?

➢ It is present near Harappa village.

➢ Rigveda mentions the word “Hariuppa” in its texts.

❖ The name Indus Valley Civilization was given by British archaeologist John Marshall.

❖ The Harappan Civilization belongs to the Bronze Age. (Copper + Tin)

Phases of Indus Valley Civilization

❖ Early Harappan phase - 2900 B.C. to 2500 B.C.

❖ Middle Harappan phase- 2500 B.C. to 2000 B.C.

❖ Later Harappan phase - 2000 B.C. to 1500 B.C.

 5

Extend of IVC

❖ In the north, it is present up to Manda in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir

(Chenab River).

❖ In the south, it is present up to Daimabad in Maharashtra (Pravara River).

❖ In the east, it is present up to Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh (Hindon River).

❖ In the west, it is present up to Sutkagendor in Balochistan (Dasht River).

 6

Note:

❖ The maximum concentration of sites is found near the Ghaggar Hakra River.

❖ Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana) - the largest number of IVC sites are found here.

How do we know about IVC?

❖ We have archaeological Evidence.

❖ We do not have Literature.

❖ We have Inscriptions but they are not Deciphered yet.

Major IVC Sites along with river

Note:-Dholavira is present in desert areas (Rann of Kutch) because of the presence of Raw

materials like copper, lead, shell, and limestone. These materials were traded with

Mesopotamia.

Town Planning of Indus Valley Civilization

❖ Citadel

➢ It was present on the western side and situated on an upraised platform.

➢ It comprises of administrative building - also called as Acropolis.

➢ It was occupied by members of the ruling class.

 7

➢ It was surrounded by thick walls on 4 sides and had restricted entry.

➢ It had granaries to store surplus food.

➢ It also had public baths- this indicates the importance of ritual cleaning in

Harappan culture.

➢ Note:- No temple was found in IVC

❖ Lower Town

➢ It was situated on the eastern side of town.

➢ This was the place where common people lived.

➢ It had a systematic town planning on lines of a grid system i.e. streets and lanes

cutting across one another at right angles hence dividing the city into rectangular

blocks.

➢ Doors and windows generally faced the side lanes and rarely opened on the main

streets

➢ People lived in houses of different sizes, most of the houses were small one-roomed

size.

➢ Houses were made up of burnt bricks of similar size (almost 7 X 14 X 28 cm).

➢ Gypsum and mortar were used to burn bricks.

➢ Some walls were thick and some had staircases, suggesting 2 stories buildings.

➢ Roofs covered with wooden beams and reeds and packed clay.

➢ Most of the houses had private wells and they also had ventilated bathrooms

covered by closely packed burnt bricks.

➢ The floor had a slope to discard the flow of water, this wastewater had a provision

of advanced drainage system.

➢ Small underground drains ran from each house and were connected to large drains

running alongside the main road.

 8

➢ Drains were covered either with bricks or stone slabs which can be uncovered for

regular cleaning and maintenance.

➢ They had a market at the center.

Seals of Indus Valley Civilisation

❖ Over 2000 seals of IVC are found.

❖ Seals were used for trading purposes with Mesopotamia and Egyptian Civilization.

❖ IVC seals are found at Kish, Lagash, Nippur, and other sites of Mesopotamia.

❖ During the trade, goods were tied with rope and they placed wet clay on the opening

and stamped it using the seals. This is used to ensure non-tampering of the goods.

❖ Sometimes more than one seal impression was found on the clay.

❖ In trade, IVC people used to

➢ Export: Stones, Metals, Food grains, shells, etc.

➢ Import: Silver and Gold

Seal

❖ Each seal was generally 0.25 to 2.5 inches wide

❖ Usually square in shape, but also found in rectangular, triangular, and circular shapes.

❖ The seals were generally made of Steatite (soft stone, softness is due to talc content),

which was found in riverbeds.

❖ Sometimes Agate, Chert, Copper, Calcium, Terracotta, Silver, Gold, and Ivory were

also used to make seals instead of Steatite, but Steatite is most commonly used.

Various types of Seals in IVC

❖ Seal of Humpless Bull

➢ It is the most common seal.

➢ In Harappa, around 46% of seals are of Humpless bull, and in

Mohenjodaro these seals constitute around 60%.

 9

➢ These seals have figures of Rhinoceros, Tiger, Elephant, Buffalo, Goat, Bison, Hare,

and Crocodile.

➢ No evidence of cow figures/images on these seals was found.

➢ Some seals have a hole, which shows they were also used as locket.

Earth Mother seal

➢ It is believed that it was an auspicious seal.

➢ Nude woman, head downward with legs apart and

a plant issuing out of her vagina (prototype of

Shkambhari).

➢ Earth is shown as a fertility.

❖ Swastika seal

➢ May be associated with protective function or

auspiciousness.

❖ Pashupati seal

➢ Found in Mohenjodaro

➢ A human figure resembling Pashupati - Shiva

➢ Sitting in yogic posture (cross-legged) on a low throne.

➢ It has animal figures of Rhino, Buffalo, Two deer, Tiger,

and Elephant.

❖ Cylindrical seal

➢ One cylindrical seal of Mesopotamia is

found in Kalibangan with Indian Motif

belonging to IVC.
 10

➢ It has a woman flanked by two men, who held her with one hand and raised swords

over her hand with another hand. This may represent human sacrifice.

➢ Circular-shaped Persian Gulf Seal is also found at Lothal and Diamabad.

➢ Seals are found in greater numbers than sealings (upon which seals are stamped)

because sealings are used for temporary purposes.

Assumptions regarding seals

❖ They can be trade seals.

❖ May be used as an identification marker.

❖ May be used as a Token in buying and selling goods.

❖ Maybe the animals on these seals represent a specific clan.

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

Harappa

❖ Discovered by Daya Ram Sahani in 1921 in the Montgomery district of Punjab

(present-Sahiwal, Pakistan) on the bank of river Ravi.

Features

❖ Granaries:

➢ Two rows of 6 granaries are found on a raised platform.

➢ Usually, granaries were in the Citadel to protect it from flood.

➢ Here, these granaries were the nearest building to the Ravi River.

➢ The largest number of wheat grains are seen from

Harappa.

❖ The row of single-room barracks- might be housed by

labourers.

❖ No structure resembling temples is found but

➢ Phalls (Lingum) are made up of stone.

 11

➢ Earth mother seal- similar to Nile Goddess- Isis of Egyptian civilization.

➢ Nude male torso (Red Sandstone).

➢ Dice made up of terracotta is also found.

❖ Burial practices

➢ The most common method of burial practice was to place the body of the deceased

in an extended position with the head towards the north.

➢ In the grave food, pottery, tools, and Ornamental are kept for the afterlife.

➢ Burials are not very lavish but simply show that Harappans preferred to use wealth

rather than burning it with their dead.

❖ Cemetery

➢ R. 37, belonging to the Harappan period, and ‘H’ dating from the late/post-

Harappan period.

➢ They are generally located around the perimeter of settlements, outside the city.

➢ Traces of wooden coffins are also found.

➢ R-37 is smaller than cemetery ‘H’ and has about 200 burials.

➢ R-37 cemetery proves that individuals of high class and status in society were

treated very differently and had a separate burial site.


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 03
Indus Valley Civilization
(Part-02)
 2

Indus Valley Civilization (Part-02)

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

Features of Harappa site

 Cemetery

 Cemetery means graveyard where dead people are buried.

 Two graveyards were found in the IVC:

 R-37 and “H” cemetery

 These cemeteries are situated outside of the city.

 It is believed that in R 37 a privileged section of society was buried.

Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan):

 Mohenjodaro is also called the “Mound of the Dead.”

 It was excavated in 1922 by R.D Banerjee a.k.a

Rakhaladas Bandhopadhyay.

 It is situated on the Indus river.

 It is one of the largest sites of IVC and the largest site is

Rakhigarhi.

Features

 Town Planning

 The Great Bath is found in the middle of the citadel, on the southwest side of the
Great Bath granaries were discovered, and on the
southeast of the Great Bath, a multi-pillared
building was found.

 Staircase was found on both ends and the floor was

made up of burnt bricks.

 Floor walls were made watertight by finely fitted

bricks laid edges to edges with gypsum mortar.
(Bitumen was used for waterproofing)
 3

 Changing rooms with big wells were also found.

 The Great Bath has ritualistic significance in IVC.

 The Great Granary

 Length = 45.71 meter

 Width = 15.23 meter

 It is situated at the western edge of the citadel mound, at the

southwest corner of the great bath.

 The Great Granary is one the largest building on the

Mohenjodaro site.

 Multi-pillared Assembly Hall

 It is in the southern part of the citadel mound and it is roughly square in shape
(27 x 27 meters).

 Lower City

 The lower city had a grid system.

 It had a market at the center with openings from all four directions connected by
a main street of 9 meters wide.

 Seals

 Over 60% of seals found here are of humpless bull.

 Pashupati (Proto Shiva) Seal is also found.

 Sculpture

 Dancing Girl made up of bronze is found here.

 The name is given by John Marshall, right now it is in the

National Museum of Delhi.

 It is 10.8 cm long.

 Arms and legs are unusually long.

 No feet.

 Naked women with ornamental (Necklace Bangles)

 Right hand on the back of the hip, left hand on thigh.

 4

 It is made up of lost wax technique (Wax Statue - clay and fire are poured -
wax gets melted by holes made in clay - baked clay mound - here melted
bronze is added - clay is broken and sculpture is removed).

 The Bearded Priest-King

 17.5 cm, made up of Steatite.

 Most famous sculpture of Mohenjodaro.

 Broken off at the bottom.

 The person has a neatly groomed beard and wears a

patterned robe.

 He has a crown around his head - a sign of royalty.

 Has an armband on his hand.

 it was given to Pakistan.

 Burial Practices

 There were 3 types of burial practices found

 Complete burial (the person died and was buried).

 Fractional burial (the person died then was left in the open, after his body was
eaten by vultures he was buried i.e. only bones buried).

 Post cremation burial (only ashes of person buried.)

Lothal
 It is called the Manchester of IVC because of the
trade of cotton.

 It was discovered in Gujarat.

 It is also called a “Mound of Dead”.

 It is one of the smallest sites of the IVC.

 It was excavated by S.R. Rao

 It is on the banks of the Bhogava River (tributary of Sabarmati River).

 5

Features

 The Dockyard was found on the eastern edge of the site. It is considered as the world's
1st tidal port (shape is Trapezoid).
 The dockyard had a provision for maintaining regular water level by a sluice gate
and spill channel (to remove excess water).

Note - Mesopotamia texts mention trade with “ Meluha” and Meluha is

recognized as India.

Town planning
 The Citadel was not separated and was not fortified.
 Evidence of Rice cultivation is found.
 Circular Persian Gulf seals were found, showing the significance of trade.
 A bead factory is found at Lothal.
 Coppersmith workshop is found with 5 furnaces and paved sinks- Artisan lived here.
 Ancient chess board is also found- the world's earliest known chess board.
 A fire altar is also found - might be used for religious practices.
 Double burials were also discovered.

Dholavira
 It was discovered at Khadir Island of Rann of Kutch.
 Discovered by ASI member J.P. Joshi in 1967.
 Excavation started in 1989 and ended in 2005 under
R.S Bisht.
 In 2021, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Features
 Town Planning
 It had a unique and impressive water harvesting and management system.
 Dams were built across the 2 river streams (Mansar and Manhar streams) to
channelise water into reservoirs. These reservoirs were connected and this water
was used for various purposes such as filling wells for drinking, irrigation,
Agriculture, and bathing purposes.
 6

 They also had a rainwater harvesting system, they had large, deep water cisterns
and reservoirs for the same.

 The city had 3 parts Citadel, Middle Town, and Lower Town.

 Citadel - large building for administrative and ritualistic functions, also having
large wells.

 Lower Town

 Evidence of various types of craft activities found bead making, shell working,
Pottery, etc.

 Middle Town

 Unique in IVC.

 Bigger than lower town and citadel.

 Big houses were found with spacious rooms - well-to-do families lived here.

 Middle town was fortified the same as the citadel and both were separated by
walls.

 Bailey

 Area west to citadel.

 People working in the citadel used to live here.

 The architecture of Dholavira shows a large-scale use of sandstone - on other sites

usually burnt bricks were used.

 A Stadium is also found on this site.

 A Sign Board (Fallen Sign Board) is also found

 Inscription made with white gypsum inlaid into wooden board with 10 letters
is in the inscription, which is not deciphered yet.

 Rectangular seals without Motifs are found here

 Unicorn and other seals are also found.

 Polished pillar found- shows Dholavira people’s civil engineering skills.

 Two stone pillars in the citadel were found, it is a distinctive feature and not found
in other IVC sites.
 7

 Cemetery

 Found outside the city or fortification

 It shows people here followed megalithic burials.

Kalibangan
 It is present in Rajasthan but Kalibangan is a
Punjabi name which means “Black Bangles”.

 A lot of bangles are found at the mound surface

hence it is named Kalibangan.

 It is situated on the bank of River Ghaggar, which

is a dry bed now.

 Its excavation was done by B.B. Lal and K. Ghosh.

 Here evidence of both Harappan and Proto-

Harappan civilization is found.

 In Proto Harappan, a ploughed field is found. It is

IVC's earliest ploughed field.

 No actual plough is found but terracotta of plough is found in Banawali. This shows
that IVC people had wooden ploughs and used them to plough fields.

 Traces of rice could also be seen along with Harappa, Lothal and Rangpur.

 Town Planning

 Both the Citadel and the Lower Town were

fortified.

 Mud bricks are found in the largest number (not

burnt bricks)

 Wells are found in every house in Kalibangan.

 A unique feature of Kalibangan is that in the

southern part of the citadel, it had a raised mud-
brick platform with ashes that shows fire altars
could be associated with some religious practices.
 8

 Absence of the mother goddess figure signifies as if it was banned here.

 Cylindrical seal with Indian Motif is found here

 Cylindrical seals are common in West Asia.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:

 The Decline of the Indus Valley happened during the Later phase (2000- 1700 B.C).

 Harappan cities seem to have been deserted by 1700 B.C., as around this time only
their external trade with West Asia seems to have come to an end because Meluha
(Identified as India) ceases to be visible in the Mesopotamian records.

Reasons for Decline

 There is no unanimous agreement pertaining to the cause for the decline of IVC

 Some say it declined by natural disasters (recurring floods, earthquakes, or drying

up of rivers)

 Some say cities ended due to the Aryan invasion.

 The Aryan invasion is also supported by Rigveda, which mentions “the destruction of
forts” Aryans had better weapons and used chariots.

 The discovery of a human skeleton huddled at Mohenjo Daro indicates that the city
was invaded by foreigners.

 The pace of decline was different for different cities:

 Mohenjodaro and Dholavira gradually declined, which can be due to recurring

floods and earthquakes (which lie on a fault line).

 Kalibangan and Banawali ended all of a sudden.

 Kot Diji must be destroyed by fire.

Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilization:

 The earliest known civilization to produce cotton was the Harappan civilization, the
Greeks referred to “Sindon” as being from Sindh.

 Flood-prone Areas
 9

 In the Indus Plain, villagers planted seeds in the flood plains in November after the
flood water subsided, and harvested their wheat and barley in April just before the
next flood arrived.

 They generated enough food grains to nourish themselves, and the extras were kept
in granaries.

 Distinguishing characteristics of Harappan Agriculture methods:

 Wheat, barley, horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets,
grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard, and rice were all crops grown by the
Harappan, particularly in Mehrgarh (Lothal)

 Additionally, they made use of marine and river resources when they could.

 Animals were extensively domesticated

 Cats and dogs were domesticated in addition to cattle (including oxen, buffaloes,
goats, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, asses, and camels)

 Horses were not frequently used, the Harappan were familiar with both elephants
and rhinoceros, Harappan civilization was not horse centric.

 At Kalibangan, fields may have been ploughed with wooden ploughs as a ploughed field
has been uncovered.

 At Banawali and Bahawalpur, plough models made of terracotta have been discovered

 At Surkotada, remains of horses were found, and dogs were buried with their masters
were also found in a grave at Ropar.

Harappan Crafts and Techniques

 Pottery from Harappa

 Reflects effective mass manufacture. Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Nausharo, and

Chanhudaro all had pottery kilns.

 Pots were fired in funnel-shaped up-draft closed kilns, though it is possible that
there were open-firing kilns as well.

 A wide range of ceramics is available including black-on-red, grey, buff, and black
and red wares.
 10

 Most pots were rotated on a wheel. Fabrics can be fine or coarse, and their
thickness varies.

 Polychrome painting is rare.

 Some of the patterns can be found on pottery like

pipal leaves, fish scales, and crossing circles, dated
back to the early Harappan period.

 Human figures are uncommon and primitives.

 Perhaps grain or water were kept in big jars

 The most ornately painted pots might have been

used for ritual or belonged to wealthy individuals.

 Terracotta

 It has been found in great abundance at Harappan

sites

 Animals including bulls, buffaloes, monkeys, and

dogs are among the figures.

 Toy carts with sturdy wheels are available.

 Terracotta bracelets were among other products of

Harappan artisans.

 Precious metals and precious and semi-precious stones

 Metal things were valued since their owner buried them

in hoards to keep them safe.

 At Harappan sites, exquisitely crafted gold and silver

jewelry has been discovered, including necklaces,
bracelets, brooches pendants, and earrings

 Making beads was a significant craft as well. Precious

and semi-precious stones like agate and carnelian were used to make beads (beads
were made from steatite).
 11

Weighing and Measurements During Indus Valley Civilization

 The accuracy and standardisation of weight and measurement in Harappan culture
were exceptional.

 Weights were measured using

 A binary system for the smaller denomination.

 A decimal system for multiple of 160.

 Cherts, limestones, and steatites were used to make weight, which were typically
cubical in shape.

 A scale made of ivory was found at Lothal, an instrument made of shell that was likely
used to measure angles was found at Saurashtra, and a scale made of shell was found
at Mohenjodaro.

The Post-urban Phase of the Harappan Culture

 The Harappan culture seems to have flourished until 1900 B.C. Afterward, its urban
phase marked by systematic town planning, extensive brickwork, the art of writing,
standard weight and measures, etc. practically disappeared.

 Its stylistic homogeneity disappeared, and the post-urban Harappan stage was marked
by sharp stylistic diversity.

 Post-urban phase of Harappan culture is also known as the sub-Indus Culture.

 The late Harappan culture was primarily chalcolithic in which tolls of stone and copper
were used.

 The chalcolithic people in the later Harappan phase lived in villages subsisting on
agriculture, stock raising, hunting, and fishing.

 During the later phase of Harappan culture some exotic tools and pottery indicate the
slow percolation of new people in the Indus basin

 A few signs of insecurity and violence appeared in the last phase of Mohenjodaro
because hoards of jewellery were buried at places, and skulls were huddled together at
one place.
 12

 At several sites in Punjab and Haryana, Grey Ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally
associated with Vedic people, have been found in conjunction with some late Harappan
pottery dated around 1200 B.C. All this can be attributed to the barbarian horse-
riding people (Aryans). But new people did not come in such numbers as to completely
overwhelm the Harappan cities in Punjab and Sindh.

 Although the rig vedic aryans settled down mostly in the land of the seven rivers, in
which harappan culture once flourished, we have no archaeological evidence of any
large-scale confrontation between the mature harappan and the aryans.


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 04
Vedic Period
 2

Vedic Period

Advent of Aryans:

❖ The Aryans originated in the steppes, ranging from southern Russia to Central Asia.
❖ They spoke an Indo-European language, sharing common terms for various aspects like
flora, fauna, mountains, and rivers.
❖ Their economy was based on both pastoralism and agriculture.
❖ Horses played a crucial role, facilitating swift migration to western Asia and aiding in
warfare through the use of chariots.
Information about Aryans:
❖ The Aryans initially inhabited Central Asia and Iran for an extended period.
❖ The term "Aryan" is mentioned 36 times in the Rigveda, the earliest text of the Indo-
European language.
❖ Rigveda, divided into 10 Mandals, contains prayers for gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni,
and Mitra.
❖ Mandal II to VII represents the oldest edition, while Mandal I and X are the latest
editions.
❖ Rigveda shares similarities with the Avesta, an Iranian text, in the names of several
gods.
❖ Examples of the earliest Indo-European language include a 2200 BC inscription and
later inscriptions from Turkey, Iraq, and Syria.
 3

Earliest Examples/Specimen Of Indo-European Language Are:

❖ Inscription of 2200 BC.

❖ Hittite Inscription of Turkey (9th Century BC)

❖ Kassite Inscription of Iraq (1600 BC)

❖ Mitanni Inscription of Syria (14th Century)

*NOTE: Notably, there is no evidence of Indo-European language examples found in India.

Advent of Aryans in India:

❖ The Aryans entered India, approximately in 1500 BC.

❖ They utilised socketed axes, swords, and bronze dirks as tools.

❖ Their settlement was in the North-West-Frontier Province of Punjab, characterised by

the land of seven rivers.

❖ Arrival occurred in multiple waves.

❖ Conflicts arose with Dasas (soft) and Dasyus (harsh, potential original inhabitants).

❖ Aryans consisted of five tribes, collectively known as Panchjana.

❖ The ruling Aryan clans were Bharat and Tristu, facing opposition from 10 chiefs (5
Aryan and 5 non-Aryan tribes).

❖ The Battle of Dasarajan, involving the Bharat tribe against 10 kings, established Bharat
as the dominant tribe.

❖ The battle took place near the Parushni river (Ravi river).
 4

The Vedic Period Is Categorised Into Two Distinct Phases:

❖ Early Vedic Period or Rigvedic Period

❖ Later Vedic Period

*Note: The discovery of iron, marked by the advent of iron ploughs and axes around 1000
BC, serves as the defining demarcation between these periods.

Economy in the Rigvedic Period:

❖ Discovery of iron, specifically iron ploughs and axes around 1000 BC, facilitated forest
clearing, as mentioned in the Shatpath Brahman.

❖ The Shatpath Brahman also describes the use of fires for forest clearing.

❖ The dominant focus was on a pastoral economy centered around cows and horses,
leading to conflicts. Terms like "Gavisti" referred to the search for cows, while deities
like "Purandar/Marut/Ashwin" were associated with horses.

❖ Rigveda mentions cereals, particularly "Yava."

❖ Although agriculture was known, it wasn't extensively practiced, resulting in a lack of

surplus production. This absence hindered trade and commerce, and as a result, a
barter system prevailed with no established currency.
 5

Economy in the Later Vedic Period:

❖ The economic foundation shifted to agriculture.

❖ Rigveda ritualistically discusses ploughs, as per the Shatpath Brahman.

❖ Balram, Lord Krishna's brother, earned the title "Haldar," signifying prestige associated
with wielding a plough.

❖ The later Vedic period introduced new crops like wheat and rice, expanding the variety
of crops.

❖ Despite the absence of surplus production, trade and commerce initiated, facilitated
by the use of copper coins known as "nishka."

❖ Rice was referred to as Vrihi in Vedic texts.

❖ Art and craft, including copper-based creations, emerged. Copper was sourced from
the Khetri mines in Rajasthan.

❖ Various crafts like leatherwork, pottery (black and red ware, slipped ware, red ware),
and the mention of Painted Grey Ware indicate a diversified economic landscape.

❖ References to the sea and voyages suggest an active trade and commerce network.

Settlement In Later Vedic Period:

❖ Dwelling structures included mud-brick houses.

❖ Wooden houses, known as Wattle and Doab houses, were prevalent.

❖ The emergence of Nagara marked the incipient development of more structured houses.

RigVedic Period Polity:

❖ Tribal life in entities like Kuru, Bharat, Tristu.

❖ Hereditary tribal chief (Rajan) with limited power, focused on tribe protection.

❖ King served as the tribe's protector.

❖ Tribal assemblies: Sabha (elders), Samiti (headed by Ishan), Vidatha (social-religious),

and Gana (general assembly).

RigVedic Period Administration:

❖ Functionaries: Rajan (King), Purohit (Priest), Senanai (armed forces).

❖ No standing army, no tax collection officer; offerings were voluntary (Bali).

 6

❖ Absence of organized administration.

Later Vedic Period Polity:

❖ Transition to an agrarian economy and the establishment of settled civilizations.

❖ Emphasis on maintaining law and order.

❖ Birth of the state system exemplified by instances such as the Kuru tribe founding
Kurukshetra and the settlement of Panchala.

❖ Shifting from the Rigvedic concept of a single unit (jana) to a more regional one
(janapada).

Later Vedic Period Administration:

❖ Merging of Sabha and samiti into a parishad, with dominance from the brahmins and
kshatriyas.

❖ Disappearance of Vidatha.

❖ Lack of a surplus in the agricultural economy leading to the absence of a standing army
due to the absence of a currency system.

❖ Display of the king's authority through ceremonial events like Ashwamedha, Rajasuya,
and Vajapeya.

❖ Introduction of a taxation system.

Rigvedic Period Society:

❖ Economy: Primarily pastoral.

❖ Polity: Organized by janas.

