CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Unit of learning code: ENG/CU/EI/CC/02/4/A.

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Apply Electrical Principles Skills.

3.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit describes the competencies required by a technician in order to apply a wide range of
Electrical principles in their work. Which includes; Basic Electrical quantities, D.C and A.C
circuits in electrical installation, electrical machines, earthing in Electrical installations,
capacitance and inductance

3.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Basic Electrical quantities

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2. D.C and A.C circuits in electrical installation

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3. Electrical machines
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4. Earthing in Electrical installations

5. Capacitance and inductance

3.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Basic Electrical Quantities

3.2.1.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply basic Electrical quantities correctly one requires the ability to understand the SI units of
Electrical quantities. Stated, Calculate and relates the quantities in Ohm’s law.

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3.2.1.2 Performance Standard.

● Basic SI units in Electrical are identified as established standards.

● Quantities of Charge, force, work and power are identified as per established standards.
● Perform calculations involving electrical quantities i.e., Current, Resistance and voltage as
per established standards.

3.2.1.3 Information Sheet

Definition of terms.

SI unit

The system of units used in engineering and science is the Système Internationale d’Unités
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(International system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric system.
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This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of countries as the official system
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of measurement.

Quantity Unit

Length metre, m

Mass kilogram, kg

Time second, s

Electric current ampere, A

Thermodynamic temperature kelvin, K

Luminous intensity candela, cd

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Amount of substance mole,

Charge

The unit of charge is the coulomb∗ (C), where one coulomb is one ampere second (1coulomb =
6.24×1018 electrons). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a
given point in an electric which flows past a given point in an electric circuit when a current of one
ampere∗ is maintained for one second. Thus, charge, in coulombs Q =It where I is the current in
amperes and t is the time in seconds

Force

The unit of force is the newton∗ (N), where one newton is one-kilogram meters per second
squared. The newton is defined as the force which, when applied to a mass of one kilogram, gives I
t an acceleration of one meter per second squared. Thus force, newton’s, F=ma where m is the
mass in kilograms and a is the acceleration in meters per second squared. Gravitational force or
weight is mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2.
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The unit of work or energy is the joule∗ (J), where one joule is one newton meter. The joule is
defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one newton is exerted through a
distance of one metre in the direction of the force. Thus, work done on a body, in joules, W=Fs
Where F is the force in newton’s and s is the distance in metres moved by the body in the direction
of the force. Energy is the capacity for doing work.

Power

The unit of power is the watt∗ (W), where one watt is one joule per second. Power is defined as the
rate of doing work or transferring energy. Thus, power, in watts P= Wt Where W is the work done
or energy transferred, in joules, and t is the time, in seconds. Thus, energy, in joules W =Pt.

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Resistance and conductance

The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Ω), where one ohm is one volt per ampere. It is defined
as the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential of one volt
applied at the two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor. Thus, resistance,
in ohms R= VI where V is the potential difference across the two points, in volts, and I is the
current flowing between the two points, in amperes. The reciprocal of resistance is called
conductance and is measured in Siemens (S), named after the German inventor and industrialist
Ernst Siemen∗ conductance, in Siemens G=1R where R is the resistance in ohms.

Electrical power and energy

When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage across the
circuit is V volts, the power, in watts P=VI om

Electrical energy =Power×time

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=VIt joules
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Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used
is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where

1 kWh = 1000 watt hour

= 1000× 3600 watt seconds or joules

= 3 600 000 J

1.2.1.4 Learning Activities.

1. Identified basic SI units in Electrical as per established standards

2. Identified quantities of charge, force, work and power as per established standards

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3. Performed calculations involving Electrical quantities i.e resistance, current and voltage as per
established standards.

1.2.1.5 Self-Assessment

1. If a current of 5A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

2. Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire

3. A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if the
Machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s?

4.: A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is
Provided in this time?
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5. What is a derived unit?

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6. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is

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(a) the work done and (b) the power developed?

