[WASTE MANAGEMENT]

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT:

Identification and classification of hazardous waste, hazardous waste treatment, pollution prevention and waste
minimization, hazardous wastes management in India. E-waste recycling.

MODULE – 5

HAZARDOUS WASTE: IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the ecosystem and human
beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or living organisms, due to the fact that they:

• are non-degradable or persistent in nature;

• can be biologically magnified;
• are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.

The above list relates only to the intrinsic hazard of the waste, under uncontrolled release, to the environment,
regardless of quantity or pathways to humans or other critical organisms (i.e., plants and animals). The criteria used
to determine the nature of hazard include toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity and bioconcentration. The threat
to public health and the environment of a given hazardous waste is dependent on the quantity and characteristics
of the waste involved. Wastes are secondary materials, which are generally classified into six categories as inherently
waste: like materials, spent materials, sludges, byproducts, commercial chemical products and scrap metals. Solid
wastes form a subset of all secondary materials and hazardous wastes form a subset of solid waste. However, note
that certain secondary materials are not regulated as wastes, as they are recycled and reused.

Identification:

By using either or both of the following criteria, we can identify as to whether or not a waste is hazardous:

(i) The list provided by government agencies declaring that substance as hazardous.
(ii) Characteristics such as ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance.

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Listed hazardous wastes (priority chemicals) A specific list showing certain materials as hazardous wastes minimises
the need to test wastes as well as simplifies waste determination. In other words, any waste that fits the definition
of a listed waste is considered a hazardous waste. Four separate lists cover wastes from generic industrial processes,
specific industrial sectors, unused pure chemical products and formulations that are either acutely toxic or toxic,
and all hazardous waste regulations apply to these lists of wastes. We will describe these wastes, classified in the F,
K, P, and U industrial waste codes, respectively, below:

F-list: The F-list contains hazardous wastes from non-specific sources, that is, various industrial processes that may
have generated the waste. The list consists of solvents commonly used in degreasing, metal treatment baths and
sludges, wastewaters from metal plating operations and dioxin containing chemicals or their precursors. Examples
of solvents that are F-listed hazardous wastes, along with their code numbers, include benzene (F005), carbon
tetrachloride (F001), cresylic acid (F004), methyl ethyl ketone (F005), methylene chloride (F001), 1,1,1,
trichloroethane (F001), toluene (F005) and trichloroethylene (F001). Solvent mixtures or blends, which contain
greater than 10% of one or more of the solvents listed in F001, F002, F003, F004 and F005 are also considered F-
listed wastes.

K-list: The K-list contains hazardous wastes generated by specific industrial processes. Examples of industries, which
generate K-listed wastes include wood preservation, pigment production, chemical production, petroleum refining,
iron and steel production, explosive manufacturing and pesticide production.

P and U lists: The P and U lists contain discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification chemicals,
container residues and residues from the spillage of materials. These two lists include commercial pure grades of
the chemical, any technical grades of the chemical that are produced or marketed, and all formulations in which the
chemical is the sole active ingredient. An example of a P or U listed hazardous waste is a pesticide, which is not used
during its shelf-life and requires to be disposed in bulk. The primary distinction between the two lists is the quantity
at which the chemical is regulated. The P-list consists of acutely toxic wastes that are regulated when the quantity
generated per month, or accumulated at any time, exceeds one kilogram (2.2 pounds), while U-listed hazardous
wastes are regulated when the quantity generated per month exceeds 25 kilograms (55 pounds). Examples of
businesses that typically generate P or U listed wastes include pesticide applicators, laboratories and chemical
formulators.

Characteristics of hazardous wastes :

The regulations define characteristic hazardous wastes as wastes that exhibit measurable properties posing
sufficient threats to warrant regulation. For a waste to be deemed a characteristic hazardous waste, it must cause,
or significantly contribute to, an increased mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible
illness, or pose a substantial hazard or threat of a hazard to human health or the environment, when it is improperly
treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged.