❖ Social Structure: Tribal, clan-based society.

❖ Women's Rights: Elevated position with the right to education, swayamvar (self-choice
of a groom), and participation in tribal assemblies.

❖ Discrimination: Emerging distinctions based on occupations, discrimination based on

color, and some discrimination against dasas and dasyus.

Later Vedic Period Society:

❖ Economy: Shifted to agriculture.

❖ Polity: Organized into janapadas.

 7

❖ Social Structure: Divided into varnas: Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya
(common people in agriculture), and Shudra.

❖ Family Dynamics: Increased power for the head of the family, with primogeniture and
the ability to disinherit sons.

❖ Gotra System: Initially a cattle-keeping unit, evolved into determining descendants of

the same lineage, leading to the concept of exogamy (marriage outside the gotra).

❖ Impacts of Gotra: Diminished women's rights, treating them as objects for matrimonial
alliances and territorial expansion.

❖ Ashram System: Four life stages - Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (householder),
Vanaprastha, and Sanyasin.

Religion in Rigvedic Period:

❖ Scriptures: Vedas considered aparushay (not created by humans).

❖ Gods: Worship of war god Indra/Purandhar, Agni (god of fire), Varuna (god of water),
and Soma (god of plants) as per Rigveda.

Religion in Later Vedic Period:

❖ Brahminical Dominance: Shift towards rituals and sacrifices.

❖ Scriptures: Introduction of Yajurveda detailing rituals, Samveda with hymns for rituals,
and Atharvaveda involving tantra mantra practices.

❖ Gods: Emergence of Brahma (creator), Vishnu (saviour), and Rudra (god of animals).

❖ Yajman: Performer of yajna (sacrificial rites).


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 05
Jainism and Buddhism
 2

Jainism and Buddhism

❖ The backdrop to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism

❖ Causes behind the origin of Buddhism and Jainism
❖ Jainism
➢ Introduction
➢ Life of Mahavira
➢ Dctrines in Jainism
➢ Spread of Jainism
➢ Contribution of Jainism
❖ Buddhism
➢ Introduction
➢ Doctrines in Buddhism
➢ Features of Buddhism
➢ Spread of Buddhism
➢ Followers of Buddhism
➢ Buddhist Council
➢ Buddhist Text
➢ Decline of Buddhism

The backdrop to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism:

❖ Upon coming to the Later Vedic period, the Brahmanical religion became very rigid
and carried on large-scale sacrifices and forced people to follow tough procedures. Both
varna and caste systems became core matters of an individual's existence. This led to
the beginning of discrimination based on one’s caste. This transition and rigidness led
to the origin of new religions around the 6th century BCE.
❖ Shramana was an ancient Indian religious movement with origins in the Vedic religion.
However, it took a divergent path, rejecting Vedic Hindu ritualism and the authority
 3

of the Brahmins - the traditional priests of the Hindu religion. Shramanas were those
who practiced an ascetic, or strict and self-denying, lifestyle in pursuit of spiritual
liberation. They are commonly known as monks. Within the Shraman traditions, 62
sects evolved and among these, two became very popular those were Buddhism and
Jainism.

Causes behind the origin of Buddhism and Jainism:

❖ There was a four-fold division in the society based on Varna- Brahmins who were the
priestly class, Kshatriyas who were the warrior class, Vaishyas, who were the trading
class, and Sudras, who were the main working class.
❖ The Kshatriyas reacted overtly to the privileges the Brahmins were experiencing even
though they were the ones fighting for power. So, the reaction of the Ksatriyas against
Brahmanical domination served as one of the most important reasons behind the origin
of Buddhism and Jainism. Also, this is to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira
belonged to the Kshatriya clan.
❖ The beginning of the new agricultural economy with the invention of iron also served
as an important criterion behind the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. The area around
present-day UP and Bihar is extremely fertile.
➢ So, the plow and ax were used for widespread agricultural practices. Also, the area
was best suited for cattle grazing. Agriculture needed the support of animals to
develop at a rapid rate (tilling
of land). However, the farmers
were very dissatisfied with the
sacrificial practices of the
Brahmanical religion during
the Later Vedic period because
it was hampering their
livelihood.
❖ With the discovery of iron leading

to increased agricultural practices, there was a greater inflow of money. Various cities

developed as trading hubs where we have found evidence of punched marked coins.
Now, the trading class, Vaishyas had a lot of resources, thereby improving their
 4

economic status and wealth but they did not have social status, unlike the Brahmins

and Kshatriyas. So, they considered embracing Buddhism because of the stress on

equality and non-allegiance to the Varna system. The Manusmriti stated that it is

wrong to impose interest on the amount taken as debt. This was affecting the trading
class. So, the traders and merchants got interested in Buddhism which did not proclaim

any such regulations.

❖ The reaction against private property ownership served as an important reason for the

rise of the Shramanic religion. Owing any private property propagates the message of

the prevalence of unequal distribution of economic resources in society. It also gives the
message of the prevalence of rich and poor sections. So, it is obvious that the rich would

dominate the poor. The rich consisted of the upper class and the lower class eventually
would face discrimination.

Jainism:

❖ Introduction:

➢ The followers of Jainism known as Jains believe that it was contemporary to

Buddhism. There are 24 Tirthankars in the Jain faith and Mahavira was the 24th

Tirthankars. A Tirthankar (great teacher) is someone who helps an individual in

attaining salvation or moksha.

➢ Rishabhadeva (Ayodhya) was the first Tirthankar and was the founder of Jainism.

Ajita was the second Tirthankara. The Yajur Veda gives us references to the first

two Tirthankaras. According to Jain tradition, Parshavanath (Benaras) was the

23rd Tirthankara and finally, Vardhaman Mahavira (born in Kundagram in the

Vaishali district of Bihar) was the 24th and final Tirthankara.

➢ Mahavira was born into a royal family in 540 BC, at Licchavi which was a part of
the Vajji Sangha then (present-day Bihar). His mother Trishala was the sister of the

Licchavi chief, Chetak. His father’s name was Siddhartha. Now, the daughter of the

Licchavi chief was married off to Bimbisara of the Haryanaka dynasty based in

Magadha. This lineage shows how Mahavira had royal linkages.

 5

❖ Life of Mahavira:

➢ In the beginning he led a life of a householder, but in search of truth he abandoned

the world at the age of 30 and became an ascetic (Perfect Knowledge) in 510 BC. In
the next 12 years, he meditated, practiced austerities of various kinds, and endured
hardships.
➢ It is believed that he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter,
Priyadarshana, also called Anojja.
➢ At the age of 42, he attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge or enlightenment) in 498
BC. Through Kaivalya he conquers misery and happiness. Because of this conquest,
he is known as Mahavira or Jina.

➢ For the next 30 years, he propagated Jainism through Koshala, Magadha, Mithila,
Champa, etc. and finally at the age of 72 in 468 BC, he died at Pavapuri (modern-
day Rajgir).

❖ Doctrines of Jainism:

➢ Five vows in Jainism:

✓ Ahimsa (Non-violence): Every living being has a right to exist be it animals and
it is necessary to live with every other living being in perfect harmony and peace.

✓ Satya (Truth): Jainism insists that one should not only refrain from falsehood
but should always speak the truth, which should be wholesome and pleasant.

✓ Asteya (Non-stealing): Stealing

consists of taking another's
property without his consent, or
by unjust or immoral methods.

✓ Aparigraha (Non-possession or
not collecting more than one’s
need): Jainism believes that the
more worldly wealth a person
possesses, the more he is likely to sin to acquire and maintain the possession, and

in the long run he may be unhappy.

 6

✓ Brahmacharya (Chastity or Celibacy): It means celibacy and avoiding any form

of immoral life that involves sexual activity with body, words, or mind.
➢ The monks who follow or adhere to all the doctrines of Jainism are known as
Mahavarta and when these doctrines are followed by common men or Jains, they
are known as Anuvartas.

➢ The believers of Jainism did not condemn the varna system outrightly like Buddhism
but spoke against Brahmnaical domination.

➢ They believed in the concept of both living and non-living objects having a soul within
them. The soul in everybody gathers experience and knowledge.

➢ As per the Jainas, no rituals are required to attain liberation or salvation. For this,
they started following the Tri-Ratna in Jainism:

✓ Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana): Following the teachings of Tirthankaras.

✓ Right Faith (Samyak Darshan): Following the five vows of Jainism

✓ Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra): Preaching and following Ahimsa, Satya,

Asteya, Aparigraha, and Brahmacharya

➢ Jainism prohibited its followers from practicing agriculture.

❖ Spread of Jainism:

➢ Jainism began spreading in areas where Brahmanism was weak. Chandragupta

Maurya played a significant role in helping to spread Jainism in Karnataka and
other parts of South India.

➢ The Jain order was divided into Svetambara and Digambara. The division occurred
mainly due to famine in Magadh during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, which
compelled a group led by Bhadrabahu (Digambara) to move to South India
(Karnataka). After 12 years when they returned to North India, conflicts started
between them and those Jainas who were already settled in Magadha. The leader of
the group that stayed back at Magadha was Sthulbhadra (Svetambara).

✓ Those who follow Digambaras (sky-clad) do not wear clothes, as this sect believes
in complete nudity whereas the Svetambaras (white-clad) wear simple white
clothes.
 7

✓ The First Jaina Council was held around 300 BC, in Pataliputra (modern-day
Bihar) and was presided over by Sthulabhadra. The split within Jainism
(Digambaras and Svetambaras) happened during this Council.

➢ Jaina's monastic establishement (Basadis) was seen in Karnataka.

➢ Jainsim even received royal patronage of kings - Kharvela king, Ajatsatru, and
Chandragupta Maurya, this led to the spreading of Jainsim across Gujarat, Malwa,
Rajasthan, etc.

❖ Contribution of Jainism:

➢ First serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna system.

➢ Not Sanskrit but Prakrit, the language of common people was given importance.

➢ The religious literature was written in Ardha Magadhi.

➢ Growth of regional languages like Shravaseni (developed out of Prakrit), Marathi,

etc.

➢ Initially the Jainis did not believe in the worship of images but later imageries of
Mahavira were venerated.

➢ The earliest texts of Jainas were written in Apabhramsha.

Buddhism:

❖ Introduction:

➢ The Buddha was born into a noble family in Lumbini in 563 BCE as per historical
events and 624 BCE according to Buddhist tradition. He was called Siddhartha
Gautama in his childhood.

✓ His father was King Śuddhodana, leader of the Shakya clan in what was the
growing state of Kosala, and his mother was Queen Mahamaya.

✓ A prophecy at the time of Buddha’s birth indicated that, if the child stayed at
home, he was destined to become a world ruler. If the child left home, however,
he would become a universal spiritual leader.

• Being afraid of the prophecy, he gave all happiness to Siddhartha and married
him off early to Yaśodharā, and together they had one child: a son named
Rāhula.
 8

✓ To make sure the boy would be a great king and world ruler, his father isolated
him in his palace and he was raised by his mother's younger sister, Mahapajapati
Gotami after his mother died just seven days after his birth.
✓ But, at the age of 29, when Gautama got permission to go out of the palace
with Chenna (charioteer) and his horse Kanthaka, he left home rejected his life
of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline as he
was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and
an ascetic.
➢ At the age of 35, he attained enlightenment at what is now famously known as
Bodh Gaya under the Peepal tree across the Phalgu river. After being enlightened he
gave his first sermon in a deer park at Sarnath before his first five disciples. This
event of Buddha’s life is termed as Dharamchakraparivartana.
➢ Finally, at the age of 80 years in 483 BC, Buddha left for his heavenly abode
in Kushinagara (Kasia in Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh). This event is termed
Mahaparinibbana.
✓ The birth of Buddha is represented symbolically with a lotus, his life stage till 29
years is shown through a horse. Buddha's enlightenment is represented by the
imagery of the Bodhi tree. The first sermon he gave was represented with an
eight-spoke wheel and finally, his death is represented with a stupa.
❖ Doctrines in Buddhism:
➢ Four Noble Truths in Buddhism (Arya Satyas):
✓ Dukkha: The world is full of sorrow.
✓ Samudaya: The reason behind the worldliness of the sorrow was the never-
ending worldly desire of human beings.
✓ Nirodha: There is a solution to overcome the sorrow experienced by all. If the
desire is conquered, there will be an end to all the suffering.
✓ Marg: The solution was to follow the middle path (madhyama-pratipad),
without taking resort to extremes, and to follow the eightfold path (ashtangik
marg).
 9

➢ Eight-Fold Path of Buddha: The Fourth Noble Truth charts the method for attaining
the end of suffering, known to Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. These eight
paths are:

✓ Right Observation

✓ Right Determination

✓ Right Speech

✓ Right Action or Conduct

✓ Right means to Livelihood

✓ Right Effort

✓ Right Mental attitude (positive thinking)

✓ Right Concentration (clarity of thought)

➢ Middle Path or Madhyam Marg: Buddhism stressed on choosing a middle path in

between a life of austerity and luxury.

➢ Code of Conduct: Buddhism asks its adherents to freely accept five commandments
that will help them coexist in polite societies with mutual respect and trust. These
are:

✓ Not to kill or commit any kind of violence

✓ Not to covert others' property

✓ Not to lie
✓ Not to engage in corrupt practices (sexual misconduct) and

✓ Not to consume intoxicants.

❖ Features of Buddhism:

➢ Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God.

➢ Did not recognize the existence of soul

➢ Stood against caste system and social discrimination. So they opened sangha to all.
Although women were not allowed to enter the Sangha initially. Soldiers too could
not join the sangha without the king's prior permission. Slaves if not freed by their
masters could not join the sanghas along with debtors until their debts were cleared.

➢ They rejected the authority of Vedas.

 10

❖ Spread of Buddhism:
➢ Method adopted for preaching:
✓ Fight evil by goodness
✓ Refused to be provoked

➢ Used Pali, the language of the masses to propagate the teachings.

➢ Ideas propagated through sanghs which was an organisation for the Buddhists.
➢ Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Tibet, Central
Asia, China, and Japan are just some of the regions where the Middle Path was
widely accepted.
✓ Dipvamsha: It is a primitive, unpolished work—possibly the Sinhalese people's
earliest attempt to write in Pali, the sacred language of Buddhism.
✓ Mahavamsha: This book relates the Buddha's three mythical journeys to the
island of Sri Lanka.
➢ Bimbisara, Ajatsatru, and Ashoka from Magadha, Prasenjit from Kosala, Udayin
from Kosambi, etc, among many others played a significant in spreading Buddhism.
❖ Followers of Buddhism: Bhikshus (Buddhist monks) and Bhikshunis (Buddhist nuns)
were an integral part of the Sangha. They followed the strict rules of Buddhism.
Common people who wanted to come close to Buddhist teachings and become upasaks
and upasikas had to perform Pravrajya to become upasaks and upasikas.
➢ Once they became upasaks,
the monks would deliver
several teachings to them. At
the ceremony, the followers
had to make a declaration to
vow to Buddha, the Dharma,
and the Sangha.
➢ Now the journey to becoming
a nun or a monk from being
an upasak or an upasika was completed after performing a ceremony, known as
Upasampada.
 11

✓ In this ceremony, the yellow robe is given to the upasak, their heads are shaved
and they are made to take certain vows.
✓ Every fortnight assemblies were convened at the Sanghas where the monks were
questioned examining whether they had engaged in any sexual relation or not,
whether they had taken more than what was required, or whether they had
caused any violence or made any false claims of enlightenment.
➢ Ananda, who was a great disciple of Buddha convinced Buddha that women too
should be allowed to be a part of the Buddhist Sangha as Prajapati Gotami, mother
of Buddha wanted to become a Bhikkhuni.
❖ Buddhist Council:
➢ First Buddhist Council (483 BC): In Rajagriha, it was carried out with the support
of King Ajatasatru of the Haryanka dynasty. The council's purpose was to decide the
best way to disseminate the Buddha's teachings.
✓ Mahakassapa was the monk who chaired the initial council. The preservation of
the Buddha's teachings was the primary goal.
✓ At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and
Upali composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
➢ Second Buddhist Council: Under the auspices of King Kalasoka of the Sisunaga
dynasty, it took place in Vaishali in 383 BC.
The council was led by Sabakami.
✓ The principal aim was to deliberate on ten
principles of contention under the Vinaya
Pitaka.
✓ Here two groups that would eventually
develop into Theravada and Mahayana
split apart in the first important way.
Their goal was to keep the Buddha's
teachings true to their original meaning.
✓ The Sthaviravadins (Believers in the
Teachings of Elders) followed strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws as
originally prescribed.
 12

✓ The second faction, known as the Mahasanghika (Members of the Great

Community), took a more expansive view of the Buddha's teachings. They
followed modified disciplinary rules.

➢ Third Buddhist Council: At Pataliputra in 250 BC, it was led by Mogaliputta Tissa
and held under the patronage of Ashoka. Upagupta was a Buddhist monk and the
spiritual leader of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
✓ To rid Buddhism of corrupt practices in the Sangha and opportunistic groups
was the major goal. Here the Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed, thereby
completing the current Pali Tipitaka almost entirely.
➢ Fourth Buddhist Council: It was held at Kundalvana in Kashmir in the first century
AD (72 AD) under the patronage of King Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty. At this
council, Ashvaghosha and Vasumitra served as the leaders.

✓ Every discussion was held in Sanskrit. Sanskrit translations of Abhidhamma

Pitaka were done here from Prakrit.

✓ Buddhism was split into the Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the
Lesser Vehicle) factions as a result of this meeting.

✓ Mahayana Buddhism: It believed in the aspect of the divinity of Buddha, helping

others in attaining salvation, and the sect came to appreciate the idol worship
of Buddhism. The practice of idol worship is a characteristic feature of Mahayana
Buddhism.

✓ Hinayana Buddhism: It did not believe in the divinity of Buddha. It came to stress
individual salvation with the help of self-discipline as well as meditation.
Theravada, the dominant Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia,
has also been called the Hinayana tradition. Hinayana Buddhism condemned the
practice of idol worship.

❖ Buddhist Texts:

➢ Sutta Pitaka: It was compiled at the First Buddhist Council (483 BC). Sutta Pitaka
was first orally rehearsed by Buddha’s cousin Ananda. It contains the core teachings
of Buddhism. The four noble truths of Buddha, the 8 fold path suggested by Buddha,
and the Three Jewels of Buddha are included in the Sutta Pitaka.
 13

➢ Vinaya Pitaka: It was compiled at the First Buddhist Council (483 BC) and was

recited by Upali (one of the chief disciples of Buddha).

✓ Vinaya Pitaka consists mainly of rules governing the daily life of monks and nuns.

This contains instructions on the organization of the Sangha and how to keep

the sangha working harmoniously.

➢ Abhidhamma Pitaka: The essence of Abhidamma was formulated by the Buddha

after his Enlightenment. It contains the philosophical teachings of Buddhist

teachings.

❖ Decline of Buddhism:

➢ The tradition fell back to the rituals which it originally denounced.

➢ Cut off from the mainstream when Pali was given less preference than Sanskrit.

➢ Started the practice of idol worship.

➢ Accepting luxurious gifts

➢ The Buddhist monasteries became a center of corrupt practices.

➢ It is believed that Buddha had stated that if women would not be allowed to enter

monasteries, Buddhism would survive for 1000 years but because women were

allowed to enter the monasteries, the region declined. Thus, women were looked

down upon as objects of lust.

➢ Because of wealth stored in monasteries, it became the target of invaders.

➢ The later rulers (Pushymitra Shunga, Mihir Kula, Shashanka) started promoting

Brahmanical religion.
14
 15


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 06
Rise of Mahajanapadas
 2

Rise of Mahajanapadas

❖ Rise of the Mahajanapadas

➢ Material Advantages with the Invention of Iron
❖ List of Mahajanapadas
❖ Details on Mahajanapadas
❖ Rise of Magadha
❖ Dynastic rule in Magadha
➢ Haryanaka Dynasty
➢ Shishunaga Dynasty
➢ Nanda Dynasty
❖ Why did Magadha Turn out to be Victorious?

Rise of the Mahajanapadas:

❖ Jainism and Buddhism rose to prominence because of growing Brahmanical dominance
in the Later Vedic Age. The rise of the Mahajananpadas can be traced to the same
period of the growing popularity of both Buddhism and Jainism.
❖ The Janapadas formed during the Later Vedic Period from Jana or people. Pada means
foot. When several tribes came together, Janapadas formed. The word "janapada"
means "the land where the Jana set foot and settled down," in its literal sense.
❖ The Sabha and Samiti lost their importance, and the Vidhata was discontinued in this
period but the parishad rose to importance. Often two or more tribal groups got into
a conflict to gain control over a particular region.
➢ In that conflict, if one of the janapadas lost to their opponent, the other two merged
to form a Mahajanapadas. Thus, Mahajanapadas were ancient kingdoms or republics
that emerged in northern India and their evolution stretched from 1000 BCE to
600 BCE.
➢ The term "Mahajanapadas" literally means "great kingdoms" or "great states". These
formed out of multiple janapadas.
 3

❖ Material Advantages with the Invention of Iron:

➢ There was widespread use of Iron around 6th-century BCE. which accounted for
increased agricultural practices. With increased agricultural practices, there was a
massive increase in production and less consumption.
✓ The surplus food grains were used to help the military who were engaged in the
fight between janapadas or for trading purposes in the towns. This, transition in
the economy was noticeable.
➢ The transition from being a part of the Jana to becoming a Janapad made the tribe
or a group of tribes establish a permanent settlement there, they gained a sense of
place.
➢ Expansion to neighboring areas began. Both politically weak and economically strong
territories were eyed.
✓ All of these advantages together led to the birth of the 16 Mahajanapadas.
Anguttar Nikaya gives references that Gautama Buddha was present when all the
mahajanapadas were rising.

List of Mahajanapadas:
 4

Details on Mahajanapadas:
❖ Anga:
➢ The capital of Anga was Champa.
Anga and Magadha are separated
by River Champa. Later Magadha
defeated and conquereded the
entire territory of Anga.
➢ Presently, Munger and Bhagalpur
are comprised of Anga.
➢ Anga was known for its wealth
and commerce.
 5

❖ Magadha:
➢ Its capital was Rajgriha initially then changed to Pataliputra (shifted multiple
times). Ragriha was considered impregnable owing to its geographical advantage as
it was surrounded by 5 hills.
➢ In the present scenario, Magadha would have stretched over Patna, Gaya, and
parts of the Shahbad districts of Bihar.

➢ It was surrounded by River Champa in the East, Ganga River in the West, and Son
River in the South.

❖ Vajji or Vriji:

➢ The capital of Vajji was Vaishali.

➢ It was located to the North of the Ganga River in the Tirhut division of Bihar. Its
territory expanded to the hills of Nepal.

➢ On West Gandhak River separated Vriji from Mallas.

➢ Vriji was known as the confederation of 8 Kulas/Clans. One such clan was the
Licchavi Clan.

➢ Initially, it was a monarchy. The decline of monarchy happened and the state was
established during the time of Mahavira and Gautam Buddha.

❖ Kashi:

➢ In the beginning, the Kasi Mahajanapada was most powerful with the capital at
Varanasi. Later it had to submit to the power of Koshala.

➢ It was a major economic power in the textile industry. It is said clothes(robes) worn
by Buddha called "Kashya" were manufactured here.

❖ Kosala:

➢ The capital was established at Shravasti and was surrounded by river on 3 sides. In
the North, Kosala had the Nepal hills. In the south, the Siyandika River surrounded
it. On the eastern side, the Gandhak river was flowing and on the west, the Gomati
River traced its way.

➢ The Sakya tribe resided here. Ayodhya was also part of Kosala Mahajanapada,
which was associated with the story of Ramayana.
 6

➢ Present-day Sahet-Mahet on
the borders of Gonda and
Bahraich districts of Uttar
Pradesh was a part of Kosala.

➢ Kosala also included the tribal

republican territory of Shakyas
of Kapilavastu, with the capital
at Piprahwa in the Basti
district.
➢ Shakyas also had another
capital at Lumbini, situated 15
km from Piprahwa(Nepal). In
an Ashokan Inscription, we get
the reference that Lumbini is called the birthplace of Gautama Buddha.
❖ Mallas:
➢ It is said that Malla was ruled by 200 chiefs. Its boundary touched the northern
border of the Vajji State.
➢ It was divided into 2 parts and had 2 capitals- Pava and Kushinagara where
Gautama Buddha Passed away.
➢ It was a monarchy that later became republican.
➢ Mallas and Vriji were 2 out of the 16 Mahajanapadas where monarchical rule didn't
exist.
❖ Vatsas:
➢ On the west of Malla, lay the kingdom of Vatsa, along the banks of river Yamuna.
The capital was Kaushambi (near Allahabad).

➢ The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down
at Kaushambi. It was chosen because of its location near the confluence of the Ganga
and Yamuna.

❖ Chedi: The capital was located at Suktimati and if traced today, the Eastern
Bundelkhand region is the same as Chedi.
 7

❖ Shursena: The capital was located at Mathura. Present-day UP region made this
mahajanapada.
❖ Kuru: They had two capitals→
Indraprastha and Hastinapura
(Delhi Meerut Region). The Kuru
region today is stretched across
Western Uttar Pradesh.