1.2.1.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

• Scientific Calculators

• Ohmmeter

• Voltmeter

• Ammeter

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1.2.1.7 References

• John Bird (2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

• John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

1.2.1.8 Responses to Self-Assessment

Problem 1. If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

Quantity of electricity Q = It coulombs

I = 5 A, t = 2 × 60 = 120 s
Hence Q= 5 × 120 = 600 C
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Problem 2. Find the force acting vertically downwards on a mass of 200 g attached to a wire.
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Mass=200 g=0.2 kg and acceleration due to gravity,

g =9.81 m/s2
Force acting downwards
= weight
= mass × acceleration
= 0.2 kg× 9.81m/s2
= 1.962 N

Problem 3. A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if
the machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s?

Work done = force× distance

= 200 N× 20m

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= 4 000 Nm or 4 kJ
Power = work done/ time taken
= 4000 J/ 25 s
= 160 J/s = 160W

Problem 4. A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is
provided in this time? Energy = power ×time, and power =voltage ×current.

Hence

= VIt = 5 × 3 × (10× 60) = 9000Ws or J = 9 kJ

Problem5. Derived SI units _use combinations of basic units and there are many of them. Two
examples are:
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Velocity – metres per second (m/s)

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Acceleration – metres per second squared (m/s2)

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Problem 6. A mass of 1000 kg is raised through a height of 10 m in 20 s. What is (a) the work
done and (b) the power developed?

(a) Work done = force× distance and force

= mass × acceleration Hence,
Work done = (1000 kg× 9.81m/s2) × (10m) = 98 100 Nm = 98.1 kNm or 98.1 kJ
(b) Power = work done/time taken
= 98 100 J/20 s
= 4905 J/s
= 4905W or 4.905 kW

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3.2.2 Learning Outcome 2: D.C And A.C Circuits In Electrical Installation

3.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply DC and AC circuits in an Electrical Installation one is required to understand the

Meaning of terms Conductors and insulators, Ohm’s law Resistance variation, Resistors and color
coding.

AC and DC circuits

• R-L, R-C, R-L-C circuits

• Series

• Parallel
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• Parallel and series

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• Parallel resonance and Q-factor

• Power factor improvement

• AC and DC network theorems e.g Kirchhoff’s laws

3.2.3.2 Performance Standard

• Theory of conductors and insulators is determined as per established procedures

• Ohm’s law is performed as per established procedures

• Calculations involving resistor connection is performed as per established procedures

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• Colour coding for fixed resistors is performed as per established standards

• Calculations involving parallel and series circuits are performed as per established
standards

• Calculations involving R-L-C circuits are performed as per established standards

• Calculations involving DC and AC circuits. Network theorems are performed. E.g.,

Kirchhoff’s laws,

• Conversion of AC to DC and DC to AC are performed as per established standards

• Parallel resonance and Q-factor are determined as per established standards

o Power factor improvement is performed as per established standards

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3.2.3.3 Information Sheet

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Meaning of term;

A conductor is a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in it. All
metals are conductors and some examples include copper, aluminium, brass, platinum, silver, gold
and carbon.

An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to flow in
it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork, mica,
ceramics and certain oils.

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Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains
constant. Thus, I = VR or V = IR or R = V/I

Example

The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied. Determine the value
of the resistance. From Ohm’s law, resistance R= V/I

= 20/0.8

= 200/8

=25Ω
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Resistor colour coding and ohmic values

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(a) Colour code for fixed resistors

The colour code for fixed resistors is given in

Table(i) For a four-band fixed resistor (i.e., resistance
values with two significant figures): yellow-violet
orange-red indicates 47 k with a tolerance of ±2%

(Note that the first band is the one nearest the end of
the resistor.) (ii) For a five-band fixed resistor (i.e.,
resistance values with three significant figures): red-yellow white-orange-brown indicates 249 k
with a tolerance of ±1% (Note that the fifth band is 1.5 to 2 times wider than the other bands.)

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(b) Letter and digit code for resistors

Another way of indicating the value of resistors is the letter and digit code shown in Table 5.2.
Tolerance is indicated as follows =±1%, G=±2%,J =±5%, K =±10% and M
=±20%.Thus, for example,

R33M = 0.33 ± 20%

4R7K = 4.7 ± 10%
390RJ = 390 ± 5%

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Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric circuit

the total current flowing towards that junction is equal to the
total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. I =0 Thus,
referring to Fig. Below I1+I2 =I3 +I4 +I5 or I1+I2 −I3 −I4
−I5 =0

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(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e.
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products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in
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that loop Thus, referring to Fig. Below

E1 −E2 =IR1 +IR2 +IR3

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R–C series a.c. circuit

In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR and VC and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0◦ and 90◦ (depending on the values of VR and VC), shown as angle α

From the phasor diagram, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

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 Example 1

A resistor of 25Ω is
connected in series
with a capacitor of
45μF. Calculate (a)
the Impedance and
(b) the current taken
from a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Find also the
phase angle between
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the supply voltage

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and the current.

