INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

A. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
A systematic process of inquiry consisting of 3 elements or components
1. a question, problem or hypothesis
2. data
3. analysis and interpretation of data
WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF RESEARCH?
1. to expand knowledge
2. to challenge existing knowledge
3. to confirm existing knowledge
4. to solve problems
5. to generate new questions
THE RESEARCH PROCESS

PHASE I: DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH

-Step 1: Formulating a research problem
PHASE II PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY
-Step 2: Conceptualising a research design
-Step 3: Constructing an instrument for data collection
-Step 4: Selecting a sample
-Step 5: Writing a research proposal
PHASE III CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY
-Step 6: Collecting data
-Step 7: Processing and displaying data
-Step 8: Writing a research report

CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS

● Rigorous: The procedures followed to find answers to questions must be relevant, appropriate and
justified
● Systematic:
- This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence
 - Some procedures must follow others
● Valid and verifiable: Whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others
● Empirical: Any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected
from real-life experiences or observations
● Critical:
- Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry
- The process of investigation must be foolproof (easily done) and free from any drawbacks
- The process adopted and procedures used must be able to bear critical scrunity

TYPES OF RESEARCH
-Can be looked from 3 different perspectives
1. Applications of the findings of the research study
2. Objectives of the study
3. Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study

Application Pure research - involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
perspective challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at
the present time or in the future.
- is also concerned with the development examination, verification and
refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form
the body of research methodology

Applied - Most of the research in the social sciences is applied.

research - The research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of
research methodology are applied to the collection of information about
various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that the
information gathered can be used in other ways.

Objectives Descriptive - attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,

perspective study service or programme
- provides information about the living conditions of a community
- describes attitudes towards an issue
 Ex:
- describing the types of service provided by an organization
- the attitudes of employees towards the management

Correlational - discovers or establishes the existence of relationship/ association/

study interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
Ex:
- What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product?
- What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack?
- What is the relationship between smoking and lung cancer?

Explanatory - attempts to clarify or explain why and how there is a relationship

research between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Ex:
- Why stressful living results in heart attacks
- How the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement

Exploratory -is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little
research is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study
-When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a
feasibility study or a pilot study.
-A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a
detailed investigation.
-On the basis of the assessment made during the exploratory, a full study
may eventuate
-Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test
measurement tools and procedures

Mode of The -Everything that forms the research process - objectives, design, sample, and the
enquiry structured questions that you plan to ask of respondents
perspective approach -Is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomemon

The -Allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process

unstructured -Is used to explore its nature/ variation/ diversity in a phenomenon, issue,
 approach problem or attitude towards an issue

B. HOW TO DEFINE YOUR PROJECT

1. Understanding the 5 Ws

● Take time to think about your research as this will save you problems later.

● Ask yourself the five “Ws”:

_ What is my research? (define your project, one of the hardest parts in the early stage)
_ Why do I want to do my research? (you are interested in the topic, you have identified a gap in the
literature, you need to conduct some research to aid decision making, …)
_ Who are my research participants/ respondents? (Think about type of people whom you will need)
_ Where am I going to do the research?
_ When am I going to do the research?
If you’re conducting the research for a university research or project, does your proposed research
provide the opportunity to reach the required intellectual standard? Will your research generate enough
material to write a dissertation of the required length? Will your research generate too much data that
would be impossible to summarize into a report of the required length?

● Sum up your project in one sentence ⇒ research aims: not too general or too specific.

● Discuss your sentence with your tutor or boss and revise if there is any confusion.

Asking questions
-Why have I decided to do some research?
If the answer to this question is because you have been told to do so, either by your tutor or by your boss, you
need to think about how you’re to remain motivated throughout your project. Research can be a long
process and take up much of your time. It is important to stay interested in what you’re doing if you are to
complete your project successfully. However, if you want to conduct some research because something
has fascinated you, or you have identified a gap in the research literature, then you are lucky and should
not have a problem with motivation.