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In other words, if the wastes generated at a facility are not listed in the F, K, P, or U lists, the final step to determine
whether a waste is hazardous is to evaluate it against the following 4 hazardous characteristics:

(i) Ignitability (EPA Waste Identification Number D001): A waste is an ignitable hazardous waste, if it has
a flash point of less than 60 C; readily catches fire and burns so vigorously as to create a hazard; or is an
ignitable compressed gas or an oxidiser. A simple method of determining the flash point of a waste is to
review the material safety data sheet, which can be obtained from the manufacturer or distributor of
the material. Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives and oil based paints are all examples of
ignitable hazardous wastes.
(ii) Corrosivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D002): A liquid waste which has a pH of less than or
equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 is considered to be a corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium
hydroxide, a caustic solution with a high pH, is often used by many industries to clean or degrease metal
parts. Hydrochloric acid, a solution with a low pH, is used by many industries to clean metal parts prior
to painting. When these caustic or acid solutions are disposed of, the waste is a corrosive hazardous
waste.
(iii) Reactivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D003): A material is considered a reactive hazardous
waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently with water, generates toxic gases when exposed to water or
corrosive materials, or if it is capable of detonation or explosion when exposed to heat or a flame.
Examples of reactive wastes would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides
or sulphides.
(iv) Toxicity (EPA Waste Identification Number D004): To determine if a waste is a toxic hazardous waste, a
representative sample of the material must be subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory.
The toxic characteristic identifies wastes that are likely to leach dangerous concentrations of toxic
chemicals into ground water.

Classification :

From a practical standpoint, there are far too many compounds, products and product combinations that fit within
the broad definition of hazardous waste. For this reason, groups of waste are considered in the following five general
categories:

(i) Radioactive substance: Substances that emit ionising radiation are radioactive. Such substances are
hazardous because prolonged exposure to radiation often results in damage to living organisms.
Radioactive substances are of special concern because they persist for a long period. The period in which
radiation occurs is commonly measured and expressed as half-life, i.e., the time required for the
radioactivity of a given amount of the substance to decay to half its initial value. For example, uranium
compounds have half-lives that range from 72 years for U232 to 23,420,000 years for U236. The

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management of radioactive wastes is highly controlled by national and state regulatory agencies. Disposal
sites that are used for the long-term storage of radioactive wastes are not used for the disposal of any other
solid waste.
(ii) Chemicals: Most hazardous chemical wastes can be classified into four groups: synthetic organics,
inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some of the chemicals are
hazardous because they are highly toxic to most life forms. When such hazardous compounds are present
in a waste stream at levels equal to, or greater than, their threshold levels, the entire waste stream is
identified as hazardous.
(iii) Biomedical wastes: The principal sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals and biological
research facilities. The ability to infect other living organisms and the ability to produce toxins are the most
significant characteristics of hazardous biological wastes. This group mainly includes malignant tissues
discarded during surgical procedures and contaminated materials, such as hypodermic needles, bandages
and outdated drugs. This waste can also be generated as a by-product of industrial biological conversion
processes.
(iv) Flammable wastes: Most flammable wastes are also identified as hazardous chemical wastes. This
dual grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing, collecting and disposing of
flammable wastes. These wastes may be liquid, gaseous or solid, but most often they are liquids. Typical
examples include organic solvents, oils, plasticisers and organic sludges.
(v) Explosives: Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials, i.e., the wastes
resulting from ordnance manufacturing and some industrial gases. Similar to flammables, these wastes also
have a high potential for hazard in storage, collection and disposal, and therefore, they should be
considered separately in addition to being listed as hazardous chemicals. These wastes may exist in solid,
liquid or gaseous form.
(vi) Household hazardous wastes: Household wastes such as cleaning chemicals, batteries, nail polish
etc in MSW constitute hazardous waste. Especially batteries contain mercury which are alkaline which is
dangerous enough to kill people. Generic household hazardous material include non chlorinated organic,
chlorinated organic, pesticides, latex paint, oil based paints, waste oil, automobile battery and household
battery.

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Generation Hazardous wastes are generated in limited amounts in a community and very little information is
available on the quantities of hazardous waste generated within a community and in various industries. Hazardous
waste generation outside the industry is irregular and very less in amount, rendering the waste generation
parameter meaningless. The only practical means to overcome these limitations is to conduct a detailed inventory
and measurement studies at each potential source in a community. As a first step in developing a community

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inventory, potential sources of hazardous waste are to be identified. The total annual quantity of hazardous waste
at any given source in a community must be established through data inventory completed during onsite visits.