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R–L–C series a.c. circuit

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In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the applied
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voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180◦,
and there are three phasor diagrams possible – each depending on the relative values of VL and V

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Q-factor
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At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC, it is possible for VL and VC to have
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voltages many times greater than the supply voltage .Voltage magnification at resonance= voltage
across L (or C)supply voltage V .This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a resonator or
tuning device) and is called the Q-factor. Hence

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

R-L ac circuit

In the two-branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L,the current flowing in
the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the inductance,
IL, lags the supply voltage by 90◦. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and thus the

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L-C ac circuit

In the two-branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C, IL lags V by 900 and
IC leads V by 900.

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LR-C ac circuit
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In the two-branch circuit containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and resistance R
in series (such as a coil)shown in Fig(a),the phasor diagram for the LR branch alone is shown in
Fig.(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch is shown alone in Fig. (c). Rotating each and
superimposing on one another gives the complete phasor diagram shown in Fig(d).

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POWER IMPROVEMENT

In any a.c. circuit, power factor =cosφ,where φ is the phase angle between supply current and
supply voltage. Industrial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially inductive (i.e. R–L) and may
have a low power factor. For example, let a motor take a current of 50A at a power factor of 0.6
lagging from a 240V, 50Hz supply, as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig(a).
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If power factor = 0.6 lagging, then: cosφ = 0.6 lagging

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Hence, phase angle, φ = cos−1 0.6 = 53.13◦ lagging, Lagging means that I lags V , and the phasor
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diagram is as shown in Fig(b).

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= 30A

Before the capacitor was connected, the supply current was 50A. Now it is 30 A.

Herein lies the advantage of power factor improvement– the supply current has been reduced.
When power factor is improved, the supply current is reduced, the supply system has lower losses
(i.e. Lower I 2R losses) and therefore cheaper running costs.

3.2.3.4 Learning Activities

Determined theory of conductors and insulators as per established procedures

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• Performed Ohms law as per established procedures

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• Performed calculations involving resistor connection as per established procedures

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• Performed color coding for fixed resistors as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving parallel and series circuits as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving R-L-C circuits as per established standards

• Performed calculations involving DC and AC circuits. Network theorems . E.g. Kirchoff’s

laws,

• Performed conversion of AC to DC and DC to AC as per established standards

• Determined parallel resonance and Q-factor as per established standards

• Performed power factor improvement as per established standards

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3.2.3.5 Self-Assessment

1. Define the following terms;

I. A conductor

II. An insulator.

2. State ;

I. Kirchhoff’s laws

II. Ohm’s law. om

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3. What is Q-factor
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4. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate (a) the
Impedance and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and the current.

5. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is 12V and the p.d. across the
inductance L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle between current and voltage

3.2.2.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Material

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• Scientific calculators

• Ohmeter

• Resistors

• Conductor

3.2.2.7 References

o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

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o Watkins, A.J, Kitcher C (2009) Electrical Installation calculations Basic Eighth Elsevier
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Ltd
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o Stokes,J Handbook of Electrical Installation Practice Fourth Edition Blackwell Science

Ltd

3.2.2.8 Response To Self-Assessment.

II. A conductor is a material having a low resistance which allows electric current to flow in
it. All metals are conductors and some examples include copper, aluminum, brass, platinum, silver,
gold and carbon.

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III. An insulator is a material having a high resistance which does not allow electric current to
flow in it. Some examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, glass, porcelain, air, paper, cork,
mica, ceramics and certain oils.

2. Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Current Law. At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing towards that
junction is equal to the total current flowing away from the junction, i.e. I =0 Thus, referring to
Fig. Below I1+I2 =I3 +I4 +I5 or I1+I2 −I3 −I4 −I5 =0

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(b) Voltage Law. In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (i.e.
products of current and resistance) taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in
that loop Thus, referring to Fig. Below

E1 −E2 =IR1 +IR2 +IR3

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Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains
constant. Thus, I = VR or V = IR or R = V/I
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3.Q-factor. At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC, it is possible for VL and VC to
have voltages many times greater than the supply voltage .Voltage magnification at resonance=
voltage across L (or C)supply voltage V .This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a
resonator or tuning device) and is called the Q-factor.

4. A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate (a) the Impedance
and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle between the supply
voltage and the current.

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5. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across the resistance R is 12V and the p.d. across the inductance
L is 5V. Find the supply voltage and the phase angle between current and voltage

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3.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Electrical Machines

3.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To operate Electrical machines correctly one is required to have knowledge on Single phase
Electrical machines, DC single phase motors and generators, AC Single phase motors and
generators, Single phase transformers, Application of AC and DC machines, Motor starter, DC
Motor speed control

3.2.3.2 Performance Standard

• Types of single-phase electrical machines are identified as per established standards

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• Calculations involving single phase AC and DC Motors are performed per established
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standards
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• Types of single-phase transformers are identified as per established standards

• Calculations involving single AC and DC transformers are performed as per established

standards

• Types of single-phase generators are identified as per established standards

• Motor starting methods are identified as per established procedure

• DC motor speed control is established as per standard operating procedures

3.2.3.3 Information Sheet

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DC Generators

D.c generators are classified according to the method of their field excitation. These groupings are:

(i) Separately excited generators, where the field winding is connected to a source of supply other

than the armature of its own machine.

(ii) Self-excited generators, where the field winding receives its supply from the armature of its
own machine, and which are sub-divided into (a) shunt, (b) series and (c) compound wound
generators.

Types of DC Generators

(a) Separately excited generator

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A typical separately-excited generator circuit is shown below. When a load is connected across the
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armature terminals, a load current Ia will flow. The terminal voltage will fall from its open-circuit
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e.m.f. E due to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the armature resistance, shown as Ra
i.e. terminal voltage, V = E−IaRa or generated e.m.f., E = V+IaRa

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EXAMPLE
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Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30, terminal voltage,

V = E − Ia Ra

= 200−(30)(0.30)

= 200−9 = 191volts

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(b) Shunt-wound generator

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In a shunt-wound generator the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature, The field
winding has a relatively high resistance and therefore the current carried is only a fraction of the
armature current.

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Terminal voltage, V=E−IaRa or generated e.m.f., E=V+IaRa

Ia =If +I from Kirchhoff’s current law, where

Ia = armature current, If = field current (=V/Rf ) and

I = load current

EXAMPLE
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A shunt generator supplies a 20Kw load at 200V through cables of resistance, R = 100m_. If the
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field winding resistance, Rf = 50_ and the armature resistance, Ra = 40m_, determine (a) the
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terminal voltage and(b) the e.m.f. generated in the armature.

(a)The circuit is shown below

Load current, I = 20000watts/200volts

= 100A

Volt drop in the cables to the load

=IR = (100) (100×10−3) = 10V

Hence terminal voltage=200+10=210volts

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(c) Series-wound generator

In the series-wound generator the field winding is connected in series with the armature, as shown
below

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A short-shunt compound generator supplies 80A at 200V. If the field resistance, Rf = 40_, the
series resistance, RSe = 0.02_ and the armature resistance, Ra = 0.04_, determine the e.m.f.
generated.

Volt drop in series winding = IRSe = (80/)(0.02)

= 1.6V

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TYPES OF DC MOTORS

(a) Shunt-wound motor

In the shunt-wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across the supply, as
shown in the figure below

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Supply voltage, V=E+IaRa or generated e.m.f., E= V−IaRa

Supply current, I=Ia+If from Kirchhoff’s current law

EXAMPLE

A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_ and the
armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back e.m.f.

= 28.4A
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(b) Series-wound motor

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In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the supply, as
shown below.

Supply voltage V=E+I(Ra+Rf) or generated e.m.f. E=V−I(Ra+Rf)

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(c) Compound-wound motor

There are two types of compound-wound motor:

(i) Cumulative compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
assists that due to the shunt winding.

(ii) Differential compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
opposes that due to the shunt winding.