❖ Panchala: They had two capitals,

Ahichchhatra and Kampilya
❖ Matsya: They had their capital at
Viratnagar. Present-day Jaipur,
Bharatpur, and Alwar regions
comprised of Matsya. These 3 Mahajanapadas of Kuru, Panchala, and Matsya are tribal
politics and they existed even before all the mahajanapadas.
❖ Kamboja: The capital was established at Rajapura and it stretched in areas near
Afghanistan.
❖ Gandhara: The capital was established at Taxila (the leading city of those times) and
the mahajanapada extended to the Kabul valley of Afghanistan.
❖ Asmaka: Present-day Maharashtra on the banks of river Godavari is the region of
Asmaka and the capital was Patana/Potali.
❖ Avanti: Avanti comprises central Malwa and adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh It is
also divided into two parts Southern capital- Mahishmati and the Northern capital-
Ujjain. Excavation shows both these towns became important from 6 B.C. onwards,
though eventually, Ujjain surpassed Mahishamati.

Rise of Magadha:
❖ Magadha was the epicenter of power in ancient India. References to Magadha have also
been found in Ramayana and Mahabharata.
➢ Similar to the Anglo-French wars where multiple wars were fought (Battle of
Thome, Ambur, and Wandiwash) to become the ultimate power holder, in
Bharatvarsha, the situation was the same in the ancient period. There were four
main contenders- Mgadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
 8

❖ Kosala was under the rule of

Prasenjit. His sister Kosala Devi
was married off to the king of
Magadha, Bimbisara. So, the
relationship between Kosala and
Magadha became peaceful owing
to the matrimonial ties. On the
other hand, Avanti defeated
Vatsa.
❖ Magadha and Avanti fought for
nearly 100 years to become the
greatest power but later they befriended each other.
➢ Chandpradyot was ruling over Avanti then. He fell ill so at the request of the King
of Avanti, the King of Magadha (Bimbisara) sent Jivika to treat him.
❖ Magadha and Avanti were located close to each other so any technological advancement
in Magadha would easily reach Avanti, so they grew simultaneously.

Dynastic rule in Magadha:

❖ The story of Magadha started with the Haryanaka dynasty, followed by the Shishunagas
and the Nandas. Brihadrata and his son Jarasandh established Magadha as a state.
Brihadratha was the founder of the Brihadratha dynasty, the earliest ruling dynasty
of Magadha.

❖ Haryanka Dynasty (544 BC- 412 BC): The rule of the Haryanka dynasty began in
544 BC. King Bhattiya was the founder of the Haryanaka dynasty. The first important
ruler of Magadha, Bimbisara (son of Bhattiya) was a patron of Buddhism, yet his lineage
is not discussed in Buddhist sources.
➢ Bimbisara (544 BCE - 492 BCE):
✓ Bimbisara’s capital was Rajagriha or Girivraja. He is described as Seniya, i.e.,
the one ‘with an army’. It is also to be noted that Bimbisara was a
contemporary of Buddha.
✓ Marital Relations: All of his matrimonial relations had political dimensions to
them as they strengthened Magadha’s control over the north of India:
 9

• To strengthen the political condition of Magadha, dynastic matrimonial

alliances were promoted between Bimbisara and the daughter of the
contemporary ruler of Koshala (King Prasenjit’s daughter Koshaladevi).
After marrying the princess of Kosala, Bimbisara got Kasi as the dowry.

• His second wife, Chellena, was a Licchavi princess from Vajji. It is from this
wife that Ajatsatru was born.
• His third wife was the princess of Madra (Punjab).
✓ After gaining influence over these regions, Bimbisara started attacking the
eastern part of ancient Bharat, the first being Anga because the king of Anga
had defeated Bimbisara’s father (so it was sort of revenge). Bimbisara was the
first ruler to have had a standing army.

✓ Bimbisara sent his physician Jivaka to Ujjain to win the friendship of Pradyota,
the king of Avanti.
➢ Ajatshatru (492 BCE - 460 BCE): He was a very ruthless king and believed in an
aggressive expansionist policy. After 52 years of Bimbisara’s rule, Ajatsatru who
was the son of Licchavi princess Chellena, killed his father- Bimbisara, and
ascended to the throne.
✓ Angered by the death of her husband, Koshala’s brother (or father) waged a
war with Ajatsatru demanding the return of Kasi (dowry received by
Bimbisara).
✓ Prasenjit then captured Kasi which made Ajatsatru attack the former.
Ajatsatru not only won back Kasi but also took control over parts of Koshala.
He even attacked Licchavi (with no regard for relationships) and Avanti because
they were the allies of Kosala. Rajgriha was fortified by him.
✓ Both, Bimbisara and Ajatshatru were contemporaries of the Buddha.
✓ Ajatsatru developed two important war weapons: A wooden catapult
(Mahashilakantaka) and a Rathmushal (Raths attached with blades).
➢ Udayin or Udaybhadra(460 BC – 444 BC): As per the Mahavamsa, Ajatashatru’s
son Udayabhadra (Udayin) succeeded Ajatashatru and ruled for the next sixteen
years. He consolidated the entire empire and made Pataliputra an important
center.
 10

✓ He built a fort at the confluence of River Son and Ganga and named it
Pataliputra. He then shifted the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
✓ He was considered to be the last powerful ruler of the Haryanka dynasty
whereas, the last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty, Nagadasaka was overthrown
by his Senapati/Amatya (i.e., viceroy, at Banaras) Shishunaga supported by
popular frustration against Haryanka’s quick parricidal succession.
❖ Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BCE - 345 BCE):
➢ This period saw the end of the rivalry between Mgadha and Avanti, thus bringing
an end to the Pradyota dynasty. During the reign of Shishunagas, Magadha
annexed Avanti (Ujjain) and many other janapadas into the fold of the Magadha
empire.

✓ Shishunaga shifted his capital to Vaishali which his son Kalashoka shifted back
to Pataliputra.
✓ Kalashoka hosted the 2nd Buddhist Council in 383 BC at Vaishali. After his
death, within 2 years, kings were dethroned ten times.
➢ Mahanandin was the last Shishunaga ruler who did not have a lot of records. His
shudra wife gave birth to Mahapadma Nanda who was the father of Dhanananda.
❖ Nanda Dynasty (343 BCE - 321 BCE): Mahapadma Nanda, who was from a ‘shudra’
lineage, laid the foundation of the
Nanda dynasty in Magadha. He was
the first non-Kshatriya raja so, he was
also called the first historical emperor
of India.
➢ Mahapadma Nanda (366-329
BC), being a great conqueror,
controlled the entire area between
the river Beas in the west and the
Bay of Bengal in the east. Puranas
refer to him as “destroyer of all
Kshatriyas” i.e., Sarvaksatrantaka
and Ekarat (sole suzerain).
 11

✓ He conquered both Kosala and Kalinga and brought the image of Jina as the
trophy symbolizing his victory. This event is mentioned in the Hathigumpha
inscription.
➢ Nandas proved to be the greatest
ruler of the Magadha empire and
Dhanananda (329-321 BC) was the
last of the Nanda rulers.
✓ He was a contemporary of
Alexander of Macedon. However,
he recklessly taxed his people and
injustice prevailed in his empire.
✓ Although he kept the empire intact and possessed a huge army along with a
huge amount of wealth, he did not do any expansion.

Alexander’s Invasion:
❖ After defeating the Persian empire in the 4th century BC, Alexander invaded the
Indus valley in 326 B.C. through the Khyber Pass. To enter India, he crossed the
Hindukush mountain along with his army.
➢ After crossing the Indus, Alexander faced Ambhiraj of Taxila, who was situated
between the rivers of Indus and Jhelum.
➢ Now after crossing Jhelum easily because of Ambhiraj surrendering, he had to face
Porus who was the ruler of a kingdom between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers.
➢ Alexander proceeded to a Battle of Hydaspes against Porus. Despite Porus’ defeat,
Alexander was moved by his bravery. He thus gave him back his kingdom and made
him the governor.
➢ After crossing Chenab, he fought across several tribes but upon coming near Beas,
the army feared the Ghaj army of Dhanananda from the Nanda empire of Magadha.
This is where Alexander retreats from India.
 12

➢ Most defeated states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority,
which were eventually lost to Mauryan rulers.
➢ Seleucus Nikator was one of three Greek governors who participated in the conquest
of the Persian empire and assumed the role of governor of the Northwestern part
of India, the religion captured by Alexandar.

Why did Magadha turn out to be Victorious?

❖ Geographical Factors: Rajagriha, Magadha's capital, was encircled by a set of five hills
that served as a natural barrier. Any
foreign state planning to attack Magadha
would have to cross the hilly terrain to
finally enter the inner circle of the State.
➢ Strategic Location of Pataliputra: It
was located at the confluence of the
Ganga, Gandak, and Son, making the
terrain fertile, and leading to an
agricultural surplus.
➢ The forests that surrounded
Magadha provided enough timber
which was used in defense, household,
and other requirements.
❖ Economic Reasons: The region was rich in
iron ore which helped in developing good
quality iron tools that were then used for agricultural production which was already in
surplus because of the richness of the soil.
➢ Impact of the Discovery: It helped in the development of a thriving economy with
an increased source of revenue through the collection of taxes as trade and
commerce were simplified because of the presence of three rivers. Avanti forged
the iron technology developed in Magadha and gave equal fight to Magadha.
 13

➢ Imposition of Taxes: Princes of

Magadha benefitted from the
taxes collected. On account of
trade and commerce in Northeast
India, the princes could levy tolls
on the sale of commodities and
accumulate wealth to pay and
maintain their army.
❖ Societal Reasons: The development of
Buddhism and Jainism sparked off
changes. Also, Brahmanical religion
was not given much importance.
Thus, Magadh was not yet vedicised in actual terms.
➢ The ruler mostly made progressive and liberal customs. Magadha was inhabited by
the Kiratas and Magadhas, who were held in low esteem by the orthodox
Brahmanas.
➢ Magadha however underwent a happy ethnic admixture with the coming of the
Vedic people. It demonstrated a greater enthusiasm for expansion than the
kingdoms that had been brought under the Vedic influence earlier.
❖ Military Reasons: They had a large standing army along with a huge trained elephant
army. It was Magadha that first used elephants on a large scale in its wars against its
neighbors. The army even scared off Alexander’s battalion and they were forced to
retreat.
❖ Political Factors: Rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadmananda, Chandragupta
Maurya, and Ashoka were the most capable and aspirational leaders of Magadha.
Additionally, the major rulers put in place a productive administrative structure.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 07
Iranian, Macedonian Invasion,
Mauryan Empire, and its
Administration
 2

Iranian, Macedonian Invasion, Mauryan Empire, and its Administration

Iranian and Macedonian Invasion:

In mid-6th century B.C. Map, we can see three empires
❖ Persis
❖ Babylon
❖ Media

Cyrus - I (558 BC - 530 BC):

❖ Cyrus - I was also called "Cyrus the Great".
❖ He was the greatest conqueror of the Archimedean Empire
❖ He conquered Persis, Babylon, and Media.
❖ After the conquest, the boundary of his empire reached till Northwestern part of India.
❖ He wanted to conquer India too, the reasons for this are
➢ The region is politically unstable and fragmented: Several small principalities like
Gandhara, Kamboja, and Madra, used to fight with one another and there was no
kingdom like Magadha to unify them politically
➢ Wealthy Region
➢ Easy access through Hindu Kush Passes

❖ Cyrus - I was the 1st conqueror who led an expedition and entered India
❖ Along with Gandhara and Kamboja, he captured all Indian tribes to the west of river
Indus, they submitted to him and paid him tribute
❖ Indus was known as Sindhu, as per Rigveda.
❖ Persians started calling the people living in the Indian subcontinent around and beyond
Sindhu as "Hindus".

Darius - I (522 BC - 486 BC):

❖ In 518 B.C. Darius -I, expanded eastwards.
❖ He captured Punjab and Sindh.
❖ To rule his empire effectively he divided his empire into 28 satrapies. He appointed
governors to administer these regions.
❖ India's northwestern region became the 20th Satrapy (territory).
 3

❖ This territory used to give 1/3rd of the total revenue to the Archimedean Empire due
to its population and fertility.
❖ Magadha is also expanding at the same time.

Xerxes (465 BC - 456 BC):

❖ Xerxes used his Indian province to strengthen his position.

❖ He deployed Indian Infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight its opponents but he was
defeated in Greece.

❖ After this defeat, Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India.

❖ But the Northwest region was still under the Persian empire, till the invasion of
Alexander.

❖ In between these two, trade, revenue, and soldiers movement took place

❖ Evidence is because a lot of Persian coins are found in this region dating back to this
period

Impact of Persian Invasion:

❖ A form of Iranian writing Kharosthi Script, became popular in Northwest India

❖ Kharosthi script is Written Right to Left.

❖ Northwestern Ashokan Inscriptions were written in this script.

❖ Many Iranian coins were discovered in the Northwest region indicating the high trade
and commerce between India and the Archimedean Empire.

❖ Many Iranian terms were used in India. The Indian term ‘Lipi’ has been derived from
the Iranian term ‘Dipi’.

❖ Greeks acquired knowledge about India’s wealth through Iranian texts.

❖ It can be particularly seen in the Ashoka's Monolithic structures.

❖ Mauryan Art and sculpture was influenced by it.

❖ The very idea of issuing edicts by Ashoka was from Darius Rock Inscriptions.

Alexander the Great:

❖ He was born in 356 B.C.

❖ He was the prince of Macedonia, one of many small states of Greece.

 4

Timeline of Alexander:
❖ 356 BC: Birth
❖ 336 BC: He became the King of Macedonia
❖ 334 BC: He united Greece. When Alexander united Greece the biggest challenge was
the Persian empire ruled by Darius - III. In 330 B.C. Alexander defeated Darius - III.
He conquered entire Persia and established the Macedonian Empire in 8 years.

❖ 327 BC: Alexander marched to India through Khyber Pass and reached Hindukush.

❖ 326 BC: Retreat

❖ 323 BC: Death

Reasons that attracted Alexander towards India:

❖ The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus (Father of History) about the fabulous
wealth of India

❖ According to Geographical knowledge of the period, India's eastern end was the eastern
boundary of the world. The Caspian Sea was extended to the east of India.

❖ Alexander was inspired by the mythical exploits.

❖ The political condition of disunity in northwest India was proved as the main reason
for Alexander to enter.

❖ Alexander thought by conquering India, he would conquer the eastern boundary of the
world or the entire world itself.

❖ In 327 B.C., Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush mountains through the Khyber Pass.
Here Alexander fought with the tribes for 10 months.

❖ Taxila ruler Ambhi, submitted to Alexander without any fight.

❖ Alexander thought it would be the same with Porus, and sent a message to Porus to
receive him after he crossed Jhelum and submit himself but Porus chose war.

❖ In 326 B.C., Alexander and Porus fought the Battle of Hydaspes, but Porus was
defeated.

❖ Alexander was impressed by his courage and heroism. He treated Porus generously and
reinstated him on the throne. Now Porus became a Governor of Alexander.
 5

❖ After defeating Porus, Alexander marched forward. In between Chenab, Ravi, and Beas,
there were local tribes. Alexander defeated them and he reached Beas. In Front of Beas
is the Magadha Empire. But by then, Alexander's army was completely drained out
due to continuous wars for the last 10 years

➢ India's hot weather didn't suit them, and they fell sick
➢ They were also homesick because they were continuously fighting for 10 years.
➢ Iranian soldiers got the taste of Indian soldiers fighting on river banks.
➢ They also heard of the news that the army of Dhana Nanda was mightier than their
army.
❖ Alexander's army revolted and made it clear that they did not want to march further.
Alexander failed to convince his soldiers and therefore decided to return to Babylon.
But before going back, he appointed Governors at the territories he won.
❖ Governors of Alexander between,
➢ Indus and Jehlum - Ambhi

➢ Jhelum and Chenab - Porus

❖ Areas west of Punjab were divided into provinces and he appointed Selucus Nicator as
governor.
❖ Even while going back local tribes attacked his army and he suffered losses. In 323 B.C.
he fell sick and died.
Effect of Alexander’s Invasion:
❖ Ancient Europe and Ancient India came in contact.
❖ Through the invasion of Alexander, Mauryans gained knowledge from Alexander
regarding war and tactics.
❖ Territories of India were added to the territories of Alexander.

❖ A total of 4 routes (Land and Sea) were established for trade between India and Greece.
❖ The establishment of Greek settlements like Alexandria (in Kabul) and Boukephala (on
the bank of river Jhelum) took place in India.
❖ The Social and economic status of those days were known by the historians of Alexander.
The social status of women during the Alexander invasion was so weak that even poor
parents used to sell their daughters during this time.
 6

Dhana Nanda (329 B.C. - 321 B.C.):

❖ Dhana Nanda assumed a lot of wealth, but taxation was still higher in his territory
❖ He used to insult Philosophers.
❖ One such philosopher was Chanakya, a Professor of Political Science and Economics at
the University of Taxila.
❖ Chanakya is also called Indian Machiavelli.

❖ Traditionally, Chanakya or Vishnugupta is considered the author of Arthashastra. He

is also known as Kautilya. Arthashastra of Kautilya was rediscovered by Shyama Shastri
in 1905.

❖ Chanakya was thrown out of the court of Dhana Nanda.

❖ Chanakya took an oath that he would not tie his tuft of hair until he uprooted the
whole Nanda dynasty and established Dharma in Magadha

❖ While going back to Taxila from Magadha he met a kid. He trained this kid at the
University of Taxila and after 8 years this kid was ready. This kid was Chandra Gupta
Maurya.

❖ He made an army with local tribes, this was the same time of Alexander's Retreat
(326 B.C.).

❖ His first attempt to displace Nandas was brutally crushed, and they had to flee in
disguise

❖ Later, he realized he had to start from the outskirts and not attack directly on
Pataliputra. Taxila was best for them.

❖ Here they allied with a local king Parvartak (Historians believe he is Porus). With the
help of his alliance, Chandra Gupta Maurya gradually gained control over Punjab.

❖ He swept eastwards, conquering one territory after another, until he defeated Dhana
Nanda

❖ In 321 B.C. with the help of Chanakya, Chandra Gupta Maurya became the ruler of
Magadha and started the Mauryan Empire.

❖ After Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara took the throne and after him, Ashoka came
to power.
 7

❖ Mauryans at their peak established an empire that extended over almost the entire
subcontinent and beyond it in the Northwestern region.
❖ The foundation of the Mauryan empire opens a new era in the history of India. For the
first time in India, Political Unity of India was achieved.

Origin of Chandragupta Maurya:

❖ According to Brahmanical tradition Chandragupta Maurya was born of Pura (Shudra

women in the court of Dhananand).

❖ Buddhist text mentions that he was a Kshatriya of Mauryas of Gorakhpur adjoining

Nepalese Terai.

❖ Jain sources mention that he was from a high caste and the son of a village headman's
daughter.

Literary Sources about Chandragupta Maurya:

❖ Greek writer Justin mentions that he captured the whole of India with a huge army
of 6,00,000 soldiers.

❖ The machinations of Chanakya against Chandragupta's enemies are described in detail

in the Mudrarakshasa, a drama written by Vishakadatta in the 9th century.

❖ He was known as Sandrokottas by the Greeks.

Achievements of Chandra Gupta Maurya (324 B.C. - 297 B.C.):

❖ In 321 B.C. he conquered the Nanda Dynasty.

❖ In the next 5 years In 317 B.C. he conquered the Northwestern region of India

❖ Now on the west, his neighbor was Selucus Nicator, Governor of Alexander who ruled
over the west of Indus. In 305 B.C. He defeated Selucus Nicator and Signed a treaty.
By the treaty, Selucus ceded the Trans Indus territory to the Mauryan Empire. He gave
his daughter in marriage to Chandra Gupta Maurya. In exchange, Chandra Gupta
Maurya offered him 500 Elephants. Now relations became peaceful

❖ In 297 B.C. 6th Jain Theran Badrabahu came to the court of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
He predicted a serious famine in the Ganga Valley, which would last for 12 years. The
reason was Chandra Gupta Maurya, his killings, and deaths in Mauryan Expansion.
Chandragupta wanted replenishment for his sins.
 8

➢ He gave up his throne and became a Jaina.

➢ He left for the South along with Badrabahu and his followers. They went to
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.
❖ The spread of Jainism in the south is attributed to Chandra Gupta Maurya. He practiced
Sallekhana (Fast till death), a Jain tradition, and died. Before leaving his empire, he
made his son Bindusara as emperor.
Imperial Organisation and Administration of Mauryan Empire:
❖ The Mauryans established a very elaborative administrative framework
❖ Megasthenes, a Greek envoy under Seleucus, resided in Pataliputra and recorded the
governance of both the city and the Maurya empire. Although Megasthenes' full account
is missing, excerpts have been conserved in later Greek writings known as "Indika".
Indika provides insights into the Mauryan administration, society, and eco nomy.

❖ Capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra.

❖ Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Arthashastra mentions that the happiness of the king lies in
the happiness of his citizens. However, there is no mention of how much the king
fulfilled these norms.

❖ Account of Megasthenes: The accounts of Megasthenes were compiled by the Greek

writers in a book called Indica. According to Megasthenes, the king was assisted by a
council of ministers. But there is no mention of whether the advice of the ministers
was binding on the king or not.
 9

❖ Thus we can conclude that Chandragupta Maurya was an autocrat as he concentrated

all his power in his hands.
❖ To rule the vast territory the ruler was assisted by his Council of Ministers called Mantri
Parishad

❖ Under Mantri Parishad, there were Amatyas (High Ranking Officials/Civil Servants)

❖ The empire was divided into 5 small provinces and the Prince was the head of all
provinces. The provinces were further divided into smaller provinces. This setup was
followed in both the rural and urban areas.

❖ Mantri Parishad of Chandragupta Maurya consists of:

➢ Yuvraja (Crown Prince)

➢ Purohit (Priest)
➢ Senapati (Commander)

➢ Mantri (Ministers)

❖ Chandragupta Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces:

➢ Uttarapath(North) - Taxila

➢ Dakshinpath (South) - Suvarnagiri

➢ Avantirath (West)- Ujjain

➢ Kalinga (East) - Kosala

➢ Magadh (Central)- Pataliputra

❖ Ashokan edicts mention the provinces of the Empire.

❖ The army of Chandragupta consists of 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalaries, 8000
chariots, and 9000 elephants.

Economy under Chandragupta Maurya:

❖ The Economy was state-controlled under the Chandragupta Maurya era.

❖ The state bought new land under cultivation with the help of cultivators and Shudra
laborers.

❖ The virgin land brought handsome revenue to the state.

❖ Tolls were also levied on commodities bought into town for sale. This brought handsome
revenue to the state exchequer.
 10

❖ Taxes on Agriculture Produce: 1/4th tax was levied on more fertile land and 1/6th
tax was levied on less fertile land.
❖ If an irrigation facility was taken from the government, then a water tax was levied.
❖ Overall, the Mauryan state had an effective administration system and sound financial
base.
❖ State maintained a monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, and manufacture of arms.
Municipal Administration:

❖ Municipal administration was headed by Nagarika.

❖ Municipal commission had 6 committees and each committee had 6 members:
➢ Industries,
➢ Foreigners
➢ Registration of births and deaths
➢ Manufacture and sale of goods

➢ Trade

➢ Collection of taxes

Bindusara (297 B.C. - 272 B.C.):

❖ He was also called Amitra Chates (Greek Word). He expanded Magadh southwards.

❖ It is said Mauryan empire was extended up to Mysore.

❖ Sangam literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the south.

❖ Kalinga was still not a part of the Mauryan empire.

❖ It was expanded far south leaving Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

❖ In 281 B.C. - Selucus Nicator Son Antiochus became the ruler. He maintained amicable
relations with the Greeks.

❖ Bindusara sent a letter to him to send sweet wine, Dried figs, and a Sophist. Sweet
wine and Dried Figs were sent, but sending a Sophist was unlawful as per Greek
Tradition. Hence, it was denied.
❖ Antiochus also sent a Greek Ambassador, Deimachus to the court of Bindusara.

❖ After Bindusara (297 B.C.- 272 B.C.) his son Ashoka (268 B.C. 232 B.C.) came to
power.
 11

Ashoka (268 B.C. 232 B.C.):

❖ In 272B.C.- 268 B.C. Ashoka won the War of Succession.
❖ Ceylonese Chronicles, Buddhist texts of Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa states that Ashoka
captured power after killing his 99 brothers including the elder brother Susima. His
younger brother Tissa was spared. Since this statement is a legend this might be wrong.

❖ Ashoka got the entire territory under Bindusara as an inheritance. The northwestern
frontier was the same as demarcated by Chandra Gupta Maurya

❖ As per Rajtarangini, Kashmir was also part of the Mauryan Empire.