In addition to the sources listed, the spillage of containerised hazardous waste must also be considered an important
source. The quantities of hazardous wastes that are involved in spillage are usually not known. The effects of spillage
are often spectacular and visible to the community. Because the occurrence of spillage cannot be predicted, the
potential threat to human health and environment is greater than that from routinely generated hazardous wastes.

Storage and collection

Onsite storage practices are a function of the types and amounts of hazardous wastes generated and the period
over which generation occurs. Usually, when large quantities are generated, special facilities are used that have
sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period of several days. When only a small amount is enerated,
the waste can be containerised, and limited quantity may be stored. Containers and facilities used in hazardous
waste storage and handling are selected on the basis of waste characteristics. For example, corrosive acids or
caustic solutions are stored in fibreglass or glass-lined containers to prevent deterioration of metals in the
container. Great care must also be exercised to avoid storing incompatible wastes in the same container or
locations.
Figure below shows typical drum containers used for the storage of hazardous waste:

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The waste generator, or a specialised hauler, generally collects the hazardous waste for delivery to a treatment or
disposal site. The loading of collection vehicles is completed in either of the following ways:

(i) Wastes stored in large-capacity tanks are either drained or pumped into collection vehicles;
(ii) Wastes stored in sealed drums or sealed containers are loaded by hand or by mechanical equipment onto
flatbed trucks.

The stored containers are transported unopened to the treatment and disposal facility. To avoid accidents and the
possible loss of life, two collectors should be assigned when hazardous wastes are to be collected. The equipment
used for collection vary with the waste characteristics, and the typical collection equipment are listed in Table
below:

Note that for short-haul distances, drum storage and collection with a flatbed truck is often used. As hauling
distances increase, the larger tank trucks, trailers and railroad tank cars are used.

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Transfer and transport

The economic benefits derived by transferring smaller vehicle loads to larger vehicles, as discussed for non-
hazardous solid waste are equally applicable to hazardous wastes.

However, the facilities of a hazardous waste transfer station are quite different from solid waste transfer station.
Typically, hazardous wastes are not compacted (i.e., mechanical volume reduction) or delivered by numerous
community residents. Instead, liquid hazardous wastes are generally pumped from collection vehicles and sludge or
solids are reloaded without removal from the collection containers for transport to processing and disposal facilities.
It is unusual to find a hazardous waste transfer facility, where wastes are simply transferred to larger transport
vehicles. Some processing and storage facilities are often part of the material handling sequence at a transfer
station. For example, neutralisation of corrosive wastes might result in the use of a lower-cost holding tank on
transport vehicles. As in the case of storage, great care must be exercised to avoid the danger of mixing incompatible
wastes.

Processing
Processing of hazardous waste is done for purposes of recovering useful materials and preparing the wastes for
disposal.
Processing can be accomplished on-site or off-site. The variables affecting the selection of processing site include
the characteristics of wastes, the quantity of wastes, the technical, economical and environmental aspects of
available on-site treatment processes and the availability of the nearest off-site treatment facility (e.g., haul
distance, fees, and exclusions). The treatment of hazardous waste can be accomplished by physical, chemical,
thermal or biological means.
Table below gives the various individual processes in each category:

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Functions: VR= volume reduction; Se = separation; De = detoxification; St = storage; * Waste types: 1= inorganic chemical without
heavy metals; 2 = inorganic chemical with heavy metal; 3 = organic chemical without heavy metal; 4 = organic chemical with heavy
metal; 5= radiological; 6 = biological; 7= flammable and 8= explosive; # Waste forms: S=solid; L= liquid and G= gas.

Disposal
Regardless of their form (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas), most hazardous waste is disposed off either near the surface or
by deep burial. Table 9.4 shows the various hazardous waste disposal methods:

$ Functions: Di= disposal; St = storage; * Waste types: 1= inorganic chemical without heavy metals; 2 = inorganic chemical with
heavy metal; 3 = organic chemical without heavy metal; 4 = organic chemical with heavy metal; 5= radiological; 6 = biological; 7=
flammable and 8= explosive. # Waste form: S=solid; L= liquid and G= gas.