-How can I remain interested in my research?

 The obvious answer to this is to choose a topic which interests you. Most of you do have this choice within
the limitations of your subject – be creative and think about something which will fascinate you.
However, if you have had the topic chosen for you, try to choose a research method which interests you.

-What personal characteristics do I have which might help me complete my research?

Think about your personal characteristics, likes and dislikes, strengths and weaknesses when you’re planning
your research.
● Are you good with people?
● Do you prefer written communication or face-to-face interaction?
● Do you love or loathe mathematics and statistics?
● Do people feel at ease with you and are they willing to confide in you?
● Do you like to conduct research over the internet?

What personal characteristics do I have which might help me to complete my research?

-Good literature search skills will be very useful in the research process
-Committee skills
-Organisation skills and time management

FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

● Any question that you want answered and any assumption or assertion that you want to challenge
or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for your study.
● Not all questions can be transformed into research problems and some may prove to be extremely
difficult to study.
● Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. (The
research problem serves as the foundation of a research study)
● Most research in the humanities revolves around four Ps:
1/ People;
2/ Problems;
3/ Programmes;
4/ Phenomena.

THINGS TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

1/ Interest – Interest should be the most important consideration in selecting a research problem. A
research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems.
2/ Magnitude – You should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be able to visualise the
work involved in completing the proposed study. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and
clear.
3/ Measurement of concepts – If you are using a concept in your study (in quantitative studies), make sure you
are clear about its indicators and their measurement. Do not use concepts in your research problem that you are
not sure how to measure. This does not mean you cannot develop a measurement procedure as the study
progresses. While most of the developmental work will be done during your study, it is imperative that you are
reasonably clear about the measurement of these concepts at this stage.
4/ Level of expertise – Make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are proposing.
5/ Relevance – Select a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure that your study adds to the
existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps or is useful in policy formulation.
6/ Availability of data - Make sure that this data is available and in the format you want before finalising your
topic
7/ Ethical issues - In the course of conducting a research study, the study population may be adversely affected
by some of the questions (directly or indirectly); deprived of an intervention; expected to share sensitive and
private information; or expected to be simply experimental ‘guinea pigs’. How ethical issues can affect the study
population and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem
formulation stage

7 STEPS IN FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM:

Step 1: Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you. Ask yourself, ‘What is it that really interests
me as a professional?’. It is imperative that you identify one of interest to you before undertaking your research
journey.
Step 2: Dissect the broad area into subareas: All the broad areas have many aspects.
Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you. This is because your interest should be the most important
determinant for selection. When removing unpopular options. There should be something left standing that is
manageable considering the time available to you, your level of expertise and other resources needed to
undertake the study. You should have an issue you are passionate about and can manage.
Step 4: Raise research questions. At this step ask yourself, ‘What is it that I want to find out about in this
subarea?’ Make a list of whatever questions come to your mind relating to your chosen subarea and if you think
there are too many to be manageable, go through the process of elimination, as you did in Step 3.
Step 5: Formulate objectives. Both your main objectives and your subobjectives now need to be formulated,
which grow out of your research questions.
⇒ The main difference between objectives and research questions is the way in which they are written.
(Research questions are obviously that – questions. Objectives transform these questions into behavioural aims
by using actionoriented words such as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to ascertain’ and ‘to examine’)
Step 6: Assess your objectives. Now examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them
through your research endeavour. Consider them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human) and
technical expertise at your disposal.
Step 7: Double-check. Go back and give final consideration to whether or not you are sufficiently interested in
the study, and have adequate resources to undertake it. If not, reassess your objectives.

C. HOW TO BE AN ETHICAL RESEARCHER

● Treating participants with respect

● Our research would not be possible without the help and co-operation of other people. If we expect
people to continue helping us, we should treat them with honesty and respect.
● Disruption to a participant’s life should be kept to a minimum.
● False hopes or expectations should not be raised.
● Do your best to ensure anonymity and confidentiality

● Recognizing Overt and Covert research

● Overt research means that it is open – everyone knows who you are and what you are doing ⇒

Researchers should be open and honest about who they are and what they’re doing.