DC MOTOR STOTOR

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If a d.c. motor whose armature is stationary is switched directly to its supply voltage, it is likely
that the fuses protecting the motor will burn out. This is because the armature resistance is small,
frequently being less than one ohm. Thus, additional resistance must be added to the armature
circuit at the instant of closing the switch to start the motor.As the speed of the motor increases, the
armature conductors are cutting flux and a generated voltage, acting in opposition to the applied
voltage, is produced, which limits the flow of armature current. Thus the value of the additional
armature resistance can then be reduced.

When at normal running speed, the generated e.m.f. is such that no additional resistance is required
in the armature circuit. To achieve this varying resistance in the armature circuit on starting, a d.c.
motor starter is used, as shown in Fig below

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The starting handle is moved slowly in a clockwise direction to start the motor. For a shunt-wound
motor, the field winding is connected to stud 1 or to L via a sliding contact on the starting handle,

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to give maximum field current, hence maximum flux, hence maximum torque on starting, since T
∝Ia .A similar arrangement without the field connection is used for series motors

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

Shunt-wound motors

The speed of a shunt-wound d .c. motor, n, is proportional to

V − IaRa

The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, or by varying the value of Ra. The former
is achieved by using a variable resistor in series with the field winding, as shown in Fig below and
such a resistor is called the shunt field regulator
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As the value of resistance of the shunt field regulator is increased, the value of the field current, If,
is decreased. This results in a decrease in the value of flux, , and hence an increase in the speed,

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since n∝1/. Thus only speeds above that given without a shunt field regulator can be obtained by
this method. Speeds below those given by

V – IaRa/Ф

are obtained by increasing the resistance in the armature circuit, where

n∝

V −Ia(Ra+R)/Ф

Since resistor R is in series with the armature, it carries the full armature current and results in
large power loss in large motors where a considerable speed reduction is required for long periods.

These methods of speed control are demonstrated in the following worked problem.

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TRANSFOMER

An auto transformer is a transformer which has part of its winding common to the primary and
secondary

Circuits. Fig(a) shows the circuit for a double wound transformer and Fig(b) that for an auto
transformer. The latter shows that the secondary is actually part of the primary, the current in the
secondary being (I2−I1). Since the current is less in this section,the cross-sectional area of the
winding can be reduced,

which reduces the amount of material necessary.

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.

3. Name and explain two types of a DC generator.

4. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30 , terminal voltage,

4. Name types of a DC motors

5. A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_ and
the armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back
e.m.f.= 28.4A
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3.2.3.6. Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

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• Scientific calculators

• Motor

• Generator

• Transformer

3.2.3.7 References

John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology fifth Edition

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o John Bird(2017) Electrical and Electronics Principles Technology sixth Edition

o Watkins, A.J, Kitcher C (2009) Electrical Installation calculations Basic Eighth Elsevier
Ltd

o Linsley, T, (2011), Basic Electrical Installation Work Sixth Edition

o Kitcher, K,(2008) Practical Guide to Inspection, Testing and Certification of Electrical

Installations First Edition Elsevier Ltd

3.2.3.8 Response To Self-Assessment

2. The speed is varied either by varying the value of flux, , or by varying the value of Ra. The
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former is achieved by using a variable resistor in series with the field winding, such a resistor is
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called the shunt field regulator

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3. ([a) Compound-wound generators

In the compound-wound generator two methods of connection are used, both having a mixture of
shunt and series windings, designed to combine the advantages of each.(a) shows what is termed a
long shunt compound generator,(b) shows short-shunt compound generator. The latter is the most
generally used form of d.c. generator

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4. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which develops an e.m.f. of 200V and has an
armature current of 30A on load. Assume the armature resistance is 0.30 , terminal voltage,

V = E − Ia Ra
= 200−(30)(0.30)
= 200−9 = 191volts.
4. Types of DC motors

i. Shunt-wound motor

ii. Series-wound motor

iii. Compound-wound motor

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5. A 240V shunt motor takes a total current of 30A. If the field winding resistance Rf = 150_
and the armature resistance Ra = 0.4_, determine (a) the current in the armature and (b) the back
e.m.f.= 28.4A

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3.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Earthing in Electrical Installations

3.2.4.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply earthing in Electrical Installations trainee is required to understand

Meaning of earthing, Terms in earthing, earthing systems, earthing points in electrical installation,

IEE regulations and Factors to consider in selecting an earthing system

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3.2.4.2 Performance Standard

• Earthing types are identified as per established standards

• Earthing systems are identified as per established procedures

• Tests to determine the earthing system are performed as per established standards

• Test on an earthing system is performed in line with the IEE regulations

3.2.4.3 Information Sheet

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Earthed Systems

Definition of terms

• Static Charge: The electricity generated when two dissimilar substances come into contact.
Conveyer belts are active producers of static electricity.