Although, controlled landfill methods have been proved adequate for disposing of municipal solid waste and limited
amounts of hazardous waste, they are not suitable enough for the disposal of a large quantity of hazardous waste,
due to the following reasons:

• possible percolation of toxic liquid waste to the ground water;

• dissolution of solids followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water;
• dissolution of solid hazardous wastes by acid leachate from solid waste, followed by leaching and
percolation to the ground water;
• potential for undesirable reactions in the landfill that may lead to the development of explosive or toxic
gases;
• possible percolation of toxic liquid waste to the ground water;
• dissolution of solids followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water;
• dissolution of solid hazardous wastes by acid leachate from solid waste, followed by leaching and
percolation to the ground water;
• potential for undesirable reactions in the landfill that may lead to the development of explosive or toxic
gases;

We must, therefore, take care both in the selection of a hazardous waste disposal site and its design. In general,
disposal sites for hazardous wastes should be separate from those for municipal solid wastes. As hazardous wastes
can exist in the form of liquids, sludges, solids and dusts, a correct approach for co-disposal for each of the hazardous
wastes should be determined. To avoid the co-disposal of incompatible wastes, separate storage areas within the
total landfill site should be designated for various classes of compatible wastes.

Liquid wastes are usually stored in a tank near the site and can be introduced into the landfill by means of trenches
or lagoons, injection or irrigation. Sludges are also placed in trenches. During disposal of lightweight wastes, the
disposal area must be kept wet to prevent dust emissions. Hazardous solid waste characterised by a high degree of
impermeability as such must not be disposed of over large areas. When containerised wastes are to be disposed of,
precautions must be taken to avoid the rupturing of containers during the unloading operation and the placement
of incompatible waste in the same location. To avoid rupturing, the containers are unloaded and placed in position
individually. The covering of the containers with earth should be monitored and controlled carefully to ensure that
a soil layer exists between each container and the equipment placing the soil does not crush or deform the
container. While designing a landfill site for hazardous waste, provision should be made to prevent any leachate
escaping from landfill site. This requires a clay liner, and in some cases, both clay and impermeable membrane liners

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are used. A layer of limestone is placed at the bottom of the landfill to neutralise the pH of leachate. A final soil
cover of 25 cm or more should be placed over the liner. The completed site should be monitored continuously, both
visually and with sample wells.

Hazardous waste options

A three stage hierarchy of options for handling hazardous wastes are:
1) The top tier includes in plant options such as process manipulation, recycle and reuse options that reduce the
production of hazardous waste in the first place. It also contains most desirable options.
2) Middle stage highlights processes that convert hazardous waste to less hazardous or non hazardous substances
that include
a) Incineration
b) Land treatment
c) Ocean and atmospheric assimilation
d) Chemical, physical and biological treatments
e) Thermal treatments
3) Last stage which is least preferred or desirable tier that is perpetual storage cheapest alternative. Few process
include landfill, underground injection, arid region unsaturated zone, surface impoundments, salt formations and
waste piles.

HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT

1. Physical and chemical treatment

Physical and chemical treatments are an essential part of most hazardous waste treatment operations, and the
treatments include the following (Freeman, 1988):

(i) Filtration and separation: Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a liquid using a porous
medium. The driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient, caused by gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, or
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of hazardous waste fall into
the following categories:
Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million) concentration are removed
from an aqueous stream. This is usually accomplished by depth filtration and cross-flow filtration and the primary
aim is to produce a clear aqueous effluent, which can either be discharged directly, or further processed. The
suspended solids are concentrated in a reject stream.
Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to concentrate the solids into a
phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. This is usually accomplished by cake filtration. The filtration
treatment, for example, can be used for neutralisation of strong acid with lime or limestone, or precipitation of
dissolved heavy metals as carbonates or sulphides followed by settling and thickening of the resulting precipitated
solids as slurry. The slurry can be dewatered by cake filtration and the effluent from the settling step can be filtered
by depth filtration prior to discharge.

(ii) Chemical precipitation:

This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to an insoluble form either by a chemical reaction or
by change in the composition of the solvent to diminish the solubility of the substance in it. Settling and/or filtration
can then remove the precipitated solids. In the treatment of hazardous waste, the process has a wide applicability
in the removal of toxic metal from aqueous wastes by converting them to an insoluble form. This includes wastes
containing arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium and zinc.
The sources of wastes containing metals are metal plating and polishing,
inorganic pigment, mining and the electronic industries. Hazardous wastes containing metals are also generated
from cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, e.g., leachate or contaminated ground water.