● Covert research means that it is under-cover work. Nobody knows who you are and what you are doing.
This type of work can give research a bad name. ⇒ Covert research should be kept to a minimum

● It is an individual’s prerogative to refuse to take part in research – nobody should be forced, bullied or
cajoled into taking part.
● If someone is thinking about helping with your research, they should be given a leaflet/ cover letter which
includes the following information:
– Details about who you are and the organization for which you work.

– Details about your project, the funding body and what will happen to the results.

– Information about possible benefits to be gained by taking part in the research (false promises should
not be made).

● Producing a Code of Ethics

 ● A short Code of Ethics should be given to everyone who takes part in the research. This should include
the following issues:
○ Anonymity

○ Confidentiality

○ Right to comment

○ The final report

○ Data Protection.

D. HOW TO DECIDE UPON A METHODOLOGY.

● The research methodology is the philosophy or general principle which guides the research.
● Research methods are the tools you use to gather your data.
● The term ‘triangulation’ is used when a combination of qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry are
used.
How do I choose a research method?
The following questions will help you to start to think about these issues:
● Did you enjoy mathematics at school? If so, perhaps you might be interested in delving deeper into
statistical software or other types of data analysis
● Have you ever taken part in a focus group or been interviewed by a market researcher? Would you find it
interesting to conduct your own focus groups or interviews?
● Have you been fascinated by a particular group of people? Would you like to immerse yourself in their
culture and learn more?
● Do you enjoy filling in questionnaires? Would you like to design your own questionnaire and perhaps
conduct a postal or internet survey?

HOW TO CHOOSE METHODOLOGY?

● Recognizing qualitative and quantitative research

⇒ Neither qualitative nor quantitative research is better – they are just different. Both have their strengths and

weaknesses.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ASPECTS QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

Approach to Unstructured/ flexible/ open methodology Structured/ rigid/ predetermined
enquiry methodology

Main purpose of To describe variation in a phenomenon. To quantify extent of variation in a

investigation situation issue phenomenon, situation, issue

Measurements of Emphasis on some form of either Emphasis on description of variables

variables measurement or classification of variables

Methods Interviews or focus groups ⇒ Attempts Questionnaires or structured interviews

to get an in-depth opinion from

participants

Sample size fewer people take part in the research, but many more people, but the contact with
the contact with these people tends to last those people is much quicker than it is in
a lot longer. qualitative research.

Focus of enquiry Covers multiple issues but assembles Narrow focus in terms of extent of enquiry,
required information from fewer but assembles required information from a
respondents greater number of respondents

Dominant Authenticity but does not claim to be value- Reliability and objectivity (value-free)
research value free

Dominant Explore attitudes, behavior, experiences, Explain prevalence, incidence, extent, nature
research topic perceptions, meanings and feelings of issues, opinion and attitude, discover

- Examples of qualitative methodologies regularities and formulate theories

include action research, ethnography, - If a market researcher has stopped you on

feminist research and grounded theory. the streets, or you have filled in a
questionnaire which has arrived through the
post, this falls under the umbrella of
quantitative research

● Understanding the methodological debate

● Choosing a methodology
● Matching methodology with topic
 - Have a look at the words you have used
- Certain words help to suggest a leaning towards qualitative research, others towards quantitative research.
For example, if you have written ‘how many’, ‘test’, ‘verify’, ‘how often’ or ‘how satisfied’, this
suggests a leaning towards quantitative research.
- If you have written words such as ‘discover’, ‘motivation’, ‘experiences’, ‘think/thoughts’, ‘problems’, or
‘behave/behavior’, this suggests a leaning towards qualitative research.

Quantitative research Qualitative research

Experimental research: involves manipulating Ethnographic research: concentrates on

conditions and studying effects. documenting or portraying the everyday experience
of people using observation and interviews.