• Switching Surge: A transient wave of voltage in an electric circuit caused by the operation
of a switching device interrupting load current or fault current.

• Transient Overvoltage: The temporary overvoltage of short duration associated with the
operation of the switching device, a fault, a lightning stroke, or during arcing earth faults on the
unearthed system.

• System: An earthed system consists of all interconnected earthing connections in a specific

power system and is defined by its isolation from adjacent earthing systems. The isolation is
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provided by transformers primary and secondary windings that are coupled only by magnetic
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means. Thus, the system boundary is defined by the lack of a physical connection that is either
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metallic or through a significantly high impedance. The limits and boundaries of earthing systems

In the earthed systems, at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of
generators or transformers) is intentionally earthed, either solidly or through an impedance. The
earthed systems have multiple advantages:

• Greater safety;

• No excessive system over voltages that can occur on unearthed systems during arcing, resonant,
or near - resonant earth faults; and

• Easier detection and location of faults when they occur.

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Purpose of System Earthing

System earthing or intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth is for the
purpose of controlling the voltage to earth within predictable limits. It also provides for a flow of
current that will allow detection of an undesired connection between the system conductors and the
earth, and which may initiate the operation of automatic devices to remove the source of voltage
from conductors with such undesired connections to earth. The American NEC prescribes certain
system earthing connections that must be made to be in compliance with the code. The control of
voltage to earth limits the voltage stress on the insulation of conductors so that insulation
performance can be predicted more readily. The control of voltage also allows for the reduction of
shock hazard to any living body who might come in contact with the live conductors.

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Methods of System Neutral Earthing

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The earthing of the system can be done by either solid earthing or earthing through an impedance
(reactive or resistive or earth - fault neutralizer)

Solid Earthed: The neutral point is connected directly through an adequate earth connection in
which no impedance is intentionally inserted. The direct neutral earthing is either distributed or
non-distributed.

Reactance Earthed: The neutral point is earthed through impedance, the principle element of which
is an inductive reactance.

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TT Earthing System

In this system, the neutral is directly earthed as it is denoted by the first letter“ T ” and the exposed
conductive parts of the loads are directly earthed via a conductor of PE individually or altogether
as it is denoted by the second letter “ T ”

The earth of both neutral conductor and protective conductor may or may not be interconnected or
combined. On the other hand, all exposed conductive parts protected by the same protective device
should be connected to the same earth.

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TN Earthing System

This system has directly earthed neutral, which is denoted by the first letter“ T ” while the exposed
conductive parts of the loads are connected via a PE conductor to the neutral conductor.

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3.2.4.4 Learning Activities

• Identified earthing types as per established standards

• Identified earthing systems identified as per established procedures

• Identified tests to determine the earthing system performed as per established standards

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• Performed test on an earthing system in line with the IEE regulations

3.2.4.5 Self-Assessment

1. What is a system

2. State three advantages of earthed system

3. Name methods of system neutral earthing om

4. What is TN earthed
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3.2.4.6 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Electrical installation tool kit

Multimeter/AVO meter

Wattmeter

Insulation resistance tester

Clamp meter

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4. This system has directly earthed neutral, which is denoted by the first letter “T ” while
the exposed conductive parts of the loads are connected via a PE conductor to the neutral
conductor.

3.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Capacitance and Inductance

3.2.5.1 Introduction to the learning outcome

To apply capacitance and inductance one is required to understand; Meaning of electrostatic field,
Sources of electrostatic field, Electric field strength and capacitance, Electric flux density,
Permittivity, Types capacitors, Magnetic circuits and Magnetic fields.