(iii) Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox):

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In these reactions, the oxidation state of one reactant is raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered. When
electrons are removed from an ion, atom, or molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons are added to
a substance, it is reduced. Such reactions are used in treatment of metal-bearing wastes, sulphides, cyanides and
chromium and in the treatment of many organic wastes such as phenols, pesticides and sulphur containing
compounds. Since these treatment processes involve chemical reactions, both reactants are generally in solution.
However, in some cases, a solution reacts with a slightly soluble solid or gas.

There are many chemicals, which are oxidising agents; but relatively few of them are used for waste treatment.
Some of the commonly used oxidizing agents are sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, calcium hypochlorite,
potassium permanganate and ozone. Reducing agents are used to treat wastes containing hexavalent chromium,
mercury, organometallic compounds and chelated metals. Some of the compounds used as reducing agents are
sulphur dioxide, sodium borohydride, etc. In general, chemical treatment costs are highly influenced by the chemical
cost. This oxidation and reduction treatment tends to be more suitable for low concentration (i.e., less than 1%) in
wastes.

(iv) Solidification and stabilisation: In hazardous waste management, solidification and stabilisation (S/S)
is a term normally used to designate a technology employing activities to reduce the mobility of pollutants, thereby
making the waste acceptable under current land disposal requirements. Solidification and stabilisation are
treatment processes designed to improve waste handling and physical characteristics, decrease surface area across
which pollutants can transfer or leach, limit the solubility or detoxify the hazardous constituent. To understand this
technology, it is important for us to understand the following terms:

• Solidification: This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid. It may
or may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the additive.

• Stabilisation: This refers to a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable form.
Subsuming solidification, stabilisation represents the use of a chemical reaction to transform the toxic
component to a new, non-toxic compound or substance.

• Chemical fixation: This implies the transformation of toxic contaminants to a new non-toxic compound. The
term has been misused to describe processes, which do not involve chemical bonding of the contaminant
to the binder.

• Encapsulation: This is a process involving the complete coating or enclosure of a toxic particle or waste
agglomerate with a new substance (e.g., S/S additive or binder). The encapsulation of the individual particles
is known as micro-encapsulation, while that of an agglomeration of waste particles or micro-encapsulated
materials is known as macro-encapsulation.

In S/S method, some wastes can be mixed with filling and binding agents to obtain a dischargeable product. This
rather simple treatment can only be used for waste with chemical properties suitable for landfilling. With regard to
wastes with physical properties, it changes only the physical properties, but is unsuitable for landfilling. The most
important application of this technology, however, is the solidification of metal-containing waste. S/S technology
could potentially be an important alternative technology with a major use being to treat wastes in order to make
them acceptable for land disposal. Lower permeability, lower contaminant leaching rate and such similar
characteristics may make hazardous wastes acceptable for land disposal after stabilisation.

(V) Evaporation: Evaporation is defined as the conversion of a liquid from a solution or slurry into vapour. All
evaporation systems require the transfer of sufficient heat from a heating medium to the process fluid to vaporise
the volatile solvent. Evaporation is used in the treatment of hazardous waste and the process equipment is quite
flexible and can handle waste in various forms – aqueous, slurries, sludges and tars. Evaporation is commonly used

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as a pre-treatment method to decrease quantities of material for final treatment. It is also used in cases where no
other treatment method was found to be practical, such as in the concentration of trinitrotoluene (TNT) for
subsequent incineration.

(vii) Ozonation: Ozone is a relatively unstable gas consisting of three oxygen atoms per molecule (O3) and is
one of the strongest oxidising agents known. It can be substituted for conventional oxidants such as
chlorine, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate. Ozone and UV radiations have been used to
detoxify industrial organic wastes, containing aromatic and aliphatic polychlorinated compounds, ketones
and alcohols.

2. Thermal treatment:
The two main thermal treatments used with regard to hazardous wastes are:

(i) Incineration: Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste,

prior to final disposal or as a means of valorising waste by recovering energy. It includes
both the burning of mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a
fuel. The concept of treating hazardous waste is similar to that of municipal solid waste.

(ii) Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by
heating in the absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and
liquid carbonaceous materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing
fixed carbon and ash. The application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a
two-step process for disposal. In the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile
contents (e.g., combustible gases, water vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In
the second step volatile components are burned under proper conditions to assure
incineration of all hazardous components.