❖ On the south his neighbors are Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

❖ Ashokan Inscriptions mention these southernmost kingdoms as border states. Kalinga

is not a part of it. Capturing Kalinga was the most important event in Ashoka's reign.
He captured Kalinga in 260 В.С. This led to a large-scale massacre. 1,00,000 people
were killed, several lakhs perished, and 1,50,000 were taken as war prisoners. This
moved Ashoka.

❖ After this war Ashoka accepted Buddhism. Some scholars believe this conversion is
gradual and not instant

Ashoka After Adopting Buddhism:

❖ Ashoka gave up hunting and became a believer in non-violence.

❖ He abandoned his policy of Physical occupation and expansion.

❖ He visited places associated with Buddha (Dhamma Yatra).

❖ He sent missions to other countries in order to spread Buddhism.

❖ The Third Buddhist Council was held by Ashoka.

❖ He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka.

❖ He developed his policy of Dhamma.

Ashoka's Policy of Dhamma:

Ashoka’s Dhamma Policies were not the same as Buddhism. They were not religious
Principles. Rather, it was a way of life, a Code of Conduct, and a set of principles to be
adopted and practiced by people at large. Ashoka’s Policy of Dhamma included the
following principles:
 12

❖ Service to father and mother, practice of Ahimsa teachers and relatives, Love of truth,
and good treatment towards others. Kandahar inscriptions talk about the people who
gave up hunting animals.
❖ Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and
meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
❖ Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare.
❖ Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government officials.
❖ Consideration and non-violence towards animals.
❖ Tolerance among religious sects.
❖ Conquest through Dhamma instead of War (Dhammaghosa - Cultural Conquest rather
than Bherighosa - Physical Conquest).
❖ Ashoka no longer treated foreign dominions as legitimate areas for military conquests.
❖ Ashoka's teachings were thus intended to maintain the existing social order on the basis
of tolerance. He does not seem to have preached any sectarian/ Buddhist faith.
❖ Ashoka asked tribal people to follow the policy of Dharma. He threatened them with
violence if anyone violated the rules of established social order and righteousness
(Dhamma).
❖ Within the empire he appointed a class of officers known as rajukas, who are vested
with the authority to reward or punish people. Rajukas were responsible for the
administration of justice in his Empire.
❖ He repeatedly asked his officials to tell the subjects that the king looked upon them as
his children. As agents of the king, officials are asked to take care of people.
❖ Ashoka appointed Dhammamahamatras to propagate Dharma among various social
groups including women.
❖ This policy bore fruits to Ashoka.
➢ The Kandahar Inscription talks about how hunters and fishermen gave up killing
animals and possibly took a settled agricultural life.
❖ Ashoka wanted all people and officials in his kingdom to follow these principles of
Dhamma.
❖ He wrote them on huge Stones and Made Inscriptions called Rock Edicts.
❖ The History of Ashoka is reconstructed on the basis of his inscriptions.
 13

Ashoka's Place in History:

❖ He was a great missionary ruler in the history of the ancient world.
❖ He brought about the political unification of the country.
➢ He further bounded it by one Dhamma, one language and practically One Script -
Brahmi Script, which was used in most of his inscriptions.
❖ He followed a tolerant religious policy.
➢ He didn't try to foist his Buddhist faith on his subjects.
➢ On the other hand he made gifts to non-Buddhist and even anti-Buddha Sects.
❖ Most Importantly Ashoka is the most important in the history of the world due to his
policy of Peace, non-aggression, and cultural conquest.
❖ He had no such policy in early Indian history as a model to follow.
❖ Although Kautilya advised the king to be always intent on Physical conquest, Ashoka
just did the reverse.
❖ He asked his successors to give up the policy of aggression and conquest, which was
followed by Magadhan princes till the war of Kalinga.
❖ Although he possessed huge resources and a large army, he never waged a war after
the Kalinga war
❖ In this sense Ashoka is far ahead of his day and generation

❖ Ashoka's policy did not make any lasting impression on his viceroys and vassals, who
declared themselves as independent after the retirement of Ashoka in 232 В.С.
Ashokan Inscriptions:
❖ These inscriptions are numbered 39 and are divided into:
➢ Major Rock Edicts
➢ Minor Rock Edicts
➢ Separate Rock Edicts

➢ Major Pillar Edicts

➢ Minor Pillar Edicts
❖ The name of Ashoka appears only in the copies of Minor Rock Edict - I, found at 3
places of Karnataka and at one in Madhya Pradesh.
❖ The name of Ashoka also appears in the Maski inscription.
 14

❖ Other inscriptions mention him as Devanampiya Piyadasi (Dear to Gods) or

Priyadarshini.
❖ He talks to his people through his inscriptions.
❖ The Ashokan inscriptions are found in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
❖ Altogether they appear at 47 places and their total versions number 182.
❖ Language used in Inscriptions:
➢ Composed in Prakrit, they were written in Brahmi Script in greater part.
➢ In the Northwestern part they appeared in Aramaic language and Kharosthi Script.
➢ In Afghanistan they were written in both Aramaic and Greek Scripts and languages.
➢ A sculpture of King Ashoka with an inscription in Brahmi writing that reads Ranyo
Ashoka (King Ashoka) can be found near Kanaganahalli in Karnataka. Ranyo Ashoka
is mentioned in the Kanaganahalli inscription.
❖ Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to people through his inscriptions
which carry royal orders.
Major Rock Edicts:
❖ There are 14 major rock edicts. The 13th Major Rock Edict was the largest.
❖ They are deciphered by James Princep.
Minor Rock Edicts:
❖ Total = 3. They are available throughout the subcontinent.
❖ Most densely available in Karnataka.
❖ Most Important are found at 4 places - Maski, Udegolam, Nittur, and Gujjara. They
contain the personal name of King Ashoka.

Note:
❖ Major Rock Edicts - Huge Stones
❖ Minor Rock Edicts- Small Stones
❖ Schism Edicts: Here Ashoka warns members of the order/Buddhist sangha against
causing any division in ranks
❖ Sanchi Pillar Inscription: Schism edicts found in front of minor pillar edict opposite
to Sanchi, Sarnath, and Allahabad.
 15

Pillar Edicts:
❖ The pillars erected by Ashoka furnish the finest specimen of the Mauryan art.
❖ It has a Capital called Motif of Animal on a circular or rectangular base abacus.
❖ It consists of Abacus.
❖ Monolithic Shaft is Made up of a single piece of stone and it is Mostly made up of
Chunar Sandstone, whose sheen never dies.
❖ The average height of pillar edict is 40 feet.
❖ Languages used are Prakrit in Brahmi Script.
❖ Most of them are in the northern part of India.
❖ Total = 6
➢ 3 in Bihar
➢ Other 3 in Haryana (Champaran), Meerut, and Allahabad
Minor Pillar Edicts:
❖ These contain inscriptions recording their dedication, as well as the Schism Edicts. They
were inscribed around the 13th year of Ashoka's reign.
❖ They are found at
➢ Kandahar
➢ Sankissa
➢ Sanchi
➢ Vaishali
➢ Lumbini
➢ Nigali Sagar
➢ Sarnath
➢ Amaravati
Sarnath Pillar:
❖ Abacus consists of a Bull, Elephant, Horse, and Lion separated by wheels.
❖ Motif consists of 4 Lions.
❖ The Indian nation-state emblem is adopted from here.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 08
Mauryan Society and Central
Asian Contacts
 2

Mauryan Society and Central Asian Contacts

❖ Military administration under the Mauryans

❖ Revenue administration
❖ Judicial Administration under the Mauryans
❖ Significance of Muaryan Empire
❖ What happened post-Ashoka’s death?
❖ Reasons behind the Decline of the Mauryan Empire
❖ A Brief Introduction to the Beginning of the Post-Mauryan Empire
❖ About the Shunga Empire

Military administration under the Mauryans:

❖ The Mauryan Empire had separate military
departments. As per the records of Roman author
Pliny, the Mauryan empire had infantry, cavalry,
elephants, chariots, a navy, a transport, and a
support wing.
❖ Each wing was headed by the Adhyaksha who had
to report to the Senapati.
❖ As per Megasthenes’ accounts, each wing had five board members who were responsible
for administering every wing at the grassroots level.

Revenue Administration:
❖ The state brought new land under cultivation with the help of cultivators and Sudras
laborers. The virgin land was a source of handsome revenue for the state.
❖ Through the reading of the records, it seems that the tax collected remained between
1/4th in the fertile land or 1/6th of the less fertile in terms of the produce.
➢ The revenue was collected by the Samartha or high officials who were responsible
for the collection of taxes. Even a collection of water tax was deployed.
 3

➢ Tolls were also levied on the commodities brought down for sale and they were
collected at the gateways.
➢ The state enjoyed a monopoly in mining, selling liquor, manufacture of arms, etc.
This brought about a handsome revenue to the state exchequer.
Judicial Administration under the Mauryans:
❖ There were both Supreme and subordinate courts. The head of the Supreme Court was
known as Dharmaadhikarins.
❖ The subordinate courts were either civil or criminal. There were two kinds of law courts
during the Mauryan period.
❖ Dharmasthiya, the court of civil law, and Kantakasodhana, the court of criminal law.
❖ There were various courts in towns of the Mauryan Empire. However, three judges and
three commissioners led the cases in these courts.

Significance of Muaryan Empire:

State Control:
❖ Behaviour of the King: The Brahmanical texts or the Dharmashastras state that the

king obeys and functions according to the laws laid down

in these texts.

➢ Royal orders are superior to other orders as was

asserted by Ashoka in his inscriptions.

➢ Kautilya advises that the king should promulgate

Dharma when social order based on the varna and

ashrama system presides. He addresses the king as

Dharampravartaka or the promulgator of social order.

➢ Assertion of royal absolutism was a natural

culmination of the policy of military conquest adopted by the princes of Magadha.

Magadha possessed the requisite power of the sword to enforce overall control.

❖ Bureaucracy: There was a defined bureaucratic order. To control all spheres of life the

state needed a vast bureaucracy. This administrative mechanism is backed by a strong

Spy System.
 4

➢ Various spies kept an eye on foreigners and numerous officers. They also helped in
the collection of state revenue from people.
➢ Other important functionaries of administration
are called (Tirthas). It seems that most of them
are paid in cash.
✓ Tirthas was a group that consisted of the
highest functionaries who were Ministers
(Mantrin), High Priest (Purohita), Commander-in-chief (Senapati), and Crown
Price(Yuvaraja).
• They are paid generously (as much as 48000 Panas), while the lowest
officers are paid as little as 10 or 20 Panas.
➢ Role of Slaves: In the Mauryan period slaves were engaged in agricultural work on
a large scale. State-maintained farms, on which slaves and hired laborers were
employed.
✓ 1,50,000 war captives bought by Ashoka from the Kalinga War to Pataliputra
may have been engaged in agriculture. However, ancient Indian society is not a
slave society. Shudras were regarded as the collective property of three higher
varnas.
➢ Road Metwork: The transportation system was developed. The road network was
highly organised which helped in easy
movement from one region to another.
Mauryan capital Pataliputra is located at
a strategic location. From here officials
can sail up and down the four directions.
Besides this Royal roads ran from:
✓ Pataliputra to Nepal through Vaishali
and Champaran.
✓ At the foothills of the Himalayas,
from Vaishali to Peshawar (Passing
through Champaran, Kapilavastu,
Kalsi, and Hazra).
 5

✓ From northwestern India to Patna,

✓ Patna to Sasrama, and from there went to Mirzapur and Central India.
✓ Pataliputra was connected to Kaling by route through Madhya Pradesh.
✓ Kalinga was linked with Andhra and Karnataka. Ashokan inscriptions appear
on important highways.
• These stone pillars were made in Chunar near Varanasi, from where they
are transported to north and south India. Ashokan inscriptions show royal
writ ran over the entire country except the extreme east and south.
➢ Taxation: Kautilya names many taxes to be collected from peasants, artisans, and
traders. For this Mauryan's need a strong machinery for assessment, collection, and
storage.
✓ Two main officers: Samartha and Sannidhata were employed by the central
authority. The Samarthas were high officials who were made responsible for the
assessment of taxes and sannidhatas were chief custodians of the royal treasury.
✓ We also have epigraphic evidence of rural storehouses, which shows taxes were
also collected in kind and these granaries were meant for helping people in
times of famine, drought, etc.
✓ Punched marked coins give us evidence of salary or even tax
being paid in cash.
➢ Mauryan Art and Architecture: They introduced stone masonry
on a wide scale. Megasthanese states that the Maurya Palace at
Pataliputra is as splendid as the capital of Iran. Artisans of Maurya
are highly skilled in carving and polishing the stone pillars.
✓ Each pillar is made of a single piece buff colored sandstone.
✓ Their capitals are joined on the pillars of the top.
✓ These polished pillars made of Chunar were set up
throughout the country. This shows their technical
knowledge in polishing and transportation.
✓ Mauryan artisans also started the practice of
hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live. The earliest example is Barabar
Caves (30 km from Gaya). Later this cave architecture spread throughout India.
 6

➢ Spread of Knowledge: Their conquests opened the

doors for trading and missionary activities. This led
to the spread of the material culture of the Gangetic
Basin to the areas on the periphery of the empire.

✓ The knowledge of the Mauryans started spreading

elsewhere.
✓ The new material culture is based on the
idea of writing scripts, the usage of iron,
burnt bricks and ring wheels, punch-
marked coins, the rise of towns in
northeastern India, and the idea of steel
making.
✓ Along with these ideas, there was an increased pace in the
making of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Pottery.
✓ When the adjoining areas gathered similar knowledge it
led to the rise of Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas, etc.
Because of deposits of Iron found in Bihar, we can find
huge-scale usage of socketed axes, sickles, and ploughshares
belonging to this period. The spoked wheel also came to be used.
✓ In the Mauryan Period, burnt bricks are used for the first time
in North- eastern India. Houses were made of both bricks and
timber. This eventually led to the flowering of new towns in
different parts of the empire.
✓ Ring wells, which appeared in the Mauryan empire also spread
beyond the empire. Since ring wells supply water for
domestic use, it is no longer needed to make a
settlement near the banks of rivers.
• They also served as soak pits in congested
settlements. This materialistic culture eventually spread beyond the empire.
• In Bangladesh, we find the Mahasthana inscription in the Bogra District in
Maurya Brahmi. We also find NBPW at Bangrah in Dinajpur District.
 7

• Iron implements are also found in Andhra and

Karnataka, the advance of this iron technology
was the contribution of Megalith builders who
were noted for various kinds of large stone
burials including those of round form.
➢ Art of steel making: It spread through Mauryan
contacts in some parts of the country. Steel objects belonging to 200 B.C. or earlier
are found in the Middle Gangetic plains.

✓ This spread of the usage of steel may have aided in clearing jungles and the use
of better methods of cultivation in Kalinga.

✓ This created conditions for the rise of new kingdoms such as Cheti and
Satavahanas in Deccan.

✓ Still, these kingdoms are a projection of the Mauryan empire. Pandyas were
known to visit the Mauryan capital as per Megasthenes.

✓ The title of Ashoka "Dear to Gods” was translated into Tamil and adopted by
the chiefs mentioned in Sangam texts.

❖ Establishment of New Settlements: Kautilya advised that new settlements should be

founded with the help of cultivators(Vaishyas) and Shudras (laborers) who should be
drafted from overpopulated areas.

➢ To bring virgin soil under cultivation, the new peasants were allowed remission in
tax and supplied with cattle, seeds, and money.
✓ Such settlements opened up now are necessary for those areas that are not
acquainted with the use of iron ploughshare. This policy
led to the opening of large areas to cultivation and
settlements.

❖ Economic Regulations: As per Arthashastra, 27 superintendents

(Adhyakshas) were appointed to regulate the economic activities
of the state. They controlled and regulated agriculture, trade
and commerce, weights and measures, weaving and spinning,
mining, and so on.
 8

➢ Megasthenes wrote that in the Mauryan empire officials measured the land as in
Egypt and inspected the channels through which water was distributed into smaller
channels.
What happened post-Ashoka’s death?
❖ With the death of Ashoka in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire started to drift apart. His
successors were feeble and were unable to hold back the entire dynasty so the empire
was divided into two parts- the Western part of the Mauryan Empire and the Eastern
part of the Mauryan Empire.
➢ The western part went under the rule of Kunala whereas the eastern part came
under the rule of Dasharatha. Due to political discontinuity and Kunala being a weak
sovereign, the western part of the empire broke away from the consolidated
Mauryan Empire.
➢ It was during this period that Bharatvarsha witnessed multiple foreign invasions.
Apart from the Indo-Greeks or Bactrians, there were Parthian, Scythian, and
invasions from the Yeuzi tribe respectively.
✓ The members of the Yeuzi tribe intended to attack and capture China. Because of
the construction of the Great Wall of China, the Yeuzi tribe was unable to attack
the Chinese province.
➢ The Eastern part of Bharstvarsha saw the rise of the Shunga and Kanvas against the
rule of weak successors of Ashoka.
Reasons behind the Decline of the Mauryan Empire:
❖ Reaction of the Brahmins: Ashoka detested needless ceremonies carried out by women
and forbade the killing of animals and birds. Naturally, this had an impact on the
Brahmanas' earnings. The Brahmanas naturally suffered greatly from Buddhism's and
Ashoka's anti-sacrifice stance, and they were resentful of him.
➢ The Shungas and the Kanvas were among the Brahmana dynasties who reigned over
some of the new kingdoms that emerged on the ruins of the Mauryan empire.
➢ Ashoka disregarded the Vedic sacrifices carried out by these Brahmana dynasties.
❖ Financial Crisis: The enormous expenditure on the army, payment to bureaucracy and
extension of gifts to the Buddhists created a financial crisis for the Mauryan empire.
 9

❖ Oppressive Rule: The people of Taxila loudly protested about the distrust of evil officials
(dushtamatya) during Bindusara's rule, and Ashoka's appointment allayed their
complaints.
➢ However, a similar complaint was made by the same city to Ashoka when he became
emperor, but he was unable to put an end to the oppression.
➢ There was the rotation of officers under Ashoka to ensure swift administration and
leave no way for corruption.
❖ Spread of New Material Knowledge: The regular use of iron tools and weapons in
peripheral provinces coincided with the decline and fall of the Mauryan empire and the
rise of the Shunga, Kanvas, and Satavahanas.
A Brief Introduction to the Beginning of the Post-Mauryan Empire:
❖ Native Rulers: This included the Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas.
❖ Foreign Rulers: This included the invasions of Indo-Greeks followed by the Sakas,
Parthians Kushanas (Yeuzi tribes)
❖ Deep South: This included Cholas, Cheras, and Paandyas.
About the Shunga Empire:
❖ During the Mauryan King Brihadarth, the Mauryan empire was condensed to a much
smaller region. His commander was Pushyamitra Shunga In a coup in 184 B.C.
Pushyamitra Shunga killed Brihadarth and declared himself as ruler thuis marking the
beginning of the Shunga Dynasty.
❖ After becoming king the most important challenge in
front of him is to defend India from Bactrian Greek.
He performed two Ashwamedha yagna.
➢ Manusmriti was written during his period, a law
book by Sage Bhrihu on how to run society.
➢ Buddhist sources refer to Pushyamitra Shunga as a persecutor of Buddhism. They
wrote he destroyed 84,000 stupas, many monasteries, and Buddhist places of
worship.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 09
Central Asian Contacts and
the Age of the Satavahanas
 2

Central Asian Contacts and the Age of the Satavahanas

❖ Post-Mauryan Period
❖ Foreign invasion and their subsequent rule
➢ Indo-Greeks
➢ Scythians
➢ Parthians
➢ Kushanas
❖ Impact of Central Asian Contacts

Post-Mauryan Period:
❖ The period which began in about 200 B.C. did not witness the emergence of an
extremely powerful empire like the Mauryas but is notable for intimate and widespread
contacts between Central Asia and India.
❖ The contact of India with Central Asian empires led to the intermingling of cultures.
The eastern part of the Mauryan Empire slipped into the hands of the Shungas, Kanvas,
and the Satavahanas successively whereas the western part of the Mauryan Empire
saw a series of foreign invasions by the ruling dynasties of Central Asia. The story begins
with Indo-Greeks.
❖ Foreign invasion and their subsequent rule:
➢ Indo- Greeks: They emerged as a result of the collapse of the Mauryan Empire in
India. They were the first kingdom to cross Hindukush through the Khyber Pass.
✓ The kingdom was established in the second century BC by Bactrian Greek
immigrants from the areas now known as Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.
✓ Reasons for their invasion:
• As the ruler of China had constructed the Great Wall of China, it prevented
the members of the Yeuzi tribe from invading China so they started moving
towards the Indian subcontinent to access the other path towards China.
 3

▪ In this process, it pushed into the

region ruled by the Scythians, the
Scythians then pushed towards
the region under the rule of the
Parthians, and finally, when the
Parthians pushed into the region
of the Bactria.
▪ So because of less space and
constant pushing from the North,
they had to push inside of India
• They attacked India from the Northwestern side because the Selucid Empire
(across the south of the Oxus River) had started to weaken.
▪ The Empire was established in the region of Bactria and the adjoining
areas of Parthia (Iran). Because of this the Greco Bactrians became
strong and wanted to strengthen themselves.
✓ Around 200 BCE, the Greeks crossed the Hindukush mountain and finally
attacked India and captured a chunk of the Northwestern side of India, which
was twice the size of the territory captured by Alexander.

✓ They even attacked and pushed as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra but were
countered by Pushyamitra
Shunga’s son. However,
the Indo-Greeks failed to
establish united rule in
India.
✓ They divided into two
branches one of which was
headed by Menander. The
other branch was ruled by
Appolodutus and had its capital at Sindh but expanded its empire to Ujjain.
Both the branches or the dynasties of the Indo-Greeks were ruling over the
Indian subcontinent at the same time.
 4

• Demetrius I was the first Indo-Greek emperor and was followed by a series
of Indo-Greek rulers, including Menander I (Milinda), who is regarded as
the greatest of all Indo-Greek kings. He made Sialkot or Sakala in Pakistan
his capital.

• Menander (165 BC- 145 BC) invaded the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and
expanded his empire to Mathura. He also wanted to capture Pataliputra
but Vasumitra Shunga defeated him.

• He was a patron of Buddhism and was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena

or Nagarjuna.
▪ The conversation between Milinda and Nagasena came to be written in
Milindpanha (written in Pali).
✓ Importance of Indo-Greeks:
• The Indo-Greek rulers were famous for their coinage, and art and were the
first dynasty to issue coins. They issued coins made of copper and nickel.

• They inscribed the name of the ruler, date, and name of the dynasty on
those coins which had bilingual inscriptions (Kharoshti and Greek).
• They were the first rulers to have issued gold coins. The number of gold
coins increased during the Kushanas.

• They were the ones who introduced the Hellenistic form of art. This art
form was an amalgamation of influences of Greek and non-Greek styles.
Example- Gandhara School of Art.

➢ Sakas/Scythians: The area that was brought under the control of the Sakas was
much larger than that of the Indo-Greeks. From Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, we get
to know that the Scythians were called Sakas.
✓ When the Sakas first stepped into the Indian subcontinent, they faced no
resistance except the King of Ujjain who fought vehemently against the Sakas
and drove the Sakas out of his region.
• After defeating the Sakas, the king of Ujjain took the title of Vikramaditya
(57-58 BC). After his victory, he is sad to have started the Vikram Samvat
or Vikram Era.
 5

• After him in total 14 rulers took the title of Vikramaditya as it was

designated to be very prestigious.
• The most famous among all the kings who took the title of Vikramaditya
was Chandragupta II.

✓ The Sakas divided themselves into 5 separate branches and settled in

Afghanistan, Punjab (capital at Taxila), Mathura (ruled for about two centuries),
Western India (areas of Maharashtra and Saurashtra), and lastly in upper
Deccan.

✓ King Maeus was the founder of the Indo-Scythian dynasty. His son was Azes I.
The rule of Indo-Scythians was divided into two parts: Western and Northern
Kshatraps. Western Kshatrapas.

✓ The Western Kshatrapas were one of the most significant Saka dynasties in
India. They ruled in the western part of India, including present-day Gujarat,
Maharashtra, and parts of Rajasthan.

• The major ruler Rudradaman I was one of the most famous Western
Kshatrapa rulers, he is known to have ruled for two centers- Northern and
Western Satraps.

▪ He ruled over Sindh, Kathiawar, Konkan, Malwa, and areas across

Narmada Valley.

▪ He was known for the renovation of Sudarshan Lake in the Kathiawar

region of Gujarat which then helped in irrigational activities.

▪ He also took the initiative of writing inscriptions in Sanskrit (before him

inscriptions were only written in Prakrit).

➢ Parthians: The Parthians lived in Iran (Khorasan), and they replaced the Sakas in
North-Western India. They attacked India around the 1st century BCE and
subsumed within Indian culture and polity. They occupied a smaller area in
comparison to the Sakas. Gondophernes (20 CE - 50 CE) is among the most famous
Indo-Parthian rulers.
✓ It is said that Christian Missionary St. Thomas visited his court. He is believed
to have embraced Buddhism and made Taxila his first capital. Despite his strong
 6

rule, the rule of the Parthians did not last for long, and was finally defeated by
the Kushanas.
➢ Kushanas: They were one of the five clans of the Yeuchi tribe (Tocharians) who were
the Nomads from the Steppes of Central Asia.