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3.2.5.2 Performance Standard

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• Sources of Electrostatic fields are identified as established procedures

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• Dielectric materials are identified as per the established standards

• Calculations involving capacitor parameters are performed as per established standards

• Types of capacitors are identified as per established standards

• Concept of charge and electrostatic field is established as per established standards

• Calculations involving capacitors are performed as per established standards

• Concept of magnetic circuits is identified as per established procedure

Parameters

• Calculations involving inductors are performed as per the established procedures

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3.2.5.3 Information Sheet

Electrostatic field

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Fig. above represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials. If an
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electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force will act on the electron
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tending to push it away from the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A. Similarly, a
positive charge would be acted on by a force tending to move it towards the negative plate. Any
region such as that shown between the plates in Fig. above, in which an electric charge experiences
a force, is called an electrostatic field. The direction of the field is defined as that of the force
acting on a positive charge placed in the field. the direction of the force is from the positive plate to
the negative plate. Such a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric
force drawn between the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines is an indication of the field
strength. Whenever a p.d. is established between two points, an electric field will always exist.

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Fig(a) above shows a typical field pattern for an isolated point charge, and Fig(b) shows the field
pattern for adjacent charges of opposite polarity. Electric lines of force (often called electric flux
lines) are continuous and start and finish on point charges; also, the lines cannot cross each other.
When a charged body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of opposite sign
appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged body
terminate on its surface.

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The concept of field lines or lines of force is used to illustrate the properties of an electric field.
However,

it should be remembered that they are only aids to the imagination.

The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional to the
magnitude of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating
them, i.e.

force ∝ q1q2/d2

Capacitors

Every system of electrical conductors possesses capacitance. For example, there is capacitance
between the conductors of overhead transmission lines and also between the wires of a telephone
cable. In these examples the capacitance is undesirable but has to be accepted, minimized or
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compensated for. There are other situations where capacitance is a desirable property.
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Devices specially constructed to possess capacitance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they
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used to be called). In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two plates which are separated by an
insulating material known as a dielectric. A capacitor has the ability to store a quantity of static
electricity.

The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are
shown below

The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by:

Q = I ×t coulombs

where I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds.

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Example

(a) Determine the p.d. across a 4Μf capacitor when charged with 5mC. (b) Find the charge on a 50
pF capacitor when the voltage applied to it is 2kV

Dielectric material

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For a parallel plate capacitor, as shown below. experiments show that capacitance C is proportional
to

the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e., the dielectric thickness) and
depends on the nature of the dielectric:

Capacitance, C = ε0εrA
d farads
Where ε0 = 8.85×10−12F/m (constant)
εr = relative permittivity
A = area of one of the plates, in m2, and
d = thickness of dielectric in m

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Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig.(b).

Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of
plates.

If such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (n−1). Thus capacitance

C = ε0εrA(n−1) farads
d
The maximum amount of field strength that a dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric
strength of the material. Dielectric strength,

Em = Vm

Types of Capacitors
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1. Variable air capacitors. These usually consist of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium),
one

fixed, the other variable. The set of moving plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end view of

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As the moving plates are rotated through half a revolution, the meshing, and therefore the
capacitance,

Varies from a minimum to a maximum value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio and
electronic circuits where very low losses are required, or where a variable capacitance is needed.
The maximum

Value of such capacitors is between 500Pf and 1000pF.

2. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construction is shown below

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Usually, the whole capacitor is impregnated with wax and placed in a Bakelite case. Mica is easily

obtained in thin sheets and is a good insulator. However, mica is expensive and is not used in
capacitors above about 0.2μF. A modified form of mica capacitor is the silvered mica type. The
mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance is
stable and less likely to change with age. Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with change
273
of temperature, a high working voltage rating and along service life and are used in high frequency
circuits with fixed values of capacitance up to about 1000pF.

3. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is shown in Fig. below where the length of the roll

Corresponds to the capacitance required.

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The whole is usually impregnated with oil or wax to exclude moisture, and then placed in a plastic

or aluminium container for protection. Paper capacitors are made in various working voltages up to
about 150kV and are used where loss is not very important. The maximum value of this type of
capacitor is between 500pF and 10μF.Disadvantages of paper capacitors include variation in
capacitance with temperature change and a shorter service life than most other types of capacitor

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5. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as
dielectrics.