To elaborate, pyrolysis is applicable to hazardous waste treatment, as it provides a recise

control of the combustion process. The first step of pyrolysis treatment is endothermic and
generally done at 425 to 760 C. The heating chamber is called the pyrolyser. Hazardous
organic compounds can be volatilised at this low temperature, leaving a clean residue. In
the second step, the volatiles are burned in a fume incinerator to achieve destruction
efficiency of more than 99%. Separating the process into two very controllable steps allows
precise temperature control and makes it possible to build simpler equipment. The
pyrolysis process can be applied to solids, sludges and liquid wastes. Wastes with the
following characteristics are especially amenable to pyrolysis:

• Sludge material that is either too viscous, too abrasive or varies too much in
consistency to be atomised in an incinerator.
• Wastes such as plastic, which undergo partial or complete phase changes during
thermal processing.
• High-residue materials such as high-ash liquid and sludges, with light, easily
entrained solids that will generally require substantial stack gas clean up.
• Materials containing salts and metals, which melt and volatilise at normal
incineration temperatures. Materials like sodium chloride (NaCl), zinc (Zn) and
lead (Pb), when incinerated may cause refractory spalling and fouling of the heat-
exchanger surface.

3. Biological treatment
i. Land treatment: This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed with
or incorporated into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised through proper
management. The other terminologies used commonly include land cultivation, land farming, land

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application and sludge spreading. Compared to other land disposal options (e.g., landfill and surface
impoundments), land treatment has lower longterm monitoring, maintenance and potential clean up
liabilities and because of this, it has received considerable attention as an ultimate disposal method.
It is a dynamic, management-intensive process involving waste, site, soil, climate and biological
activity as a system to degrade and immobilise waste constituents.

In land treatment, the organic fraction must be biodegradable at reasonable rates to minimise
environmental problems associated with migration of hazardous waste constituents. The various
factors involved in the operation of the system are as follows:

• Waste characteristics: Biodegradable wastes are suitable for land treatment.

Radioactive wastes, highly volatile, reactive, flammable liquids and inorganic wastes
such as heavy metals, acids and bases, cyanides and ammonia are not considered for
land treatment. Land treatability of organic compound often follows a predictable pattern
for similar type of compounds. Chemical structure, molecular weight, water solubility
and vapour pressure are few of the characteristics that determine the ease of
biodegradation.

• Soil characteristics: The rate of biodegradation and leaching of waste applied, the
availability of nutrients and toxicants to microorganisms and the fate of hazardous waste
constituents are determined largely by application rate as well as the soil’s chemical and
physical characteristics or reaction. Principal soil characteristics affecting land treatment
processes are pH, salinity, aeration, moisture holding capacity, soil temperature, etc.
Some of the characteristics can be improved through soil amendments (e.g., nutrients,
lime, etc.), tillage or through adjustments of loading rate, frequency, etc., at the time of
waste application.

• Microorganisms: Soil normally contains a large number of diverse microorganisms,

consisting of several groups that are predominantly aerobic in well-drained soil. The
types and population of microorganisms present in the waste-amended soil depend on
the soil moisture content, available oxygen, nutrient composition and other
characteristics. The key groups of the microorganisms present in the surface soil are
bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoa. In addition to these groups, other
micro and macro fauna, such as nematodes and insects are often present.

ii. Enzymatic systems: Enzymes are complex proteins ubiquitous in nature. These proteins,
composed of amino acids, are linked together via peptide bonds. Enzymes capable of transforming
hazardous waste chemicals to non-toxic products can be harvested from microorganisms grown in
mass culture. Such crude enzyme extracts derived from microorganisms have been shown to convert
pesticides into less toxic and persistent products. The reaction of detoxifying enzymes are not limited
to intracellular conditions but have been demonstrated through the use of immobilised enzyme extracts
on several liquid waste streams. The factors of moisture, temperature, aeration, soil structure, organic
matter content, seasonal variation and the availability of soil nutrients influence the presence and
abundance of enzymes.

iii. Composting: The principles involved in composting organic hazardous wastes are the same
as those in the composting of all organic materials though with moderate modifications. The
microbiology of hazardous wastes differs from that of composting in the use of inoculums. The reaction
is that certain types of hazardous waste molecules can be degraded by only one or a very few microbial
species, which may not be widely distributed or abundant in nature. The factors important in
composting of hazardous wastes are those that govern all biological reactions. The principal physical
parameters are the shape and dimensions of the particles of the material to be composted and the

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environmental factors of interest in an operation are temperature, pH, available oxygen, moisture, and
nutrient availability.

iv. Aerobic and anaerobic treatment: Hazardous materials are present in low to high
concentration in wastewaters, leachate and soil. These wastes are characterised by high organic
content (e.g., up to 40,000 mg/l total organic carbon), low and high pH (2 to 12), elevated salt levels
(sometimes, over 5%), and presence of heavy metals and hazardous organics. Hazardous wastes can
be treated using either aerobic or anaerobic treatment methods.