✓ After the construction of the Great Wall of China by Quin Shi Huang, the Yeuchi
tribe attacked the Scythians who in turn attacked the Greco Batrians because
of which India faced a foreign attack.

✓ They first occupied Bactria and displaced the Sakas, then crossed the Hindukush

region and finally reached the Northwestern part of India and then expanded
to the lower Indus basin and upper and middle Gangetic basin.

• So basically, their empire stretched from Oxus to Ganga in between

Khorasan and Varanasi.
✓ The Kushanas were divided into two dynasties. One dynasty was under the
Kadphises and the other was under Kanishka.
• Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I), the first Yuezhi ruler, established the Kushan
Empire in India.

▪ He established his supremacy over Kabul, Kandahar, and Afghanistan

and minted gold coins of his name to the south of the Hindukush region.

▪ He took influence from the Romans and circulated copper coins with
Roman designs

• Vima Kadphises: He was succeeded by his son Vima Kadphises (Kadphises II),
who enlarged the kingdom towards the east of Indus. The coins he minted
had large quantities of gold.
▪ The most good quality gold coins were minted by the Kushanas itself.
Vima Kadphises assumed the title of ‘King of the world.’ He was a
devotee of Shiva.
• Kaniska (78 AD-120 AD) was the son of Vima Kadphises and is often
regarded as the greatest Kushan ruler and a renowned king of ancient

India.
 7

▪ The purity of metal

used in gold coins was
more than that of the
Guptas. These coins
were circulated NW of
India and inscriptions
were found in Sravasti
and Mathura (middle
Gangetic Basin).
▪ The main capital of his
empire was located at Puruṣapura (Peshawar) in Gandhara, with

another major capital at Mathura.

▪ He also erected a large stupa and started the Shaka era (78AD) and

embraced Buddhism.

I. The fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir was held under his

patronage and the doctrines of Mahayans were finalized here.

II. He belonged to Mahayana Buddhism and patronized Ashwaghosha,

Nagarjuna, and Vasumitra.

▪ Charaka, the famous physician was present in his court. The coins he

minted had figures of Hindu and Greek gods and goddesses. This shows

his tolerant nature.

▪ He faced defeat at the hands of the Chinese and after his demise, his
successors ruled till 230 AD later Sassanian powers captured the region

under the Kushans (Kabul, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorasan, Sodigana, and

other parts of the NW frontier region).

I. However, in the region of India under the authority of Kushanas,

the principalities extended further for a century.

II. In Toprak-Kala, a huge palace of Kanishka, coins, inscriptions,

terracotta objects, etc were found.

 8

Impact of Central Asian Contacts:

❖ Structure and Pottery: The building of brick walls signified the era. It was clear that
charred bricks were used for flooring and that tiles were used for roofing and flooring.
Redware pottery was a common type that was made in both polished and plain forms,
with medium to fine fabric.

❖ Better cavalry: Large-scale horse riding became more common and better cavalry was
introduced by the Shakas and Kushanas. At this time, it was typical to utilize rope
saddles, toe stirrups, and reins.

➢ To aid in military triumphs, they also brought in caps, helmets, tunics, turbans,
pants, bulky long coats, and long boots.

❖ Trade and agriculture: The Kushanas controlled the silk route which escalated the pace
of trade. Agriculture was also encouraged by the Kushans.

➢ In certain regions of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Western Central Asia, archeological

evidence of irrigation systems has been found.

❖ Polity: The Kushanas instituted the "satrap system" of governance, which saw the
division of the empire into multiple satrapies, each governed by a satrap. There was
less centralization and dual inheritance rule in which both the father and the son were
ruling at the same time. The rulers of Central Asian contacts imposed their rule on the
native rulers by undertaking titles such as King of Kings, and Son of God, thereby
tracing their lineage following the theory of the Divine origin of Kingship.

❖ Indianisation of the Foreign invaders: The society witnessed a new transformation as

the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas got amalgamated within the Induan
culture. The practices saw a blend of both native and foreign features.

❖ Religion: A few foreign emperors became Vaishnavites (Vasudeva). A few individuals

also became Buddhists, such as Menander, the Greek king. The depictions of Shiva and
the Buddha on Kushana coins show that the Kushana monarchs revered both of these
deities.

➢ Origin of Mahayana Buddhism: Originally, outsiders found Buddhism to be overly

abstract and puritanical. The Buddhist schools that were in place at the time
emphasized philosophical concepts, which they found objectionable.
 9

✓ A new branch of Buddhism known as the Mahayana, or the Great Wheel,

emerged as a result, and people started to worship the Buddha's image.
✓ Every category of individuals was welcome to join this cult. Those who
disapproved of this recently discovered group were referred to as Small Wheel
or Hinayana sect adherents.
❖ Art and Architecture: The rulers of Central Asia enthusiastically embraced Indian art
and culture, and they were zealous in founding new art institutions. Indian artisans
interacted with Greek and Roman cultures, particularly in Gandhara, on India's
northwest frontier.
➢ Gandhara School of Art (Greco-Roman influence and used greystone), Mathura
School of Art (it was purely indigenous and used red sandstone), and Amravati
School of Art developed by the Satavahanas (white marble) were the three principal
schools of sculpture that emerged during this time.
➢ The three main stupas of this period are Bharhut, Sanchi, Amravati, and
Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh).
❖ Literature and Learning: The Sanskrit language was encouraged and supported by the
monarchs of Central Asia. Rudradaman’s inscription in Kathiawar contains the first
example of the Kavya style.
➢ The Kushanas were patrons to some of the greatest creative writers, like
Asvaghosha. Buddhacharita is a biography of the Buddha written by Asvaghosha.
He also wrote Saundarananda, a Sanskrit Kavya example. One of the finest
examples of secular literature was Vatsyana’s Kamasutra.
➢ Several avadanas (written in Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit) have been composed as a
result of Mahayana Buddhism's development. The Divyavadana and the Mahavastu
were two notable works in this genre.
➢ The Greeks also contributed to the development of Indian theatre by introducing
the use of the curtain, Yavanika.
❖ Science and Technology: The term ‘horasastra’ used for astrology in Sanskrit was
derived from the Greek term ‘horoscope’. The ancient Indian physicians called medicine
"aushadhi" because they mostly used plants, known as "oshadi" in Sanskrit, to treat
illnesses.
 10

➢ It appears that at this time, the technique of creating leather goods—such as

boots—began.
➢ Glassmaking in this era was greatly impacted by foreign techniques, and it never
advanced as much in India as it did during this century.
➢ The gold and copper coins were replicas of Roman currency.


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
NCERT: Ancient History

Lecture - 10
Age of Satavahanas
 2

Age of Satavahanas

What happened after Ashoka’s death?

 After Ashoka’s death, his family continued to reign, but the empire began to break
apart. The central portion which was under the control of the Mauryan empire for the
longest time was lost to the Shunga emperor.
 Kalinga declared itself to be a free state.
 Satavahanas, feudal lords who ruled over Deccan (present-day Maharashtra,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh) and were the samants (big landlords or warrior
chiefs) of the Mauryan empire declared their independence from the Mauryan empire.
 The Satvahanas have been referred to as the border people in Ashoka’s Rock Edict XIII.
 In Aitreya Brahmana of Rigveda, the Satvahanas have been referred to as Andhras.
Several authors referred to Andhras as Brihitya Andhras (servants or subordinates).
 Thus, there exist two views: Satvahanas were the subordinates of Mauryas and
Satvahanas were the servants of Andhras.

Fig: Successors of Mauryas within India:

Age of Satavahanas:
The area around Deccan and Central India was ruled by the Satavahanas. They were the
immediate successor of the Mauryas and ruled for 460 years. With the fall of the Maurya
Empire, most of the vassal states declared independence, and the great empire built by his
predecessors lay in Ashoka fragments. There was much feud and conflict among these small
states.
 3

Satavahanas Dynasty:
 Kanvas were defeated by Satavahanas.

 As per Puranas (Vayu Purana and Matsyas

Purana), they belonged to Andhra Jati.

 They were the first empire of Deccan to establish

in Dakshinapatha.

 The first ruler of the Satavahanas was Simuka in

230 BCE. He was a follower of Brahmanism. He
was tolerant to followers of other religions as well.

 Satavahanas were the first native Indian rulers to

issue coins with portraits of the King.

 Coins were also bilingual including local languages such as Tamil, Telugu, etc.

 They patronized Prakrit more than Sanskrit.

 They were in continuous battle with Sakas.

 They gave equal patronage to Buddhist and Jain people.

 Famous ruler of Satavahana Dynasty:

 Simuka: (100-70 BCE) - Founder of the Satvahana dynasty.

 Kanha: (70-60 BCE) - He captured Nasik.
 Sri Satakarni: (1st BCE)
 Sivaswathi: (1st century CE)
 Gautamiputra Satakarni: (2nd century CE)
 Vasishthiputra Pulumavi: (2nd century CE)
 Shivaskanda Satakarni: (2nd century CE)
 Yajna Sri Satakarni: (2nd century CE)
 Vijaya: (2nd century CE)

 There is no agreed chronology on their origin.

 The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra

Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
 4

Shri Satakarni (70-60 BCE):

 He was the first Satavahana ruler to expand his empire by military conquests. He was
attacked by the Kharavela king. He conducted two Ashwamedha Yajna after defeating
the king.

 Details of Satakarni I are mentioned in the Nanaghat inscription by Naganika (wife).

 Held the title Dakshinapathpati (Lord of the Southern Path)

 He conquered Godavari Valley.

 He himself assumed the title of Dakshinapatha Padi i.e. lord of Dakshin Path. This
information is found in the Nanaghat inscription.

 He captured other areas:

 Akara (Upper Narmada Valley)

 Anupa (Lower Narmada Valley)

 Vidharba

 Malwa

 The desert areas of Rajasthan

Hala (20 AD - 24 AD):

 He was the 17th ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty.

 He composed Gatha Saptashati (700 erotic verses in Maharashtra or Paishachi prakrit

 Gunadhya, the author of 'Vrihat Katha' (in Prakrit), was the contemporary of Hala.

Gautamiputra Satakarni I (106-130 AD):

 He is considered the greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty.

 He considered himself as the ‘only Brahaman’.

 He patronised Brahmanism.

 The Episode of Nahapana was mentioned in the Nashik inscriptions.

 His kingdom ran from the Krishna River in the south to Malwa in the north and
Saurashtra and from Berar in the east to Konkan in the west.

 His mother’s name was Gautami Balsari, whose name as a title was added by him to
his name. This information is gathered from the Nashik inscription.

 He was succeeded by his son Vashishtiputra Sri Pulvami or Pulvami-II

 5

Vashishtaputra Sri Pulayami (130-154 CE):

 He was also in a continuous fight with Sakas, especially over dominance in the Western
region.

 Rudradamn I defeated twice to Vashishtaputra Sri Pulvami but never fully destroyed
him.

 This is mentioned in the Junagarh inscription. The Kanheri Caves also give an account
of this.

 The daughter of Rudradaman was married to Vashishtaputra Sri Pulayami.

 He repaired the old Amravati Stupa.

 He stretched the empire to the mouth of the River Krishna.

 He maintained strong Naval Power (mentioned in the coin inscription).

Yagna Sri Satkarni (165AD- 194AD)

 He was the last greatest ruler.

 Inscriptions at Nasik, Guntur and Kanheri.

 He ruled over the whole Deccan and recovered much of the territory lost to the Western
Kshatrapas, and issued silver coinage, imitating them.

 Recovered North Konkan and Malwa from Sakas.

 Successor after him was very weak.

Religion and Culture During Satavahanas:

 Satavahans were the first Indian kings to give royal land grants to Buddhism and
Brahmins.

 Many scholars believed that Satavahans were of lower caste but they called themselves
as Savaranas.

 Language: Used Prakrit language written in Brahmi script.

 They did the construction of temples.

 They revived vedic brahmanism in Deccan.

 They were the first king to adopt the title from their mother’s name. It reflects that
women's conditions were relatively good.
 6

 The famous Amaravati Stupas were made during the period of Satavahans. They also
made several other stupas and expanded existing Ashokan Stupas. They also made
Nagarjunakonda Stupas.
 The IX and Xth Cave paintings of Ajanta were made in their period.

Architecture:
 Constructed monasteries (Monastores), prayer halls (Chaityas), and residential quarters
for monks (Viharas).
 The architecture suggests a religious diversity or at least a tolerance for multiple
religious practices.
 The capital city is known as Pratishthana, also referred to as Paithan.
 Satavahanas, while expanding their territorial area, acquired Tondaimandalam (A.P).
 They gave this region to Pallavas to govern it
 The Satavahana during their regime had carved out more than 450 caves in entire
South India.
 Pallavas were feudatories of Satavahanas
 After Satavahana rule ended in 220 A.D Vakatakas came to power.
 Pallavas declared their independence around the Tondaimandalam region and made
Kanchi their capital.

Aspect of Material Culture

 Under the Satavahanas in the Deccan,
material culture reflected a blend of local
and northern influences.
 The megalith builders in the Deccan were
familiar with iron use and agriculture,
with a noticeable increase in iron tools
from the first few centuries of the
Christian era.
 The transition from megalithic to
Satavahana phases saw the introduction
of fully socketed hoes, alongside sickles, spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc
 7

Coins:
 The Satavahanas predominantly issued coins of lead
found abundantly inthe Deccan, along with potin,
copper, and bronze money

 The Ikshvakus successors to the Satavahanas in the

early third century A.D. in the eastern Deccan, also
issued coins, indicating continued exploitation of the
region's mineral resources

 Deccan residents practiced paddy transplantation turning the Krishna to Godavari

region (Rice Bowl of India) into a major rice-producing area in the first two centuries.

 Cotton cultivation was widespread, with Andhra recognized in foreign records for its
quality cotton products.

 Outcomes of contact with north India: Contacts with the north introduced Deccan
residents to coins, burnt bricks, ring wells and writing.

 In Peddabankur (200 B.C.-A.D. 200), Karimnagar district, fire-baked bricks and

perforated roof tiles were used, contributing to durable constructions

 Pliny reported 30 walled towns in the Andhra country in the eastern Deccan, along
with numerous villages

 Second and third-century towns in

the region are known from
inscriptions and excavations, reflecting
increased trade evidenced by Roman
and Satavahana coins.

 Towns appeared about a century later

in the eastern Deccan, specifically in the Godavari Krishna area.
 8

Social Organization

 Originally a Deccan tribe, the Satavahanas underwent Brahmanization.

 Gautamiputra Satakarni, a prominent king, claimed to restore the four-fold varna

system ending social order intermixture.

 Shaka infiltration and superficial Brahmanization likely caused social confusion in the
Deccan.

 Shakas were integrated into Brahmanical society as Kshatriyas through intermarriage

with the Satavahanas.

 Indigenous tribes in the Deccan were influenced by Buddhist monks, settling due to
land grants in the western Deccan.

 Traders possibly supported Buddhist monks, as evident in early caves strategically

located on trade routes.

 The Satavahanas were pioneers in granting land to Brahmanas although more instances
are recorded for Buddhist monks.

 Dharmashastras designated ruling as the Kshatriyas' role, but Satavahana rulers

identified themselves as Brahmanas.

 Gautamiputra claimed true Brahmanic status. The Andhras, linked to early

Satavahanas, likely converted from a local tribe to Brahmanism.
 9

 North's orthodox Brahmanas viewed Andhras as a mixed caste, signifying their tribal
origins assimilated into Brahmanical society.

 Growing craft and commerce elevated merchants and artisans in this era.

 Merchants proudly associated themselves with their towns.

 Both artisans and merchants generously supported Buddhism, commemorated by

small memorial tablets.

 Gandhikas specifically perfumers, were notable donors among artisans.

 Over time, the term Gandhika broadened to encompass all types of shopkeepers.

 The contemporary title "Gandhi" has its roots in this ancient term.

 The Satavahana family structure is notably unique.

 In contrast to the patriarchal norm in North India, Satavahanas exhibit traces of a

matrilineal social system.

 Kings were customarily named after their mothers, highlighting the mother's
significant role.

 Present-day peninsular India reflects patriarchal influence, as sons' names typically

include only the father's name.

 Queens in Satavahana society made significant religious contributions and served as

regents.

 Despite matrilineal aspects, the Satavahana ruling family was fundamentally

patriarchal with male members inheriting the throne.

The Pattern of Administration

❖ Satavahana rulers aimed to embody the royal ideal outlined in the Dharmashastras.

❖ The king was depicted as the guardian of dharma endowed with divine attributes.

❖ The Satavahana king was described as possessing qualities akin to mythical heroes like
Rama, Bhima, Keshava, and Arjuna, implying divinity.
 10

❖ Comparisons to legendary figures and supernatural

forces emphasized the king's prowess and radiance,
further reinforcing his divine status.

❖ Satavahanas maintained administrative units from

Ashokan times.

❖ Their district known as ahara retained its name

from the Ashokan era.

❖ Officials were titled amatyas and mahamatras

preserving the Mauryan terminology.

❖ Military and feudal elements were observed in Satavahana administration

❖ The Senapati held the role of a provincial governor, indicating military influence

❖ Due to incomplete Brahmanization of Deccan's tribal people, strong military control

was essential

❖ Rural administration was entrusted to the Gaulmika leading a military regiment with
chariots, elephants, horses, and foot soldiers.

❖ The Satavahana rule displayed a military character evident in terms like Kataka and
Skandhavaras inscriptions

❖ These terms referred to military camps and settlements functioning as administrative

centers during the king's presence

❖ Coercion was a significant aspect of Satavahana administration.

Religion
❖ Satavahana rulers were adherents of Brahmanism, symbolizing its successful
ascendancy.

❖ Kings and queens engaged in Vedic rituals like Ashvamedha and Vajapeya from the
beginning.

❖ Worship of numerous Vaishnava deities, including Krishna and Vasudeva, was part of
their religious practices

❖ Generous sacrificial fees were offered to Brahmanas by the Satavahanas

 11

❖ Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh emerged as significant centers of

Buddhist culture during the Satavahana rule, further flourishing under the Ikshvakus.

❖ Buddhism also thrived in Nasik and Junar regions in western Deccan, Maharashtra,
possibly backed by traders.

Architecture

❖ During the Satavahana era, skilled artisans

carved numerous chaityas (sacred shrines and
monasteries in the solid rock of north-western
Deccan particularly in Maharashtra

❖ The chaitya, a spacious hall with columns, and

the vihara featuring a central hall accessible
through a front verandah, were prevalent
designs

❖ This process commenced around 200 B.C., with

common religious constructions being the chaitya (Buddhist temple) and the vihara
(monastery).

❖ Viharas, or monasteries, were carved

near chaityas for monks to reside during
the rainy season

❖ Nasik has three viharas carrying

inscriptions of Nahapana and
Gautamiputra, likely dating back to the
first and second centuries A.D.

❖ Andhra, particularly in the Krishna-Godavari region, showcases rock-cut architecture.

❖ However, the region is renowned for its distinctive Buddhist structures, primarily
stupas

❖ Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stand out as the most famous Buddhist structures in
the area
 12

Language
❖ Prakrit was the official language of the Satavahanas, used in all inscriptions and written
in the Brahmi script, akin to the Ashokan period

❖ One such text, Gathasattasai or Gathasaptasati, credited to Satavahana king Hala,

contained 700 Prakrit verses

❖ The text, however, appears to have been edited much later, potentially after the sixth
century A.D.

Economy and Trade in the Time of Satvahanas:

❖ There were trading ports in Sopara and Bharuch.

❖ Major imports included luxuries like wine, clothes, glass, sweet clover, etc.

❖ Major exports consisted of common clothes like cotton and muslin.

❖ There was a specialized group of traders that were organized into guilds and each guild
was headed by a Sethi.

❖ The amount of land under cultivation also expanded significantly under the Satavahans
rule.

❖ As Satavahanas dominated the sea coast, they had an active trade with the Roman
empire.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 11
Chola, Chera, and Pandya
(Deep South)
 2

Chola, Chera, and Pandya (Deep South)

❖ Unlike the Northern part of India which went under urbanization and witnessed
developments in every domain, southern India lagged. The development here started
300 years later when the north was already developed. Before this period, south India
was dominated by the Megalithic culture which continued till 200 BCE.
❖ The entire period stretching between 300 BCE to 300 AD, is known as the Sangam
period. During this period, political development started taking its course similar to
what had already been structured in the northern states. Along with political growth,
the period also witnessed economic and literary developments.

➢ The literary works composed during this age give us an idea about how the period
flourished with time.
❖ In the Sangam Age in ancient India, there were three kingdoms in South India namely
Chola, Chera, and Pandyas.

South Indian: Megalithic Culture (10,000 to 300 BC):

❖ Megalithic culture is identified by its burial sites (graveyards), which used to be
surrounded by big stones (megaliths).
❖ Megalithic people are called Megalithic builders.
❖ Different types of megaliths were erected to protect the dead bodies.
❖ Pottery, Black and red ware, and iron tools were found in their graves.
❖ It means they believed in life after death
 3

❖ Iron tools that are found in megalithic

graves are Arrowheads, spearheads,
sickles, and hoes.
❖ Hunting tools were found more than
agriculture tools.
❖ Advanced agriculture was not practiced
there.
❖ Their burials have certain patterns for
example in the area of South Tamilnadu
there was an urn burial pattern and in
the other area, a pit or cyst burial was
found.
❖ In south India, the Stone Age was
followed by a megalithic culture which
is characterized by the use of Iron.
❖ The economy was pastoral agriculture.
❖ Megalithic builders were living on slopes
of the hills because areas under cultivation were less used and less used of iron.

❖ These cultures were developed in the uplands of peninsular India and the core of this
culture is the eastern coasts of Andhra Pradesh.
❖ Prominent sites that have yielded Megalithic burials include Brahmagiri, Maski
(Karnataka), Adichallanur (Tamil Nadu), and Junapani near Nagpur (Maharashtra).

State formation in South India and rise of civilization:

❖ There are three reasons for state formation:
1. Interaction with North India: Historically, there have been cultural and economic
interactions between North India and regions in South India. These interactions
facilitated the exchange of ideas, technology, and administrative practices,
contributing to the emergence of centralized political entities.

2. Jainas, Buddhist missionaries impact and Brahman missionaries influence: The

influence of Jain and Buddhist missionaries began to be significant from around the
4th century onwards. Their teachings and practices spread across South India,
 4

establishing monastic institutions and influencing societal norms. This influence

played a role in shaping political structures and fostering a sense of community
and identity among the populace.

3. Flourished Trade with Romans: Flourishing trade, particularly with the Roman
Empire, played a crucial role in the development of urban centers and the
accumulation of wealth in South India.

➢ The ancient people of the megaliths began to reclaim the fertile lands of the
delta. The southern passage, known as Dakshinapatha, gained significant
economic importance.

Development of Southern Kingdom:

❖ Spread of iron technology flows the knowledge in southern India.

❖ The distribution of Punch-marked coins of Janpadas, Mauryans, and Kushans extended

the trade in these regions.

Existence of Southern Kingdom:

❖ Megasthenes was known about the existence of the Pandyas, whereas Ashokan
inscriptions refer the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, and Satyaputras.

❖ But in these documents only the name of the southern kingdoms were found. Therefore
for the detailed knowledge of these kingdoms we have to depend on Tamil literature.
These literature were made in assemblies which are known as sangam.

❖ In south indian Sangam is referred as Muchchangam.

❖ There were three sangam held:

➢ 1st sangam : Madurai

➢ 2nd sangam: Kapadapuram

➢ 3rd sangam : Madurai

❖ All these sangam were held on the royal patronage of Hardik Pandaya and Krunal
pandyas .

➢ During the third sangam Mudathiruman was the pandya king.

 5

Sangam Literature: Contributes to understanding of Southern history:

❖ Tolkappiyam: Tolkappiyam stands as the oldest surviving Tamil grammar text and
holds the distinction of being the oldest extensive piece of Tamil literature that has
endured.
➢ Some attribute its authorship to a single individual known as Tholkappiyar,
purportedly a disciple of the Rigvedic sage Agastya. Preserved in extant manuscripts,
Tolkappiyam is structured into three volumes (athikaram), each containing nine
chapters (iyal), totaling 1,610 sutras in the nurpa meter.
❖ Ettuthogai: The Ettuthogai, also referred to as the Eight Anthologies or Ettuttokai,
represents a significant Tamil literary achievement within the larger framework of the
Eighteen Greater Texts (Patinen-melkanakku) anthology series published by Sangam
Literature.
➢ Among the earliest Tamil compositions are the Eight Anthologies (Pattuppattu) and
its companion anthology, the Ten Idylls (Pattuppattu). Comprising eight distinct
works, Ettuthogai includes Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru,
Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppatu.
❖ Pattupattu: The Pattuppattu, also referred to as the Ten Idylls or Pattupattu, comprises
a collection of ten longer poems originating from the Sangam period of Tamil literature.
 6

These poems range in length from 100 to 800 lines, and among them is Nakkirar's
renowned Tirumurukarruppaai.
➢ Mullaippattu, The Pattupattu, encompasses ten individual works:Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunarruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Nedunalvadai, Madurai
Kanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai, and Malaipadukadam.
❖ Ettuthogai and Pattupattu are referred to as Melkanakku. They are narrative texts
where stories are narrated.