Construction is similar to the paper capacitor, but using a plastic film instead of paper. Plastic
capacitors operate well under conditions of high temperature, provide a precise value of
capacitance,

a very long service life and high reliability

6. Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high capacitance with a small physical size when used
at a low temperature.

7. Electrolytic capacitors. Construction is similar to the paper capacitor, with aluminium foil used
for the

Plates and with a thick absorbent material, such as paper, impregnated with an electrolyte
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(ammonium
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borate) separating the plates. The finished capacitor is usually assembled in an aluminium
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container

and hermetically sealed. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin aluminium oxide layer on
the

positive plate by electrolytic action when a suitable direct potential is maintained between the
plates.

This oxide layer is very thin and forms the dielectric. (The absorbent paper between the plates is a

conductor and does not act as a dielectric.) Such capacitors must always be used on d.c. and must

be connected with the correct polarity; if this is not done the capacitor will be destroyed since the
oxide

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Closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus, a magnetic field has the property of
exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron filings to move into the pattern
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shown. The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we move away from the magnet. It should
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be realized, of course, that the magnetic field is three-dimensional in its effect, and not acting in
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one plane as appears to be the case in this experiment. If a compass is placed in the magnetic field
in various positions, the direction of the lines of flux may be determined by noting the direction of
the compass pointer.

The direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking pole of a
compass needle points when suspended in the field. The direction of a line of flux is from the north
pole to the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is then assumed to continue through the
magnet back to the point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus, such lines of flux always
form complete closed loops or paths, they never intersect and always have a definite direction.

The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In
fig. below with unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes place

277
Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the magnets try to pull together. The magnetic field is
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strongest in between the two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close together. In Fig (b),
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with similar poles adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. the two north poles try to
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push each other apart, since magnetic flux lines running side by side in the same direction repel.

7.3 Magnetic

Magnetic Flux and flux density

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Ф

The unit of magnetic flux is the weber∗, Wb.

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
the direction of the flux:

Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux

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(iv) The way the turns are arranged – a short, thick coil of wire has a higher inductance than a
long, thin one.

Two examples of practical inductors are shown below and the standard electrical circuit diagram

Symbols for air-cored and iron-cored inductors.

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An iron-cored inductor is often called a choke since, when used in a.c. circuits, it has a choking
effect, limiting the current flowing through it.Inductance is often undesirable in a circuit. To reduce

280
inductance to a minimum the wire may be bent back on itself, as shown below, so that the
magnetizing effect of one conductor is neutralized by that of the adjacent conductor. The wire may
be coiled around an insulator, as shown, without increasing the inductance. Standard resistors may
be non-inductively wound in this manner.

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Example

A flux of 25mWb links with a1500 turn coil when a current of 3A passes through the coil.
Calculate

(a) The inductance of the coil,

(b) The energy stored in the magnetic field and

(c) The average e.m.f. induced if the current falls to zero in 150ms.

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3.2.5.4 Learning Activities

1. Identified sources of Electrostatic fields as established procedures

2. identified dielectric materials as per the established standards
3. performed calculations involving capacitor parameters as per established standards
4. identified types of capacitors as per established standards
5. established concept of charge and electrostatic field as per established standards
6. performed Calculations involving capacitors as per established standards
7. identified concept of magnetic circuits as per established procedure

Parameters

• performed calculations involving inductors as per established procedures.

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2.

3. Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force) produced by
magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Ф

The unit of magnetic flux is the weber∗, Wb.

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Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a defined area that is perpendicular to
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the direction of the flux:

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Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux

Area

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla∗, T, where

1 T = 1Wb/m2. Hence

B = Ф/A tesla where A (m2) is the area

4.

(i) The number of turns of wire – the more turns the higher the inductance
(ii) The cross-sectional area of the coil of wire – the greater the cross-sectional area the higher
the inductance

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 (iii)The presence of a magnetic core – when the coil is wound on an iron core the same current
sets up a more concentrated magnetic field and the inductance is increased
(iv) The way the turns are arranged – a short, thick coil of wire has a higher inductance than a
long, thin one.

5. Types of capacitors

● Variable air capacitor

● Mica capacitor
● Paper capacitor
● Plastic capacitor
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● Ceramic capacitor
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