In aerobic treatment, under proper conditions, microorganisms grow. They need a carbon and energy
source, which many hazardous wastes satisfy,nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and trace
metals and a source of oxygen. Some organisms can use oxidised inorganic compounds (e.g. nitrate)
as a substitute for oxygen. Care is to be taken such that all the required nutrients and substances are
supplied in sufficient quantities. Temperature and pH must be controlled as needed and the
substances that are toxic to the organisms (e.g., heavy metals) must be removed.

Anaerobic treatment is a sequential biologically destructive process in which hydrocarbons are

converted, in the absence of free oxygen, from complex to simpler molecules, and ultimately to carbon
dioxide and methane. The process is mediated through enzyme catalysis and depends on maintaining
a balance of population within a specific set of environmental conditions. Hazardous waste streams
often consist of hydrocarbons leading to higher concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Depending upon the nature of waste, the organic constituents may be derived from a single proce ss
stream or from a mixture of streams.

The treatability of the waste depends upon the susceptibility of the hydrocarbon content to anaerobic
biological degradation, and on the ability of the organisms to resist detrimental effect of biologically
recalcitrant and toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. The metabolic interactions among the various
groups of organisms are essential for the successful and complete mineralisation of the organic
molecules. Various parameters such as the influent quality, the biological activity of the reactor and
the quality of the reactor environment are monitored to maintain efficient operating conditions within
the reactor.

POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE MINIMISATION

Pollution prevention is the use of materials, processes, or practices that reduce or eliminate the
generation of pollutants or wastes at the source. It includes practices that reduce the use of hazardous
and non-hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources as well as those that protect natural
resources through conservation or more efficient use. Pollution prevention is the maximum feasible
reduction of all wastes generated at production sites. It involves the judicious use of resources through
source reduction, energy efficiency, reuse of input materials and reduces water consumption.

Waste minimisation means the feasible reduction of hazardous waste that is generated prior to
treatment, storage and disposal. It is defined as any source reduction or recycling activity that results
in the reduction of the total volume of hazardous waste, or toxicity of hazardous waste, or both.
Practices that are considered in waste minimisation include recycling, source separation, product
substitution, manufacturing process changes and the use of less toxic raw Materials. Pollution
prevention and waste minimisation provides us with an opportunity to be environmentally responsible
While pollution prevention reduces waste at its source, waste minimisation, including recycling and
other methods, reduces the amount of waste. In what follows, we will look at some of the factors that
can contribute to pollution prevention and waste minimisation.

(i) Management support and employee participation: A clear commitment by management

(through policy, communications and resources) for waste minimisation and pollution prevention is

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essential to earn the dedication of all employees. For this to happen, a formal policy statement must
be drafted and adopted. The purpose of this statement is to reflect commitment and attitude towards
protecting the environment, minimising or eliminating waste and reusing or recycling materials by the
laboratories, departments and industries. Creative, progressive and responsible leadership will serve
to develop an environmental policy. However, the total employee workforce will need to be involved to
realise the fruits of the planning.

(ii) Training: As with any activity, it is important for management to train employees so that they will
have an understanding of what is expected of them and why they are being asked to change the way
things are done. Employees must be provided with formal and on-the-job training to increase
awareness of operating practices that reduce both solid and hazardous waste generation. The training
programme should include the industries’ compliance requirements, which may be found in the waste
management policies, occupational health and safety requirements. Additionally, training
on waste minimisation and pollution prevention is necessary.

(iii) Waste audits: A programme of waste audits at the departmental level will provide a systematic
and periodic survey of the industries designed to identify areas of potential waste reduction. The audit
programme includes the identification of hazardous wastes and their sources, prioritisation of various
waste reduction actions to be undertaken, evaluation of some technically, economically and
ecologically feasible approaches to waste minimisation and pollution prevention, development of an
economic comparison of waste minimisation and pollution prevention options and evaluation of their
results.