Rise of Three kingdoms:

❖ After the 4th A.D. We can see that Brahmanical influence also percolated in large
numbers to Tamizhakam.
❖ Even many elements of Tamil culture also spread to the north and Brahmanical texts
Kaveri came to be regarded as one of the holy rivers of the country.
❖ In the end, we can say southern kingdoms would not have developed without the spread
of iron technology which promoted forest cleaning and plough cultivation.
❖ Flourishing trade with Roman empire also contributed to the formation of three states
respectively
The Three Early Kingdoms:
❖ The Pandyas
❖ The Cholas
❖ The Cheras

Kingdom (Region) Capital Emblem Premium Port

The Pandyas (Madurai Madurai Fish Korkai

& South Travancore)

The Cholas (Tanjore & Uraiyur (later: Puhar) Tiger Puhar

Trichinopoly)

The Cheras (Covers Vanji/Karuvur Bow Tondi & Muchiri

mostly Kerala coast)
 7

Pandyas
❖ They ruled over Southern Tamil
Nadu included modern districts of
Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai
❖ Capital: Madurai.
❖ Greek ambassador Megasthenese
mentioned Pandya kingdom was
celebrated for Pearls
❖ The literature compiled in the Tamil
academics in early centuries called
Sangam literature refers to the
Pandya rulers, but it does not give
a connected account.

❖ From this literature it is evident Pandya rulers performed Vedic sacrifices (Brahmanical
influence) in early christian era.

❖ The main interest of political history of these three kingdoms lies in the continuous
wars they fought with one another and also with Sri lanka

❖ Although these wars weakened them, they profited from their natural resources and
foreign trade.

❖ These kingdoms are rich in:

➢ They grew spices, especially pepper which had great demand in the western world

➢ Their elephants supplied ivory which also had great demand in west

➢ The sea yielded pearls

➢ Mines produced precious stones

➢ They also produced muslin and silk Uraiyur was noted for its cotton trade

❖ In ancient times, the Tamils traded with Greek or Hellenistic Kingdom of Egypt and

❖ Arabia on one side and with Malay archipelago and from there with China on the other

❖ As a result of this several words for rice, ginger, cinnamon and other articles in Greek
language are derived from Tamil language
 8

❖ When Egypt became a province of the Roman empire and when the monsoon was

discovered in 1 A.D. trade got huge impetus

❖ For first two and half centuries, southern kingdoms had lucrative trade with romans

❖ With the decline of this trade, kingdoms also declined.

❖ Important kings:

➢ Mudatriruman

➢ Aryappadai Kedanthu

Cholas

❖ Ruled between areas of Pennar and Velar River

❖ Their kingdom extended from modern-day Trichy district to Southern Andhra

❖ Capital: Uraiyur (Famous for Cotton Trade)

❖ Mid 2nd B.C. Chola king Elara had conquered Sri Lanka and ruled Sri Lanka for 50

years.

❖ Karikala:

➢ After Elara, the next ruler was Karikala

➢ He made Puhar his new capital, identical to Kaveripattinam

➢ Karikala founded Puhar and constructed a 160 kms embankment along the Kaveri
river.

➢ For this he used 12,000 slaves bought from Sri Lanka.

➢ Under Karikala successors chola power declined rapidly.

➢ Cheras and Pandyas expanded at the cost of Cholas.

➢ What remained of Chola power was wiped out by attacks by Pallavas from the north.

Note:
❖ In the battle of Vahaipparandali Chola defeated 9 chieftain
❖ The Battle of Venni was fought between Chola ruler Karikala with a confederacy of
Pandya (Madurai) and Chera rulers and 11 local chiefs.
 9

Cheras
❖ Cheras ruled over parts of modern kerala Capital Vanchi Karuvur)
❖ Seaports - Muziris, Tondi
❖ It owed its importance to trade with Romans, Romans setup two regiments at Muziris
(Cranganore)
❖ It is also said they built a temple of Augustus here

❖ In all kings of Cheras, Cheran Sengutaavan was the most famous, he is called as Good
Chera/Red Chera

❖ It is said he did a Himalayan expedition where he defeated many north Indian

monarchs

❖ Stone used to make Kannagi Idol was bought by him from his Himalayan expedition

The purse and the Sword

❖ Trade, both local and long-distance was a crucial revenue source for royalty

❖ Puhar's customs officials played a key role in regulating trade

❖ Merchants faced transit duties while moving goods between places

❖ Soldiers ensured merchant safety and guarded against smuggling with constant road
vigilance

❖ Spoils of war contributed to

royal income
❖ The foundation of war and polity
rested on a consistent income
from agriculture
❖ The specific share of agricultural
produce claimed by the king is
unspecified
❖ The tip of the peninsula and
nearby areas were highly fertile, yielding paddy, ragi, and sugarcane
❖ The Kaveri delta was exceptionally productive
 10

❖ The Tamil region also produced various grains, fruit, pepper, and turmeric, with the
king likely having a share in this produce
❖ Taxes from peasants supported a basic state army with chariots, oxen, elephants,
cavalry, and infantry
❖ Elephants held significance in warfare, and horses were imported by sea to the Pandyan
kingdom.
Rise of Social Classes:
❖ The King's income from trade, war, and agriculture supported professional warriors,
bards, and priests (mainly Brahmanas).
❖ Brahmanas, appearing in the Sangam age, were generously rewarded by ideal kings,
even receiving gold, cash, land, chariots, horses, and elephants.
❖ Tamil Brahmanas consumed meat and wine.
❖ Sangam texts recognized kshatriyas and vaishyas as regular varnas, with warriors
playing a crucial role in society.

❖ Army captains were granted the title of enadi through formal ceremonies.
❖ Civil and military offices were held by vellalas, rich peasants, under Cholas and Pandyas.
❖ The ruling class (arasar) had marriage ties with vellalas forming the fourth caste
dominating land ownership and constituting the divided peasantry of rich and poor.
❖ The rich landowners employed laborers, often
from the lowest class (kadaisiyar), whose status
resembled that of slaves.
❖ Some artisans doubled as agricultural laborers,
like the pariyars who worked with animal skins
for mats.
❖ Out-castes and forest tribes faced extreme
poverty, living hand-to-mouth.
❖ Social inequalities were evident in the Sangam
age, with the rich in brick houses and the poor
in huts.
❖ In cities, wealthy merchants occupied upper storeys of their houses.
 11

❖ Brahmanas and the ruling caste emerged, but acute caste distinctions seen in later
times were absent in the early Sangam age.
Beginnings of Brahmanism:
❖ State and society in early Christian-era Tamil land evolved influenced by Brahmanism.
❖ Brahmanical impact confined to a small part of Tamil territory and upper echelons of
society
❖ Kings performed Vedic sacrifices, and Brahmanas engaged in disputations.

❖ Local god worshiped in hilly regions was Murugan (Subramaniya in early medieval
times)
❖ Worship of Vishnu is mentioned, possibly a later practice continues.
❖ The Megalithic tradition of providing for the dead persisted, with offerings of paddy.
❖ Cremation was introduced, but the megalithic practice of inhumation was not
abandoned.

Tamil Language and Sangam Literature

❖ Knowledge of early Tamil life comes from Sangam literature, likely organized with
royal support.
❖ The number and duration of Sangams are unclear, with a >an 8th-century
commentary exaggerating, claiming three Sangams lasting 9,990 years with 8,598
poets and 197 Pandya kings as patron.
❖ What's certain is a Sangam held under royal patronage in Madurai.
 12

Social Evolution from Sangam Texts:

❖ Sangam texts reflect different social evolution stages.
❖ Narrative texts glorify heroes and mention perpetual wars, indicating a pastoral society.
❖ Traces of early megalithic life appear in Sangam, depicting pastoralists, hunters, and
fishermen who also cultivated rice.
❖ Iron objects like hoes, sickles, wedges, arrowheads, swords, and spears found in
peninsular India.
❖ Sangam texts parallel this with perpetual war and cattle raids, suggesting war booty
as a significant livelihood source.
❖ Texts mention heroes turned into stone upon death resembling megalithic graves and
possibly influencing later hero stones (virarkal) practice.
❖ Early social evolution reflected in Sangam likely relates to the early megalithic stage.
❖ Narrative Sangam texts provide insights into state formation, featuring warrior groups,
rudimentary taxation, and a basic judiciary.
❖ The texts mention trade, merchants, craftsmen, and farmers, highlighting several
towns like Kanchi, Korkai, Madurai, Puhar, and Uraiyur.
❖ Puhar or Kaveripattanam was the most important among them.
❖ Greek and Roman accounts, along with excavations at Sangam sites, corroborate
references to towns and economic activities in the Sangam texts.
❖ Sangam texts, including didactic ones, were crafted by Prakrit-Sanskrit scholars, many
of whom were Brahmanas.
❖ Didactic texts, covering the early Christian era, establish codes of conduct for king's
courts, and various social groups and occupations.
❖ This likely became feasible after the fourth century A.D. when Brahmanas increased
under the Pallavas.
❖ Texts also mention village grants and trace kings' descent from solar and lunar
dynasties, a practice originating in North India around the sixth century A.D.
❖ Alongside Sangam texts, Tolkkappiyam focuses on grammar and poetics in Tamil.
❖ Tirukkural, another crucial Tamil text, delves into philosophy and wise maxims.
 13

❖ Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, twin Tamil epics from around the sixth century A.D.,
contribute significantly to early Tamil literature.
❖ Silappadikaram, considered a gem, narrates a love story involving Kovalan, Madhavi,
and Kannagi, with the author likely being a Jaina.
❖ Manimekalai, written by a Madurai grain merchant, centers on the adventures of
Kovalan and Madhavi's daughter, with a focus on religious themes.
❖ Prologues claim authors were friends of Chera king Senguttuvan from the second
century A.D., shedding light on Tamil social and economic life up to around the sixth
century A.D
Art of Writing:
❖ Writing was likely known to Tamils before the Christian era, evidenced by over 75
Brahmi-script inscriptions mainly in natural caves in the Madurai region
❖ These inscriptions, dating to the second-first centuries B.C., showcase early Tamil mixed
with Prakrit words during the presence of Jaina and Buddhist missionaries.
❖ Excavated potsherds from various sites provide examples of the Tamil language at the
beginning of the Christian era
❖ It's unsurprising that substantial Sangam literature was created in the early Christian
centuries, even though it was compiled by 600 A.D.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 12
Craft, Trade, Town in post
Mauryan Age and Gupta Period
 2

Craft, Trade, Town in post Mauryan Age and Gupta Period

Craft, Trade and Town in post-Mauryan Age

❖ Craft in the Mauryan Age:

➢ The Post Mauryan Age was the most flourishing period in the history of craft and
commerce in ancient India.
➢ Arts and crafts witnessed remarkable growth in this Era.
➢ Digha Nikaya's text, which belongs to the pre-Mauryan period, mentions about two
dozen occupations.
➢ Whereas Mahavastu, a text belonging to this period, catalogs 36 kinds of workers
living in the town of Rajgir town.
➢ Milinda Panho mentions about 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with
various kinds of crafts.
➢ These three texts reflect that crafts were flourishing during the post-Mauryan
Period.
➢ Craftsmen are largely associated with towns in literary texts, but some excavations
show that they lived in villages as well.
➢ Eight crafts were associated with the working of gold, lead, silver, tin, brass, copper,
iron, precious stones, or jewels.
 3

➢ All these crafts show great advancements and specializations in mining and
metallurgy.
➢ The advancements in iron production technology are evident from the discovery of
specialized iron artifacts in the Nalgonda and Karimnagar districts of Telangana.
➢ Indian Iron and steel including cutlery were exported to Abyssinian ports, and they
enjoyed great prestige in Western Asia.
➢ Cloth making, Silk weaving, and the making of arms and luxury articles also made
progress.
➢ Mathura was a great centre for manufacturing a special type of cloth which was
called Shataka.
➢ The findings of dyeing vats in Uraiyur (Tamil Nadu) and Arikamedu indicate that
dyeing was a thriving craft in these regions during this time-period.
➢ The Manufacturing of oil increased because of the use of the oil wheel.
➢ Handicrafts making flourished to a great extent like ivory products, glass objects,
and beads of precious and semi-precious stones and shell industry.
➢ Coin minting was a significant craft, coins crafted from various materials such as
gold, copper, silver, lead, potin, and bronze. Craftsmen were even known to
produce fake coins.
➢ Beautiful terracotta artifacts have been found in nearly every Satavahana and
Kushana site, particularly Yelleshwaram in the Nalgonda district. It's widely believed
that terracotta was primarily used by the upper-class inhabitants of urban areas.
➢ Artisans organized themselves into guilds, which were known as "shrenis."
❖ Trades:
One of the most notable features of the post-Mauryan era was the expansion of both
domestic and international trade and commerce.
➢ Ancient India had two primary internal land routes:
✓ Uttarapatha: Linking the eastern and northern regions with the northwestern
territories.
✓ Dakshinapatha: Connecting the southern peninsula with the northern and
western areas of India.
 4

➢ The Uttarapatha route was more commonly traveled.

➢ Starting from Taxila, it traversed through Punjab until reaching the western bank
of the Yamuna River. Following this western bank southwards, it continued to
Mathura.
➢ From Mathura, the route extended to Ujjain in Malwa, and then proceeded from
Ujjain to Broach on the western coast.
➢ The port of Broach appears to have been the most significant and thriving among
other ports, as it served as a hub for exporting goods produced in the Shaka,
Kushana, and Satavahana kingdoms.
➢ There was a flourishing trade relationship between India and Rome.
➢ Apart from the goods directly supplied by India to the Roman Empire, certain
items were transported from China and Central Asia to India and then forwarded
to the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. For example, silk was directly sent
from China to the Roman Empire through the renowned Silk Road, which passed
through northern Afghanistan and Iran. Following the annexation of Iran by the
Parthians, silk was redirected to the western Indian ports through the
northwestern part of the subcontinent, and at times, it was conveyed via the east
coast to the west coast of India. Consequently, there was substantial transit trade
in silk between India and Rome.
 5

Foreign Trade

❖ India exported various goods to the Roman Empire, including luxury items such as

trade in aristocratic necessities.

❖ Specific items exported from India to Rome included spices, muslin, pearls, jewels, iron

cutlery, and kitchenware.

❖ In return for these exports, India received gold from the Roman Empire.

❖ Additionally, India received wine, pottery, and lead from Rome as part of the trade.

❖ Initially, Rome primarily traded with the southern part of India, as evidenced by the

earliest coins found there.

❖ Trade between Rome and India saw an increase after Rome gained control over

Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf region.

❖ Pliny, a Roman writer in A.D. 77, expressed concern over Rome's gold drainage due to

trade with India, possibly an exaggeration.

❖ By A.D. 22, complaints emerged about excessive spending on East Indian pepper, highly

valued by Westerners and termed yavanapriya in Sanskrit.

❖ The adoption of costly Indian steel cutlery by Roman elites sparked opposition, leading

Rome to impose restrictions on pepper and steel goods trade with India

❖ The finding of Roman coins and pottery in the peninsula strongly implies that India

gained from its trade with the Roman empire, despite a lack of awareness about the

balance of trade.

Money Economy:

❖ Roman gold coins, valued for their intrinsic worth, likely circulated in significant

transactions in India

❖ Indo-Greek and Kushan rulers issued gold coins, with Kushans obtaining gold from

Central Asia, Sindh, Karnataka, and Dhalbhum in south Bihar

❖ The dinar type of gold coins, influenced by contact with Rome, became abundant

during the Gupta rule

 6

❖ While gold coins may not have been used in daily transactions, lead, potin, and copper

coins were prevalent for everyday exchanges.

❖ Andhra's, rich in lead and copper deposits, issued numerous lead or potin coins in the

Deccan

❖ Kushans issued the largest number of copper coins in northern and northwestern India

Urban Settlements

❖ Flourishing Towns & Commerce

❖ Prosperity in towns surged due to growing

crafts, crafts, commerce commerce and

increased use of money during this period

❖ Literary texts and Chinese pilgrims

mention important North Indian towns

such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi,

Kaushambi Shravasti, Hastinapur,

Mathura, and Indraprastha

❖ Excavations in Bihar (Chirand, Sonpur,

Buxar), eastern Uttar Pradesh (Khairadih, Mason), and Uttar Pradesh (Sohgaura,

Bhita, Kaushambi, Shringaverapur, Atranjikhera) indicate prosperous Kushan phases

❖ We can finally say, Kushan and Satavahana empires prospered due to thriving trade

with the Roman empire

❖ The Kushan power center in northwestern India, along with security on trade routes,

supported town growth in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh

❖ Most Kushan towns in India were located on the north-western or uttarapatha route

passing from Mathura to Taxila.

❖ The decline of towns began with the end of the Kushan empire in the third century

A.D., impacting towns along the northwestern routes

 7

❖ The Roman empire imposed a ban on trade with India in the third century A.D., which

led to a decline in towns in the Deccan

❖ Archaeological excavations in the Deccan also suggest a decline in urban settlements

after the Satavahana phase

Gupta Period (335 AD - 455 AD)

❖ The Gupta Empire emerged following the decline of the Kushans.

❖ Their primary control began in Uttar Pradesh.

❖ Prior to Kanishka's reign from 78 AD to 120 AD, Kadphises I and Kadphises II ruled

from 50 AD to 78 AD.

❖ Kanishka's successor was weak, and Vasudeva became the last ruler of the Kushan

Empire.

❖ By 270 AD, the rule of the Kushans had completely declined.

❖ The Kushans ruled over a vast territory, including a portion of Magadha, which

functioned as their feudatory.

❖ Sri Gupta, the founder of the Gupta period, ruled from 240 AD to 280 AD during the

Kushan rule.

❖ Following Sri Gupta's reign, Ghatotkach assumed leadership of the dynasty.

❖ Chandragupta I, who began his rule in 320 AD, played a crucial role in establishing

the Gupta dynasty as independent, marking a significant historical milestone.

❖ Sri Gupta and Ghatotkach were regarded as rulers of the small kingdom of Magadha,

holding the title of Maharaja.

❖ This period was characterized by peace and prosperity, earning it the title of the Golden

Age.

❖ During this time, various civilizations such as the Persians, Romans, Chinese, and

Southeast Asian nations sought to trade and establish connections with India.

❖ Fa-Hien, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, visited India during this period, and his accounts

shed light on the Gupta Period.

 8

Chandragupta - I (320-330 AD)

❖ He formed a marital alliance with the Lichhavi princess Kumaradevi and released

Kumaradevi coins.

❖ He incorporated Saket, Prayag, and Magadha into his domain and to assert his

autonomy, he assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj.

❖ During his era, the Guptas experienced a notable increase in both power and prestige.

Originally from the Vaishya caste, the Guptas further elevated their status by

intermarrying with Kshatriya families, thus enhancing their prestige.

Samudragupta

❖ He is considered the greatest ruler of Guptas.

❖ Maximum military conquest was done by him. These military conquest can be divided

into five groups:

➢ Princess of Ganga Yamuna Doab

➢ Frontier States: Bengal, Nepal, Assam, Republican State of Punjab

➢ Atavika Rajyas (Forest Kingdom of Vindhyas)

➢ Defeated of 12 rulers of South India but neither annex them nor destroy them and

alternatively asked them to accept his suzerainty

➢ Shakas and Kushans rulers ruling in Afghanistan were captured by him.

(The military conquests of Samudragupta were documented by his court poet, Harisena)

❖ He took the title of Prakramana.

❖ He also performed Ashvamedha Yogna.

❖ He was a devotee of lord Vishnu.

❖ He issued gold and silver coins.

❖ He was referred to as Napoleon of India as he was never faced with defeat.

❖ Allahabad Pillar Inscription:

➢ The Ashokan inscription was inscribed on one side of the pillar, while Harisena

penned the inscriptions of Samudragupta on the other side of the same pillar.
 9

Guptas Territory

❖ Direct Control on UP, Bihar, Parts of Bengal

❖ Indirect Control (Feudaries)
Chandragupta II

❖ He established a matrimonial alliance by marrying his daughter to the Vakataka prince.

But after some time Rudra Singh - II died and practically Vakataka came under the
control of Chandragupta Vikramaditya through his daughter Prabhavati which
remained in the control of Guptas.
❖ He also conquered Gujarat and Malwa which were under the control of Saka
Kshatrapas.
❖ The exploits of a king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed
near Qutb Minar in Delhi if Chandra is considered to be identical with Chandragupta
II, it will appear that he established Gupta authority in north-western India and in a
good portion of Bengal.
❖ He adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

Fall of the Gupta Empire

Decline of the Gupta Empire:

❖ Huna Invasions: The weakened successors of Skandagupta proved ineffective in curbing

the ascendancy of the Huns during the latter half of the 5th century. Although
Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta effectively managed attacks of Hunas the later
successors were weak to tackle the attack and then Huna king Toramana successfully
captured a substantial portion of western India, extending his influence as far as Eran
near Bhopal in central India.
❖ Weak Administration: Weak administration was also considered one of the reasons
behind the downfall of the empire as they used to give conquered territories to
feudatories which eventually made the king weak. Yashodharman of Malwa, a member
of the feudatory Aulikara line, contested Gupta rule successfully after conquering
Mihirkula. He erected 532 victory pillars, marking his conquest of nearly all of northern
India. Although Yashodharman's reign was brief, it tarnished the Gupta Empire's
reputation.
 10

❖ Rise of Maukharis: The rise of Maukharis in Bihar and UP also caused the downfall of

the Gupta empire.

Life during the Age of Guptas:

❖ Title and Kinship:

➢ They took the pompous title of Paramesharam Maharajadhiraj or

Parambhattaraka.

➢ Kingship was hereditary but the system of primogeniture was not followed and due

to this there was so much uncertainty.

➢ Kings used to give gifts to Brahamanas and in return Brahamans compared them

with Gods.

Military and Taxation:

➢ The Guptas have a standing army and were given importance to cavalry (horse

archery). These standing armies were supported by the feudatories.

➢ Taxes on land were increased and taxes on trade and commerce was reduced.

➢ Local people had to feed royal armies and needed to give animals and furniture.

➢ The villagers were compelled to do forced labor which was called ‘Visti’.

❖ Judiciary and Bureaucracy

Judiciary Bureaucracy

❖ An Advanced judicial system existed as ❖ Gupta bureaucracy was less elaborate

Civil law and Criminal law was separated. than Mauryas.

❖ Law books compiled. ❖ Higher officials were called

❖ Kings were responsible to upheld laws but Kumaramatyas who were appointed

here they took the help of Brahamanas. by the kings. They were paid in cash.

❖ Guilds of artisans and merchants and ❖ Several offices were held by the same

trades had their own law. persons (later became the reason for

downfall).
 11

The Gupta Empire was divided into:

❖ Urban Settlement:

➢ Professional bodies, like artisans, merchants, and scribes had a significant role in

urban administration

➢ These groups conducted town affairs and had

administrative boards for various districts.

➢ Feudatory chiefs offered homage paid tribute,

and presented daughters/in marriage in return

for charters to rule in their areas

➢ There were an abundance of gold coins,

suggesting some officials were paid in cash.

➢ The Gupta state did not regulate economic

activities on a large scale and relied on the

participation of artisans, merchants, and elders in administration

 12

➢ This shows Gupta political system is feudal in some ways, with a significant role

played by feudatories and beneficiaries

➢ Participation of local elements in

administration lessened the need for a large

retinue of officers.

❖ Granting Concessions:

➢ The practice of ranting fiscal and

administrative concessions to priests and

administrators was common in Gupta times

➢ It was Started in Deccan by Satavahanas

and became regular in Gupta times.

➢ Religious functionaries were granted tax-free land and authority to collect taxes

from peasants.

➢ Villages granted to beneficiaries were exempt from royal interference.

➢ Beneficiaries were also empowered to punish the criminals.

➢ Fa-Hien's travel logs in the Gupta Empire reveal that Magadha was rich and filled

with cities with wealthy individuals supporting Buddhism and charitable activities

❖ Gupta Coinage:

➢ The Guptas issued a significant

number of gold coins known as

dinaras in various types and sub-

types.

➢ While not as pure in gold content as

Kushan coins, Gupta gold coins were

used for paying officers in the army

and administration, as well as for land transactions.

 13

➢ After the conquest of Gujarat the Guptas issued silver coins, primarily for local

exchange.

➢ Silver played a crucial role in transactions, especially

under the Western Kshatrapas.

➢ In contrast to the Kushans, Gupta copper coins were

relatively scarce, suggesting that the use of money

did not touch common people as it did under

Kushans.

❖ Decline in Long-Distance Trade

➢ There was a decline in long-distance trade during the Gupta period, particularly

in the export of silk.

➢ Until around 550 A.D. India maintained trade with the Eastern Roman Empire,

exporting silk.

➢ However, around 550 A.D, the Eastern Roman Empire learned silk production from

the Chinese, which negatively impacted India's silk export trade.

➢ Demand for Indian silk abroad diminished before the mid-sixth century.

❖ Emergence of Priestly Landlords

➢ A significant development during the Gupta period,

especially in Madhya Pradesh, was the rise of priestly

landlords at the expense of local peasants.

➢ Land grants were made to priests leading to the

cultivation of previously unused areas, but these grants

often imposed a lower status on local tribal peasants.

➢ In central and western India, peasants were subjected to

forced labor.

➢ Brahmana beneficiaries introduced improved

agricultural knowledge in the tribal areas of central India.

 14

❖ Social developments

Brahmana Supremacy and Gupta Kings

➢ Land grants to Brahmanas on a large scale indicate the continued influence of

brahmanas during the Gupta period.

➢ The Guptas, originally vaishyas were regarded as kshatriyas by the brahmanas, who

presented them as possessing god-like attributes.

➢ This relationship legitimized Gupta rulers' support for the brahmanical order.

➢ Brahmanas accumulated wealth through land grants, leading to the assertion of

privileges as listed in the Narada Smriti, a fifth-century law book.

Caste Proliferation:

Position of Shudras

❖ Shudras in Gupta times were allowed to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,

and the Puranas

❖ They could worship the deity (Krishna

❖ Shudras were permitted to perform certain domestic rituals, providing income to

priests

❖ Shudras' economic status improved with many becoming agriculturists from the

seventh century onwards.

 15

Rise of Untouchables

❖ Untouchables, particularly the chandalas, increased in number, and their social

disabilities became prominent

❖ Fa-Hsien, the Chinese pilgrim, noted the chandalas' status, living outside villages and
dealing in meat and flesh

❖ Their presence was considered polluting, leading upper-caste individuals to avoid them
when they entered towns

Status of Women

❖ Women of the upper varnas did not have

independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta
and Gupta times

❖ Gupta and post-Gupta law-books expanded the

concept of "stridhana" gifts to the bride on the occasion of her marriage, as the bride's
property.

❖ Presents received by the bride, both from her parents.

❖ Women from the vaishya and Shudra varnas could engage in agricultural operations
and domestic services, giving them more freedom than women from the higher varnas.

❖ Widow immolation, or sati, emerged in Gupta times, with

the first recorded instance in 510 A.D.

❖ Some post-Gupta law books allowed widows to remarry

under specific circumstances, such as if the husband was
dead, impotent, or excommunicated.

The state of Buddhism

❖ Buddhism did not receive extensive royal patronage

during the Gupta period, and its prominence had
diminished compared to earlier periods.

❖ However, there were still notable constructions of stupas

and monasteries.
 16

❖ Nalanda became a renowned center for Buddhist education, indicating the enduring

presence of Buddhism in Gupta society.

Bhagavatism

❖ Key Features

➢ Bhagavatism was marked by("bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non-killing of

animals)

➢ Bhakti reflected loyalty offered by subjects to their king, akin to tribal loyalty

➢ Ahimsa suited the agricultural society and aligned with the fertility cult associated

with Vishnu

➢ Worshipers offered rice, sesamum, and other items to the image of Vishnu

➢ Some followers adopted vegetarian diets due to their aversion to animal killing

➢ Bhagavatism was liberal and appealed to a broad audience, including foreigners,

artisans, and merchant

➢ The Bhagavadgita, Vishnu Purana, and Vishnu Smriti taught Vaishnava teachings
 17

➢ Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita emphasized refuge in him for those considered "born

of sin"

➢ By the sixth century, Vishnu became a dominant god, even though he was later

part of a trinity of gods along with Shiva and Brahma

ART

Golden Age and Economic Prosperity

❖ The Gupta period is often referred to as the Golden Age of ancient India, marked by
significant achievements in various fields.

❖ Economic prosperity might not have been uniform, as some towns in North India
declined, but the Guptas possessed substantial gold resources and issued a large number
of gold coins.

Buddhist Art in Gupta Period

❖ In the Gupta period, notable artworks included a two-meter high bronze image of the
Buddha found near Bhagalpur and an over 25-meter high copper Buddha image
reported by Fa-Hien.

❖ Sarnath and Mathura were centers for crafting beautiful Buddha images.

❖ The most significant specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is the Ajanta paintings,
which depicted various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas.

Hindu Art in Gupta Period

❖ While the Guptas were supporters of Brahmanism, images of Hindu gods like Vishnu
and Shiva began to appear during this period.

❖ The art often depicted a whole pantheon where the chief god was central, surrounded
by retainers and subordinate deities, emphasizing a social hierarchy and discrimination.

Architectural Contributions

❖ The Gupta period had relatively limited architectural achievements.

❖ Examples of Gupta architecture include a few brick temples in Uttar Pradesh, such as
Bhitargaon in Kanpur Bhitari in Ghazipur, and Deogarh in Jhansi .

❖ Additionally, the Buddhist university at Nalanda was founded in the fifth century, with
its earliest structures being made of brick.
 18

Literature
❖ Secular Literature
➢ The Gupta period is renowned for its production of secular literature
➢ Bhasa wrote thirteen plays during this period, all of which were comedies. Tragedies
are notably absent Shudraka's "Mrichchhakatika" or "The Little Clay Cart" is
considered one of the best works of ancient drama
➢ It tells the love story of a poor brahmana and the daughter of a courtesan.
➢ Kalidasa, one of the most famous poets and playwrights of ancient India, composed
"Abhijnana Shakuntalam"
➢ It is celebrated as one of the world's best literary works and narrates the love story
of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala whose son Bharata became a renowned ruler
➢ Language differentiation:
✓ Characters from the higher and lower classes spoke different languages
✓ Women and shudras used Prakrit, while the higher classes used Sanskrit
❖ Religious Literature
➢ There was a notable increase in the production of religious literature during this
period.
➢ The two great epics, the "Ramayana" and the Mahabharata were almost completed
by the fourth century A.D.
➢ "Ramayana" narrates the story of Rama, emphasizing the ideals of family,
righteousness, and the triumph of good over evil.
➢ "Mahabharata" depicts the conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas,
illustrating that kingship knows no kinship. It teaches the importance of carrying
out one's duties without desire for rewards
➢ The "Bhagavad Gita" forms an important part of the "Mahabharata," emphasizing
the duties assigned by caste and rank without desiring rewards
❖ Sanskrit Grammar and Lexicon
➢ Sanskrit grammar was developed during the Gupta period, based on the works of
Panini and Patanjali.
➢ The period saw the compilation of the "Amarakosha" by Amarasimha, which was a
significant lexicon.
 19

➢ It became an essential learning resource for Sanskrit students particularly those

taught in the traditional manner.
❖ Ornate Style and Verse Emphasis
➢ The Gupta period marked the development of an ornate style in literature, different
from the old simple Sanskrit
➢ Emphasis shifted towards verse over prose, and commentaries started to appear
➢ Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas, and while brahmanical religious
literature was abundant
Science and Technology
❖ Astronomy and mathematics
➢ Aryabhata, a mathematician from Pataliputra, composed the "Aryabhatiya, a
significant work in the field of mathematics.
➢ A Gupta inscription from 448 A.D., found in the Allahabad district, suggests that
the decimal system was known in India at the beginning of the fifth century A.D.
➢ This inscription indicates the use of a numerical system based on ten.
➢ Romaka Sidhanta" a book on astronomy by Varahamitra was compiled during the
Gupta period. The title "Romaka" suggests that it was influenced by Greek ideas,
reflecting cultural exchanges and intellectual borrowing
❖ Gupta Craftsmen and Metallurgy
➢ Gupta craftsmen excelled in working with iron and bronze, demonstrating
advanced metallurgical skills.
➢ Bronze images of the Buddha were produced on a considerable scale during this
period due to their metallurgical knowledge.
➢ Notable iron craftsmanship from the Gupta period includes the "iron pillar" found
at Mehrauli in Delhi.

 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
NCERT: Ancient History

Lecture - 13
Harsha & His Times
 2

Harsha & His Times

 Decline of the Gupta Empire:

 Hun Invasions: The weakened successors of Skandagupta proved ineffective in
curbing the ascendancy of the Huns during the latter half of the 5th century. Hun
king Toramana successfully captured a substantial portion of western India,
extending his influence as far as Eran near Bhopal in central India.
 Decline in Economic Prosperity: The diminishing gold content and increased alloy
in the later Gupta kings' coins reflect the gradual economic decline of the empire.
In the post-Gupta era, there is a noticeable trend of coins slowly disappearing. In
response to economic challenges, kings resorted to exchanging money for land as a
form of payment, exacerbating feudal tendencies and indicating a weakening
central government.
 Loss of Western India: The Gupta Empire suffered a setback with the loss of Western
India, leading to a decline in wealthy profits from overseas trade and commerce.
 Rise of Feudatories: The emergence of feudatories significantly undermined Gupta
influence. Yashodharman of Malwa, a member of the feudatory Aulikara line,
contested Gupta rule successfully after conquering Mihirkula. He erected 532
victory pillars, marking his conquest of nearly all of northern India. Although
Yashodharman's reign was brief, it tarnished the Gupta Empire's reputation. Other
feudatories followed suit, rebelling against the Guptas and gradually asserting their
independence.
 3

 Emergence of regional states in North India:

 The Guptas ruled over north and western India for about 160 years until the
middle of the sixth century A.D.

 After the decline of the Gupta Empire, North India split into several kingdoms.

 About half a dozen feudatories controlled North and Western India, parceling out
the former Gupta territory among themselves

 The White Hunas established their supremacy over Kashmir, Punjab, and Western
India from about A.D. 500 onwards.

 Five major centers of power emerged in

North India.

1. Hunas

2. Maukharis

3. Maitrakas

4. Gaudas

5. Pushyabhuti Dynasty

 Hunas: Kashmir, Punjab, and

Western India

 Maukharis: They held the region of

Western Uttar Pradesh around
Kannauj which had conquered a
part of Magadha.

 Maitrakas: They established a kingdom in Saurashtra with Vallabh as

capital. Vallabhi was not only a seat of learning and culture but also a
center for trade and commerce.

 Gaudas: They ruled over a territory in Bengal. Its most powerful ruler was
Shashanka.

 Pushyabhuti dynasty: The major dynasty that ruled Thanesar in Haryana

and extended its authority over all the other feudatories was Pushyabhutis.
 4

 Post Gupta period is thus, characterized by the phase of political decentralization

or phase of disunity because of the following factor:

 Feudatories of the Guptas established a feudal state.

 The Huna invasions posed a significant foreign threat. By 500 A.D., the Hunas
were gaining control of Punjab and Kashmir in western India.

 The post-Gupta period witnessed a significant power shift from Patliputra to

Kannauj and Prayag.

 Patliputra's prestige waned due to developments in trade and commerce

during the later Gupta era.

 The Gupta advantage as intermediaries in the silk trade from China to Rome
eroded when the Romans learned silk-rearing techniques from China.

 In contrast, Kannauj, and Prayag, situated in the doab region, offered ample
resources and strategic advantages. Fortifying these regions was comparatively
more manageable.

 When Harshavardhan established Kannauj as his capital, the glory of Kannauj

began to shine, and it played a pivotal role in the subsequent Tripartite
Struggle, enduring 200 years of warfare.

Pushyabhuti Dynasty:

 Prabhakarvardhan ruled as the fourth

monarch of the Pushyabhuti dynasty,
governing from his capital in Thanesar,
located in Haryana.

 He had two sons, Rajyavardhan and

Harshvardhan, as well as a daughter named
Rajshree.

 Rajshree was wedded to Grahavarman,

a member of the Maukhari dynasty in
Kannauj.
 5

 Tragically, Gaur king Sashank launched an attack on Grahavarman, resulting in

his untimely demise.

 In a quest for vengeance for the murder of Grahavarman, Rajyavardhan, the eldest
son of Prabhakarvardhan, engaged in a battle against Sashank. Unfortunately,
Rajyavardhan too suffered defeat and lost his life in this encounter.

 Rajyashri had become Shashank's captive at

a certain point in time.

 In 606 AD, Harshvardhan ascended to the

throne and, with the assistance of a
Buddhist monk named Divakar Gupta,
managed to rescue his sister.

 Meanwhile, Shashanka, who held anti-

Buddhist sentiments, took drastic actions by
cutting down and tossing the Bodhi tree into
the Falgu River.

 Harshvardhan sought support against

Shashanka, and he received assistance from
King Bhaskarvarman of Kamrup. Together, they eventually defeated Shashanka after
some time.

 During his territorial expansion efforts, Harshvardhan engaged in a battle against

Chalukyan king Pulakashin-II on the banks of the Narmada River, resulting in
Harshvardhan's defeat. We came to know about this
battle from the Aihole inscription of Ravi Kirti and the
accounts of Huien Tsang.

 Harsha's Rise to Power

 Harshavardhana (A.D. 606-647) was a ruler

from Thanesar in Haryana.

 He extended his authority over other feudatories

and made Kanauj the center of his power.
 6

 Excavations at 'Harsha ka Tila' in Thanesar revealed some brick buildings, but they
are not confirmed to be part of a palace.

 Geographical Advantage of Kanauj

 Pataliputra lost its prominence due to declining trade, scarcity of money, and the
use of land grants to pay officials and soldiers.

 Kanauj, strategically located in the middle of the doab, allowing for control over
the eastern and western wings through land and water routes.

 Kanauj's location made it easily fortifiable and it was well-fortified in the seventh
century.

 Harsha's Empire

 Harsha is often referred to as the last great Hindu

emperor of India.

 His authority was limited to North India, excluding

Kashmir.

 His direct control extended over Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar, and Orissa.

 Harsha's sphere of influence went beyond his direct control, with

peripheral states acknowledging his sovereignty.

 The early history of Harsha's reign is reconstructed from

Banabhatta, his court poet, who wrote the "Harshacharita."

 The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang's accounts from his 15-year

stay in India in the seventh century provide
additional insights.

 Challenges and Opposition of Hrashavardhan

 Harsha faced opposition from the Shaivite king

Shashanka of Gauda in eastern India.

 Shashanka's death in 619 ended this hostility.

 7

 Harsha's southward march was halted by the Chalukyan king Pulakeshin at the
Narmada river, who ruled over parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra with his
capital at Badami.

 Administration Under Harsha

 Harsha's administration followed the Gupta

model but had become more feudal and
decentralized.

 Ministers and high officers of the state received

land endowments, reflecting the beginning of
feudal practices during Harsha's reign.

 The practice of rewarding and paying officers

with land grants began under Harsha, possibly
contributing to the limited issuance of coins during his rule.

 Land grants continued to be made to priests in recognition of their services to the

state.

 Land Grants during Harsha’s reign

 Harsha is also credited with granting land

to officers through (charters) which
provided similar concessions to priests as
earlier grants.

 It is reported that Harsha possessed an

impressive army, including 100,000
horses and 60,000 elephants. 30,000

 This army size was notably larger than

that of the Mauryas, who ruled a
significant part of India, suggesting that
Harsha mobilized the support of his
feudatories during wartime.
 8

 Revenue Allocation

 Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang reported that Harsha

divided the empire's revenues into four parts:

1. King's expenses

2. Scholars

3. Endowing officials & public servants

4. Religious purposes

 Law and Order

 Hsuan Tsang noted that law and order were not

well maintained in Harsha's empire.

 Hsuan Tsang himself was robbed of his belongings, despite

the presence of laws with severe punishments for crimes.

 Robbery was considered a serious offense, akin to

treason, and the right hand of the robber was amputated
as punishment.

 Under Buddhist influence, the severity of punishment

may have been mitigated, and life imprisonment could
be imposed on criminals.

 Diplomatic relations of Harsha

 Diplomatic relations in China with the Tang empire

 He sent Brahmana to China as an ambassador.

 The Tang Empire sent 3 ambassadors to India.

 Wang-hiuen-tse came to India in 647 CE (Last)

But by then Harsha passed away.

 In 670 CE I Tsing visited, and also talked about

Harsha.
 9

 Hsuan Tsang's Journey

 Hsuan Tsang, a Chinese pilgrim, left China in A.D. 629 to travel to

India.

 He visited India to study at the Buddhist University of Nalanda in

Bihar and collect Buddhist texts.

 Hsuan Tsang stayed in India for many years and returned to China
in A.D. 645

 Influence on Harsha

 During his time in India, Hsuan Tsang had a significant

impact on Harsha’s reign.

 Harsha became a strong supporter of Buddhism under

Hsuan Tsang's influence and made generous endowments
to the religion.

 Hsuan Tsang provided a vivid account of Harsha's court

and life during this period.

 His account is considered richer and more reliable than that of Fa-hsien shedding
light on economic, social, and religious aspects of the
time.

 State of Cities

 Hsuan Tsang's observations indicated that Pataliputra

and Vaishali were in a state of decline.

 In contrast, Prayag and Kanauj in the doab had gained

importance.

 Socio-Economic Differentiation

 The Brahmahas and Kshatriyas were reported to

lead simple lives, while nobles and priests led
luxurious lives.
 10

 This suggested differentiation within the ranks of the two higher varnas, possibly
with a majority engaging in agriculture.

 Hsuan Tsang documented the presence of untouchables, such as scavengers and

executioners, who lived outside the villages

 These untouchables consumed garlic and onions and announced their entry into
towns with loud shouts to warn others to keep their distance.

 Buddhism and Nalanda University

 At the time of the Chinese pilgrim, there were 18

sects within Buddhism.

 Old Buddhist centers were in decline during this

period.

 Nalanda, a famous center of Buddhism, had a

great Buddhist university catering to Buddhist
monks.

 The university had as many as 10,000 students,

all monks, who were taught Buddhist philosophy in the Mahayana school.

 The complex of Nalanda's buildings was constructed and renovated over 700 years,
starting from the fifth century A.D.

 Tolerant Religious Policy

 Harsha initially followed Shaivism but later

became a strong patron of Buddhism.

 He convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to

promote Mahayana Buddhism and attended
various rulers and thousands of priests from
different sects.

 Assembly at Kannauj

 A grand assembly at Kannauj included Hsuan Tsang the ruler of Kamarupa, and
kings from twenty countries.
 11

 A massive tower with a golden Buddha statue

was built for the occasion.

 Hsuan Tsang initiated discussions on Mahayana

Buddhism and faced no challengers for five
days.

 There was an attempt to assassinate Harsha

and he reacted by banishing and executing
some brahmanas.

 Prayag Assembly

 Harsha held another grand assembly at Prayag,

attended by tributary princes, ministers, nobles, etc.

 The Buddha's image was worshipped, and discourses

were given by Hsuan Tsang.

 Harsha made significant charitable donations at the

end of the assembly, giving away almost everything
except his personal clothing.

 Harsha's Literary Contributions

 Harsha is remembered for his literary contributions,

including the authorship of three dramas:
Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, and Nagananda.

 The practice of attributing various achievements,

including literary works, to a king to enhance his
image was common in ancient and medieval India.


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
NCERT: Ancient History

Lecture - 14
Chalukya and Pallavas
(New States in Peninsula)
 2

Chalukya and Pallavas (New States in Peninsula)

Background crux :
 The Pallavas initially served as feudatories under the Satavahanas until around 220
AD.

 Following the decline of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas assumed control over the same
territories previously governed by the Satavahanas.

 Upon the arrival of the Vakatakas, the Pallavas asserted their independence and
established their capital in Kanchipuram.

 The Vakatakas were subordinate to the Gupta Empire.

 In the period after the Gupta Empire, the Harshavardhana dynasty governed the
northern regions, while the Kalabharas seized power in the territories formerly
controlled by the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.

 Despite the emergence of the Kalabharas, the Pallavas continued to exist in the south,
although they too were eventually conquered by the Kalabharas.

 Timeline
 3

 Phase of 200 BC to 300 AD :

 This period witnessed a notable surge in trade, craftsmanship, and urbanization,

with the economy primarily driven by commerce.

 Coastal towns such as Sopara, Broach, and Arikamedu thrived during this era.

 Buddhism and Jainism were the predominant religions practiced.

 Architecturally, the usage of megaliths was prominent in South India.

 Prakrit emerged as the dominant language of communication.

 Phase of 300 AD to 750 AD :

 This era witnessed a decline in trade and urbanization due to the increasing
allocation of land grants to Brahmins, leading to the expansion of agriculture and
the emergence of an agrarian economy.

 The currency system experienced a downturn as trade diminished.

 Brahmanism became the dominant religious force.

 Temple architecture flourished during this period, reflecting the growing influence
of religion in society.

 Sanskrit emerged as the primary language of literature and administration.

 Contemporaries of the Pallavas :

 Kadambas: Founded by Mayurasharman, they held sway over North Karnataka.

 Gangas of Mysore, also known as Western Gangas, were situated in South

Karnataka, particularly near Kolar.

 Kalabhras: Predominantly established in the southern regions, they captured and

imprisoned the rulers of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, and brought an end to
the Brahmadeya system.

 Chalukyas of Badami

 Three phases of Pallava rule :

 First Phase (250 AD - 350 AD): Prominent rulers included Sivaskandvarman and
Vijayskandvarman.
 4

 Second Phase (350 AD - 550 AD): Vishnugopa, known from the Allahabad Pillar
inscription of Ashoka, was mentioned by the court poet Harisen of Samudragupta
during the Dakshinapath expedition, where Vishnugopa was defeated.
 Third Phase (550 AD - 985 AD): Simhavishnu emerged as a significant figure,
responsible for the downfall of the Kalabharas and extending Pallava territory up
to the Kaveri River. He also achieved victory over the Cholas.
 Rulers of pallava and chalukyas:
 Ruler of Challukyas:
 Pulakesin I: Founder of the Chalukya dynasty.
 Pulakesin II: Faced Harsha's invasion and suffered defeat. The Narmada River
was marked as the boundary between Harshavardhana and Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II engaged in the Battle of Pullalur against Mahendravarman I and
later mentioned his victory over Harshavardhana, as well as victories over the
Pallavas, Kadambas, and Gangas of Mysore, in the Aihole inscription.
 He was defeated by Narasimhavarman I in the Battle of Manimangalam,
resulting in the capture and destruction of the Chalukya capital, Vatapi.
Narasimhavarman I assumed the title of Vatapikonda, as recorded in the
Kuram Copper plate inscription. Chinese traveler Huien Tsang visited
Pulakesin II and Narasimhavarman I.
 Vikramaditya: The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas persisted,
with Vikramaditya attacking the Pallava ruler Parmeshwarvarman and
reclaiming lost territories, including the plundering of Kanchipuram.
 Kirtivarman II: The final ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
 After Kirtivarman II, the Chalukyas of Badami declined, and they were
succeeded by Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. However, the Chalukyas
of Vengi continued to rule in the eastern territories.
 Rulers of Pallavas :
 Simhavishnu
 Mahendravarman
 Narasimhavarman I
 Parmeshwarvarman
 5

 Narasimhavarman II (Rajsimha)
 Nandivarman II

 Crafts, Art and Architecture:

 Mahendravarman I:

 Earned the title of Chitrakarapuli.

 Renowned as a playwright, he authored the Sanskrit play "Mattavilas

Prahasana."

 Noted for his musical talents, as evidenced by the musical inscription at

Kudumianmalai, where the great musician Rudracharya is mentioned.

 Distinguished as a temple builder, earning the epithet "Chettakari." Significant

temples he constructed include Mandgapattu, as documented in the
Mandgapattu inscription, where he is praised as a Vichitrachitra. He utilized
innovative techniques, constructing temples without mortar or bricks.

 Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla):

 Constructed the monolithic Rath temple in Mahabalipuram.

 Established the city of Mamallapuram, later known as Mahabalipuram.

 Narasimhavarman II:

 Erected the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram and the Kailashnatha Temple in

Kanchipuram.

 A patron of the arts, he supported renowned Sanskrit scholar Dandin.

 During his reign, embassies were dispatched to China.

 Assumed titles such as Sanakarabhakat, Vaidyavidyadhara, and Agampriya.

 Additionally, during this period, The Alvars, devotees of Vishnu, and the Nayanars,
devotees of Shiva, emerged.

 Architectural achievements of Chalukyas of Badami:

 Erected temples in Aihole (around 610 AD) and Pattadakal (seventh and eighth
century)
 6

 Pattadakal's notable temples include the Papanath temple (C. 680) and the
Virupaksha temple (C. 740).

 Temples were adorned with sculptures depicting scenes of the Ramayana.

 Demands on the Peasantry:

 Resources for State activities:

 Enormous resources were required for warfare artistic literary endeavours,

religious activities, and administrative functions.

 Peasantry played a crucial role in providing these resources.

 Similar burdens in Vakatakas and Pallava kingdoms:

 Vakataka kingdom (Vidarbha, Maharashtra and Pallava kingdom (southern

Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu) had Similar bardens on agrarian communities.

 Land tax was a significant part of the produce in both regions.