(iv) Good operating practices: These practices involve the procedural or organisational aspects of
industry, research or teaching activities and, in some areas, changes in operating practices, in order
to reduce the amount of waste generated. These practices would include, at a minimum, material
handling improvements, scheduling improvements, spill and leak prevention, preventive maintenance,
corrective maintenance, material/waste tracking or inventory control and waste stream segregation,
according to the toxicity, type of contaminant and physical state.

(v) Material substitution practices: The purpose of these practices is to find substitute materials,
which are less hazardous than those currently utilised and which result in the generation of waste in
smaller quantities and/or of less toxicity.

(vi) Technological modification practices: These practices should be oriented towards process and
equipment modifications to reduce waste generation. These can range from changes that can be
implemented in a matter of days at low cost to the replacement of process equipment involving large
capital expenditures.

(vii) Recycling options: These options are characterised as use/reuse and resource recovery
techniques. Use and reuse practices involve the return of a waste material either to the originating
process or to another process as a substitute for an input material. Reclamation practices tender a
waste to another company.

(viii) Surplus chemical waste exchange options: Inter- and intra-department chemical exchange is
to be implemented and encouraged by employers/employees. Material exchanges not only reduce
wastes but also save money – both are important considerations, during times of fiscal crisis.

HAZARDOUS WASTES MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

In the USA, more than 70% of the hazardous waste generated was produced from chemical and
petrochemical industries. Of the remaining waste produced, 22% was generated by metal related

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industries. As industrialisation proceeds, the management of hazardous wastes is increasingly

becoming a serious problem in India as well. The Indian chemical industry, which accounts for about
13% of the total industrial production and about 10% of the GNP valued at US $ 2.64 X 1011 (NNP is
US $ 2.345 X 1011) per annum, employs about 6% of the nation's industrial workforce and is one of
the major generators of toxic and hazardous wastes. There are 13,011 industrial units located in 340
districts, out of which 11,038 units have been granted authorization for multiple disposal practices
encompassing incineration, storage land disposal and other disposal options. However, small and
medium sized enterprises (SMEs) are the major sources of hazardous wastes. And, the States of
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu generate the majority of all hazardous wastes. The total estimate
of hazardous waste generated in India is 4,434,257 tonnes per annum.

India is the first country that has made provisions for the protection and improvement of environment
in its Constitution. The Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution, Article 48-A of Chapter
IV enjoins the State to make endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for
safeguarding the forest and wild life of the country. In Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution, one of the
Fundamental Duties of every citizen of India is to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. India has
enacted the following laws, regulations and standards governing the country's environmental
protection:

(i) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 as amended in 1988.
(ii) Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1975.
(iii) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, as amended by Amendment Act,
1991.
(iv) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978.
(v) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1984, as amended by Amendment Act, 1987.
(vi) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1982 and 1983.
(vii) The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
(viii) Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 as amended in 2000.
(ix) Management, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989.
(x) Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically
Engineered Microorganisms or Cells Rules, 1989.
(xi) The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
(xii) The Public Liability Insurance Rules, 1991.
(xiii) The Biomedical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1995.
(xiv) Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling) Draft Rules, 1999.
(xv) Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules 2000.

Hazardous waste management- Current Scenario

The hazardous waste generated in the country per annum currently is estimated to be around 8 million
tonnes out of which 70% is being generated by five states, namely Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Only three States have developed common TSDF (Treatment,
Storage, Disposal Facility), which are essential component of proper hazardous waste management
activity for ultimate disposal of the hazardous wastes in an environmentally sound manner. These 10
facilities are currently operational only in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. (Source: Central
Pollution Control Board).

Ground Reality
Though the Hazardous Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules were notified in 1989, the
implementation on the ground has left a lot to be desired. Lack of proper infrastructure and strict
enforcement mechanism has led to hazardous waste still remaining a grave problem. New emerging

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wastes and loopholes in the current legislation have also contributed to this. There are still problems
of hazardous waste not being managed in sound environmental conditions, improper dumping and
lack of proper treatment and disposal facilities.

However, the new draft claims to address sustainable development concerns and also enable the
recovery and/or reuse of useful materials from hazardous materials generated from a process,
thereby, reducing the hazardous wastes destined for final disposal and to ensure the environmentally
sound management of all hazardous materials.

Rashmi M B, Assistant Professor, MRIT