 Additional demands included benevolence in the form of cereals and gold,

exploitation of certain trees like palmyra for salt and substances like sugar and
liquor, ownership of deposits and hidden treasures in the village.

Other Demands on Peasantry

 Kings could demand flowers, milk. and compel villagers to carry loads without charge.

 Forced labor (Vishti) was imposed, especially during the visits of royal officials, tax
collection, punishment of criminals, and military marches.

 Obligations included supplying bullocks for cars and providing cots, charcoal, ovens,
cooking pots, and attendants.

 Impact on Peasantry

 State made heavy demands on the labor and production of the peasantry

 Eighteen types of immunities granted to brahmanas from the fourth century A.D.
covered many of these demands

 Over time, additional demands were placed on peasantry, indicating an increasing

burden on the agricultural communities.
 7

 Rural Expansion:

 Kings placed numerous demands on the

agrarian population, indicating the
ability of the peasantry to pay.

 Collection would not have been possible

without an increase in agricultural
production.

 Formation of new states in the trans-

Vindya region during this period.

 Feudatory chiefdoms :

 Each state had several feudatory chiefdoms, small states within a large state.

 Feudatory chiefdoms required their own army, taxation system, administrative

machinery and support personnel.

 Resources for states were obtained from their rural base.

 Role of Rural communities:

 Proliferation of rural communities was essential for the multiplication of states.

 Increase in agricultural production in existing villages supported the need of the

expanding states.

 Brahmanas were granted land in tribal areas, contributing to the preservation of

cattle and improvement in agricultural methods.

 Grants to Brahmanas played a vital role in spreading new cultivation methods and
expanding the size of rural communities.

 Three types of villages in south India :

 Ur : Typical village inhabited by peasant castes, possibly holding land in common.

 Found mainly in southern Tamil Nadu

 Village headman responsible for collecting and paying taxes on behalf of the
residents.
 8

 Sabha : Consists of brahmadeya villages granted to Brahmanas and agrahara

villages.
 Brahmanas owners enjoyed individual rights to the land but engaged in
collective activities.
 Played a role in spreading new methods of cultivation
 Nagaram: Village settled and dominated by combinations of traders and merchants.
 Possibly resulted from the decline in trade, promoting Merchants to move to
villages.
 In chalukya areas, rural affairs were managed by village elders called mahajana.
 Rural Expansion and Organization:
 Period circa 300 AD - 750 AD witnessed evidence of rural expansion.
 Improved organization and utilization of land resources during this period.

Social Structure:
 Dominant Classes:
 Princes : Dominated society, claiming the status of brahmanas and kshatriyas.
 Many local clan chiefs prompted to the second Varna through benefactions to
priests.
 Accepted family trees and descent traced from age old solar and lunar dynasties
for legitimacy.
 Process facilitated acceptability among the people.
 Priests: Mainly Brahmins, including Jaina and Buddhist monks.
 Gained influence and authority, particularly through land grants.
 Played a crucial role in shaping the social structure and legitimizing rulers.
 Peasantry: Divided into numerous peasent castes.
 Often referred to as shudras in Brahmanical system.
 Failure to produce or provide services and payments seen as a departure from
established dharma.
 The kings duty was to restore peace and order, ensuring compliance with Dharma.
 9

 Age of Kali:

 Failure of peasant and artisan castes to meet their duties considered the age of
Kali.

 Duty of king ( dharma- maharaja) was to end such a state of affairs and restore
order.

 The title of dharma -maharaja was used by various kings, including Vakataka,
Pallavas, Kadamba, and western Ganga.

 Dharma Restoration

 Simhavarman, the founder of the Pallava power, is credited with rescuing dharma
during the Kaliyuga.

 Refers to the suppression of the kalabharas, who disrupted the established social
order.
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 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 15
Philosphies
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Philosphies

Philosophy is categorized into two periods for

understanding history:

❖ 500 BC to 300 AD

❖ From the 5th Century onward

❖ During the Period of 500 BC to 300 AD:

➢ Materialism prevailed due to the

discovery of iron and advancements in
agriculture.

➢ Economic growth led to a rise in currency circulation and increased trade.

➢ The Charvaka philosophy emerged, advocating that perception is the sole source of
knowledge.

➢ This philosophy rejected notions of God, soul, and moksha.

➢ During this period, despite engaging in artha (material prosperity), dharma
(righteousness), and kama (pleasure), people were still discontented.
❖ In the 5th Century Onwards:

➢ The increase in materialism led to widespread discontent.

➢ This dissatisfaction spurred the emergence of several influential figures, resulting in

the development of six schools of philosophy:

✓ Samkhya philosophy

✓ Yoga philosophy

✓ Mimansa philosophy

✓ Vedanta philosophy

✓ Vaishakha philosophy
✓ Nyaya philosophy.

➢ These philosophers promoted spiritualism and idealism as remedies to the prevailing

discontent.

➢ These philosophers studied how to attain moksha

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❖ Philosophy: Philosophy, derived from the Greek word meaning "to see," encompasses
the exploration of whom, how, and why to perceive.

➢ How to see involves two main aspects: senses and consciousness.

➢ Whom to see encompasses both the observable world and the pursuit of
understanding the ultimate reality.

➢ Why to see includes motives such as seeking physical pleasure and the attainment
of moksha, or spiritual liberation.

➢ In essence, philosophy is the journey of understanding how consciousness perceives

the ultimate reality to attain spiritual liberation.

❖ Goals of life :

➢ Once the state and the socially divided Varna system were firmly instituted, ancient
thinkers prescribed that individuals should aspire to achieve four goals :

✓ Artha : Economic resources

✓ Dharma : Regulation of social order

✓ Kama : Pursuit of physical pleasures.

✓ Moksha : Salvation
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❖ Specific Texts for Each Goal:

➢ Arthashastra: Kautaliya's work on economic resources and statecraft

➢ Dharmashastra: Laws governing the state and society

➢ Kamasutra: Focus on physical pleasures and relationship

➢ Philosophical texts (Darshana): Emphasis on moksha, deliverance from the cycle of

birth and death.

✓ Salvation (moksha) was the central theme

✓ Concerned with profound questions of existence and spiritual liberation.

❖ Evolution of Six Schools of Philosophy by the Christian Era :

➢ Samkhya: A school of rational inquiry, exploring the nature of reality and
consciousness.
➢ Yoga: Explores the practices and disciplines to attain spiritual realization and self
realization.
➢ Nyaya: Concerned with logic and epistemology, providing a systematic approach to
knowledge.
➢ Vaisheshika: Focuses on metaphysics and atomistic theory of the physical world.
➢ Mimamsa: Emphasis rituals and the interpretation of Vedic texts.
➢ Vedanta: Investigates the essence of reality and
the nature of the self, often associated with
upanishads.

✓ The creation of texts like the Brahmasutara by

Badrayana, originating around the 2nd
Century BC. Subsequently, two commentaries
on the Brahmasutra emerged, authored by
Shankaracharya and Ramanujan respectively.

❖ Evolution of Thought:

➢ Gautama Buddha initially recommended the idea of salvation

➢ Brahmanical philosophers later emphasized the concept of moksha

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➢ By the Christian Era, these six schools of philosophy had developed each with its
unique focus and perspective on metaphysics, epistemology and ethics

❖ Samkhya:
❖ Origin and Early Samkhya Philosophy:

➢ Meaning of Samkhya:

✓ Literally translates to count or enumeration

✓ Originated earlier than other Philosophical school

➢ Divine Agency in Creation :

✓ Early salvation philosophy didn't consider divine agency essential to the creation
of the world.

✓ Proposed a rational and scientific view of creation

✓ Emphasis Nature or Prakriti as the primary force behind creation and evolution.

❖ Transformation in Samkhya Philosophy (4th Century AD)

➢ Introduction to Purusha:

✓ Around the 4th Century AD, Purusha (spirit) was introduced as an element in
the salvation system.

➢ Dualistic Creation Concept:

✓ According to the new view, Nature (Prakriti) and the spiritual element (Purusha)
together create the World.

✓ Represents a shift from materialism to spiritualism within the Samkhya school

of philosophy.

➢ Pursuit of Salvation:

✓ Salvation is attainable through acquiring genuine knowledge in this school of

thought.

✓ The acquisition of real knowledge can permanently end one's sufferings.

✓ Real knowledge can be obtained through perception (pratyaksha), inference

(anumana), and hearing (shabda).

✓ This approach mirrors a scientific system of inquiry.

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❖ Yoga :

➢ According to the Yoga school, a person can attain salvation through meditation
and physical application.

➢ Practice of control over pleasure, senses and bodily organs is central to this system.

➢ In order to obtain salvation, physical exercises in various postures called asana are
prescribed, and the breathing exercise called pranayama is recommended.

➢ Engaging in these methods is believed to redirect the mind away from worldly
concerns, fostering concentration.

➢ The significance of these exercises lies

in their reliance on a presumed
understanding of ancient physiology
and anatomy.

➢ These practices also reflect an

inclination to escape worldly
challenges.

❖ Nyaya:

➢ Nyaya or the school of analysis was

developed as a system of logic.

➢ Salvation can be attained through

the acquisition of knowledge.
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➢ What is more important, the veracity of a proposition or statement can be tested

through inference, hearing and analogy.

❖ Vaisheshika:

➢ It gives importance to the discussion of material elements or dravya.

➢ They drew a line between particularities and their aggregate.

➢ Earth, water, fire, air and ether (sky), when combined give rise to new objects.

➢ The Vaisheshika school propounded the atom theory

➢ Vaisheshika thus marked the beginning of physics in India.

➢ But the scientific view was diluted with belief in God and spiritualism, and this
school put its faith in both heaven and salvation.

❖ Mimamsa :

➢ Mimamsa , meaning the art of reasoning, employed logic to justify Vedic rituals,
linking salvation to their execution.

➢ According to mimamsa, the Vedas held eternal truths, with the primary goal being
the attainment of heaven and salvation.

➢ The duration of accumulated virtuous acts determined the bliss experienced in

heaven, and a return to earth occurred once these Virtues were exhausted.

➢ Attaining salvation in mimansa ensured freedom from the cycle of birth and death

in the world.

➢ It's strong recommendations includes:

✓ Mimamsa advocated achieving salvation

through the performance of Vedic
sacrifices.

✓ Vedic sacrifices required the involvement

of priests and justified social distinctions
among varnas.

✓ The propagation of mimamsa aimed to uphold Brahmanas ritual authority and

preserve the social hierarchy rooted in brahmanism.
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❖ Vedanta:

❖ Etymology of Vedanta:

➢ Meaning "The end of the Veda"

➢ Basic texts : The Brahmasutara of badrayana compiled in the second century forms
the foundational text.

❖ Commentaries on Brahma Sutra :

➢ Shankara (9th Century) :

✓ Shankara's interpretation asserts that Brahma is without attributes.

✓ Knowledge or jnana is considered the primary means of salvation.

➢ Ramanuja (12th Century)

✓ Ramanuja's interpretation includes attributes in Brahma.

✓ Devotion and loving faith are emphasized as the path to salvation.

❖ Eternality and Indestructibility :

➢ Vedanta philosophy traces its roots to the earlier upanishads.

➢ Brahma is the ultimate reality and everything else is considered unreal(Maya)

➢ The self (soul or atma) is identified as identical with Brahma.

➢ Therefore, if a person acquires the knowledge of the self (atma) he realizes the
knowledge of Brahma and attains salvation.

❖ Theory of karma and Rebirth:

➢ The theory of karma becomes linked to Vedanta.

➢ Individuals bear the consequences of actions performed in their previous births.

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➢ Belief in rebirth: Rebirth or punarjanma becomes a fundamental element in

Vedanta and various other Hindu philosophical systems

➢ It suggests that individuals experience hardship not due to societal or wordly factors,
but rather because of causes that are both unknown to them and beyond their
ability to manage.

❖ Materialistic View of Life ;

❖ Six Systems of Philosophical Teaching

➢ Predominantly, the six systems of

philosophical teaching promoted the
idealist view of life

➢ All six systems were considered paths

to attaining salvation

❖ Materialism in Heterodox Sects

➢ Ajivikas: Heterodox sect during Buddha's time with materialistic ideas

➢ Charvaka: Main expounder of materialistic philosophy, which came to be known as

Lokayata

➢ It underlined the importance of intimate contact with the world(loka) and showed
lack of belief in the other world

❖ Charvaka's Teachings

➢ Charvaka opposed the quest for spiritual

salvation

➢ Denied existence of divine or supernatural

entities

➢ Believed in the reality of things

experienced directly

➢ By the 5th century A.D., materialist

philosophy was overshadowed by idealist
philosophies
 10

➢ Idealist philosophers criticized materialism and recommended rituals and

spiritualism for salvation

❖ Impact on Scientific Inquiry

➢ Idealist philosophies hindered scientific inquiry and rational thinking

➢ Worldly phenomena were attributed to

supernatural forces, hindering the progress of
science.

❖ Social Implications

➢ Idealist and salvation schools of philosophy

contributed to the acceptance of varna-based
social inequities and the authority of the state, represented by the king People,
influenced by these philosophies, often resigned themselves to social inequities
without questioning the privileges of priests and warriors


 DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ancient History

Lecture - 16
Chapter 1 to 4 of R S Sharma
 2

Chapter 1 to 4 of R S Sharma

Note :

❖ Studying ancient history reveals a direct correlation between the strength of an

economy and the power of an empire. For instance, the decline of the Mauryan period
coincided with a downturn in the economy.

❖ Similarly, during the period of fragmentation around 1000 AD, the political structure
weakened, yet the Indian economy remained robust due to abundant resources,
earning it the epithet of the "golden sparrow." Consequently, the invasion by
Muhammad Ghazni was prompted by the perceived weakness in India's political
structure.

The Importance of Ancient Indian History:

❖ Development of Early Culture:

➢ Ancient history reveals the development of the earliest cultures in the country.

➢ Agriculture played a crucial role in settling and securing life.

❖ Discovering and Utilizing Resources:

➢ Ancient Indians discovered and utilized natural resources for their livelihood.

➢ They engaged in farming, spinning, weaving, metal working and more

➢ Forests were cleared, villages, cities, and large kingdoms were founded.

❖ Influence on Language and Writing:

➢ Writing is essential for civilization, and ancient Indian script influenced current
writing forms.

➢ Modern languages in India have roots in ancient times and have evolved over the
ages.

❖ Crucible of Races:

➢ India attracted and absorbed various races throughout history.

 3

➢ Pre- Aryans, Indo-Aryans, Greek, Scythians, Huns, Turks and more made India
their home.

➢ Different ethnic groups contributed to the making of Indian culture.

❖ Diversity in Religion and Unity:

➢ India has been a land of several religions since ancient times

➢ Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism originated in ancient India.

➢ Despite diverse languages, religions, and customs, a sense of unity is observed.

❖ Striving for Unity:

➢ Ancient India aimed for unity across its vast subcontinent.

➢ The name 'Bharatavarsha' or the land of Bharat represented the whole country.

➢ Kings aspired to establish authority from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin and from
the Brahmaputra to the Indus.

❖ Geographical Unity:

➢ The idea of India as one single geographical unit was recognised by conquerors and
cultural leaders.

➢ The name "India" originated from the Sanskrit term Sindhu (Indus River).

❖ Linguistic and cultural unity:

➢ Efforts for linguistic and cultural unity were evident throughout history.

➢ Prakrit and later Sanskrit served as lingua Franca and state languages.

➢ The ancient epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were studied and revered across
different regions.

❖ Varna/Caste System:

➢ The Varna/Caste system emerged in north India and spread throughout the country.

➢ Even foreigners who arrived in ancient India became part of the caste system. For
example, Indo Greeks etc.

➢ The caste system influenced not only Hindus but also Christians and Muslims who
converted.
 4

❖ Studying ancient history holds significance for comprehending societal evils and working
towards creating a more equitable society by addressing them.

❖ Through this study, we can delve into the root causes that perpetuate systems like the
caste system, gaining insights into its sustenance over time.

❖ Understanding history is crucial for the development of a country. By examining past

events, societies can learn from both their successes and failures, guiding present-day
decision-making and policy formulation.

Approaches to Indian History:

❖ British Historians: British historians justify colonial rule by citing control over the polity,
economy, and culture of the colonized country.

❖ Indian Historians: Indian historians, especially nationalist ones, take a pro-Indian stance,
highlighting the negative impacts of colonialism and emphasizing resistance movements
and cultural resilience.

Modern Historians:

❖ The emergence of modern research in ancient history during the latter half of the 18th
century was driven partly by the necessity to understand ancient laws and customs,
which in turn helped justify the need for colonial administration.

❖ Difficulty in understanding Hindu and Muslim laws led to the translation of Manusmriti,
Hindu law books, into English.

❖ Pandits and Maulvis collaborated with judges to administer Hindu and Muslim laws
respectively.

❖ Three bodies were established to facilitate the study and translation of ancient texts:

➢ Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 in Calcutta, founded by William Jones.

➢ Asiatic Society of Bombay in 1804, established by Sir James Mackintosh.

➢ Asiatic Society of Great Britain in 1823, founded by Henry Colebrooke.

❖ Significant translations into English included:

➢ The translation of Abhigyan saktuntalam in 1789 by William Johns.

➢ The translation of Bhagavad Gita by Wilkins in 1789.

 5

Indological Studies:

❖ Indological Studies encompass the examination of the history, culture, language, and
literature of the Indian subcontinent.

❖ Al-Beruni is often regarded as the Father of Indology.

❖ Max Muller significantly advanced Indological Studies, particularly due to:

➢ The context of the 1857 revolt.

➢ The efforts of Christian missionaries aiming to exploit vulnerabilities in Hinduism to

facilitate conversions and strengthen British rule.

❖ To address these aims, Max Muller oversaw the release of the Sacred Books of the East
series, comprising 50 volumes.

❖ In the introduction to the Sacred Books of the East series, Max Muller and other
Western scholars made generalizations such as:

➢ Ancient Indians lacked a sense of history.

➢ Indians were accustomed to despotic rule.

➢ Native Indians had a strong belief in spiritualism.

➢ The caste system represented the worst form of social discrimination.

➢ There was no sense of nationhood.

➢ Indians had no experience of self-governance.

❖ These generalizations also found expression in V. A. Smith's "Early History of India,"

published in 1904, where:

➢ Smith prioritized political history.

➢ His approach leaned towards imperialism.

➢ As a member of the Indian Civil Services, Smith justified foreign rule in India by
portraying it as a land of despotism lacking political unity before British intervention.

Nationalist Historian and their contribution:

❖ Colonialist distortions of Indian history challenged Indian scholars.

❖ Scholars are distressed by the contrast between Indian feudal society and progressive
Britain society.
 6

❖ Scholars aimed to reform Indian society and reconstruct ancient Indian history.

❖ Nationalist ideas of Hindu revivalism guided many historians.

❖ Indian scholars felt significant discomfort due to the distortions evident in portrayals
of ancient Indian history and the sharp disparity between India's feudal past and the
emerging capitalist society under British influence.

❖ In response, these scholars actively engaged in reforming Indian society and

reevaluating its historical narratives.

❖ Indian historians can be divided under following type of groups:

➢ The nationalist approach tends to contribute to the growth of nationalist feelings

and to unify people in the face of religious, caste, linguistic, or class differentiation.

➢ The rationalist approach, which prioritized critical analysis of historical accounts and
advocated for logical interpretations of Indian history.

❖ Rajendra Lal Mitra wrote a book, "Indo - Aryans"

❖ Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar reconstructed Deccan political history of Satavahanas,

history of Vaishnavism and other sects and advocated widow remarriage and castigated
evils of caste system.

❖ V. K. Rajwade wrote about the history of the institution of marriage.

❖ Pandurang Vaman Kane wrote “History of Dharmasastra”

❖ RC Majumdar wrote about the “History and Culture of Indian people”.

❖ Devdutta Bhandarkar published on Ashoka.

❖ Hemchandra Raychaudhari reconstructed Ancient India from the Times of Mahabharata.

Indian Scholars and Reinterpretation of history:

❖ Some scholars adopted a rationalist and objective approach

❖ Rajendra Lai Mitra took a rational view of ancient society and wrote about Indo-
Aryans

❖ Some scholars argued that beef consumption existed in ancient times

❖ Others sought to show similarities between the caste system and class systems in
Europe's preindustrial and ancient societies.
 7

Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837-1925)

❖ Reconstructed the political history of the Satavahanas and the history of Vaishnavism

❖ Advocated widow remarriage and criticized the caste system and child marriage

Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade (1869-1926)

❖ Dedicated scholar who searched for Sanskrit manuscripts and Maratha history sources

❖ Published sources in twenty-two volumes, contributing to Maratha history research

❖ Wrote a significant work on the institution of marriage based on Vedic and other texts.

Pandurang Vaman Kane (1880-1972)

❖ Sanskritist and social reformer

❖ Authored the monumental "History of the Dharmasastra" in five volumes

❖ Provides comprehensive insights into ancient social laws and customs in India.

Indian Scholars' Contributions to Political History

❖ Indian scholars demonstrated India's political history and administrative expertise

❖ Devdatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar published books on Ashoka and ancient Indian

political institutions

Hemachandra Raychaudhuri (1892-1957)

❖ Hemachandra Raychaudhuri reconstructed “Ancient India's History from Bharata war

to Gupta empire”.

❖ Adopted methods and comparative insights from European history

❖ Raychaudhur's history of ancient India stopped at the sixth century AD

❖ Raychaudhuri recognized V.A. Smith's contribution but criticized him at certain points

R.C. Majumdar (1888-1980)

❖ R.C. Majumdar, a prolific writer, showed a stronger Hindu revivalism element

❖ Majumdar served as the general editor of “History and Culture of the Indian People”
publication

❖ Majumdar's writings reflected militant Brahmanism in his criticism of Ashoka's policy

of peace
 8

❖ Indian scholars' works exhibited impeccable scholarship and contributed to political

history.

Focus on South India in Early Indian History:

❖ Many early Indian history writers neglected South India

❖ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri initially followed the same approach

❖ However, he rectified this with his book “A History of South India: From Prehistoric
Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar”

➢ Sastri's writing style is concise and clear

➢ His presentation of facts is reliable

❖ Some scholars question his general observation on the polity and society of South India

❖ Sastri emphasized the cultural supremacy of the brahmanas

❖ He highlighted the harmony in early Indian society

❖ Under his leadership, research monographs on the dynastic history of South India were
produced.

Indian Scholars Perspectives on Political History:

❖ Until 1960, Indian scholars focused on political history the most

❖ Regional histories on dynastic lines were highly celebrated

❖ Pan-India historians were inspired by nationalist ideas

❖ Alexander's invasion received less importance compared to V.A. Smith's book

❖ Emphasis or Porus dialogue with Alexander) and Chandragupta Maurya's liberation of

northwestern India

❖ Some scholars overemphasized indigenous dynasties role in liberating India from Shakas
and Kushans

❖ Limited understanding of Central Asians' integration into Indian society

❖ Central Asians did not exploit Indian resources for their original homeland

K.P. Jayaswal Contribution to Indian History

❖ K.P. Jayaswal debunked the myth of Indian despotism

❖ He highlighted the existence of republics in ancient times with self-government

 9

❖ His findings were published in ‘Hindu Polity' in 1924

❖ Some critics accused Jayaswal of projecting modern nationalist ideas into ancient
institutions

❖ The nature of the republican government presented by him faced criticism from writers
like U.N. Ghoshal

❖ However, his thesis on the practice of the republican experiment is widely accepted

❖ His pioneering work "Hindu Polity", is considered a classic and has reached its sixth
edition.

MOVE TOWARDS NON-POLITICAL HISTORY

❖ A.L. Basham:

➢ British historian with a Sanskritist background

➢ Questioned the wisdom of viewing ancient India from a modern perspective

➢ Deep interest in materialist philosophy of heterodox sects

➢ Believed past should be read out of curiosity and pleasure

➢ The Wonder That Was India (1951): A sympathetic survey of ancient Indian culture
and civilization

➢ Free from prejudiced found in writings of V.A. Smith and other British writers

➢ Shifted focus from political to non-political history

❖ D.D. Kosambi:

➢ Blazed a new trail in Indian history

➢ Materialist interpretation derived from Karl Marx's writings

➢ An Introduction to the Study of Indian History (1957) and The Culture and Civilisation
of Ancient India in Historical Outline (1965)

➢ Presents history of ancient Indian society, economy, and culture as part of forces
and relations of production

➢ Showed stages of social and economic development through tribal and class processes

➢ Criticized by scholars, including Basham, but widely read.

 10

❖ Changing Approaches to Studying Ancient India

➢ Shift in methods and orientation of studying ancient India over the past forty years

➢ Greater emphasis on social, economic, and cultural processes

➢ Relating these processes to political developments.

➢ Consideration of text stratification and comparison with archaeological and

anthropological evidence.

➢ Western writers no longer insist on all cultural elements coming from outside India.

➢ Focus on religious ideas, rituals, caste, kinship, and tradition as central forces in
Indian history elements

➢ Highlighting divisive features and concerns about stability and continuity

➢ Fascination with preserving old, exotic elements