Correlational research: involves studying A case study: is a detailed analysis of one or a few
relationships among variables within a single group, individuals/social units/situations. (can be
and frequently suggests the possibility of cause and qualitative or mixed-methods research)
effect. Ex: a classroom, a school, or a neighborhood

Causal-comparative research: involves comparing Action research: is a type of research by

known groups who have had different experiences practitioners designed to help improve their practice.
to determine possible causes or consequences of
● Research is a means to action, either to improve
group membership.
your practice or to take action to deal with a
problem or an issue
● It is carried out to identify areas of concern,
develop and test alternatives, and experiment with
new approaches
(can be qualitative or mixed-methods research)

Survey research: involves describing the Grounded theory: generating theory which is
characteristics of a group by means of such grounded in the data (the theory has emerged from
instruments as interview schedules, questionnaires, the data).
and tests.

STUDY DESIGN IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

1/ Based on the number of contacts with the study population, designs can be classified into three groups
 1. cross-sectional studies Cross-sectional studies, also known as one-shot or status studies.
They are useful in obtaining an overall ‘picture’ as it stands at the
time of the study.

The main advantage of the before-and-after design (also known as the pre-
2. before-and-after studies
test/post-test design) is that it can measure change in a situation,
phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude. A before-and-after study is carried
out by adopting the same process as a cross-sectional study except that it
comprises two cross-sectional data sets, the second being undertaken after a
certain period.

In longitudinal studies the study population is visited a number of

3. longitudinal studies
times at regular intervals, usually over a long period, to collect the
required information.

2/ The reference period refers to the time-frame in which a study is exploring a phenomenon,
situation, event or problem. Studies are categorized from this perspective as

1/ retrospective
Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue
that has happened in the past.

2/ prospective
Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon,
situation, problem, attitude or outcome in the future

Retrospective–prospective studies focus on past trends in a phenomenon

3/ retrospective–prospective
and study it into the future. Part of the data is collected retrospectively
from the existing records before the intervention is introduced and then the
study population is followed to ascertain the impact of the intervention

3/ the nature of the investigation.

➔ experimental. These designs have been categorised as:
- the after-only experimental design;
- the before-and-after experimental design;
- the control group design;
- the double-control design;
- the comparative design;
- the ‘matched control’ experimental design;
- the placebo design.
 ➔ non-experimental;
➔ quasi- or semi-experimental.

STUDY DESIGN IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

- Case study
- Oral history
- Focus groups/ group interviews
- Participant observation
- Holistic research
- Community discussion forums
- Reflective journal log.

E. HOW TO CHOOSE YOUR RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODS

● Research methods are the tools that are used to gather data.
● The chosen research methodology should help to indicate the most appropriate research tools.
● Research methods must be chosen within budget and time constraints.
● The purpose of the research will provide an indicator to the most appropriate methods.
● You should think all about your personality, strengths and weaknesses, likes and dislikes when choosing
research methods.

INTERVIEW
● Three types of interview are used in social research:

Unstructured - in-depth interviews/ also called life Researchers need to:

interviews history interviews - be able to establish rapport with the
- the researcher attempts to achieve a participants: be trusted if someone is to
holistic understanding of the reveal intimate life information
interviewees’ point of view or situation - remain alert, recognising important
- the participant is free to talk about what information and probing for more
he or she deems important, with little detail
directional influence from the researcher - know how to tactfully steer someone
- can only be used for qualitative research back from totally irrelevant digressions
- realise that unstructured interviewing
can produce a great deal of data which
can be difficult to analyse

Semi-structured - is perhaps the most common type of - the researcher produces an interview
interviews interview used in qualitative social schedule with a list of specific
questions or topics to be discussed
 research which is taken to each interview to
- the researchers want to know specific ensure continuity
information which can be compared and - in some research, such as a grounded
contrasted with information gained in theory study, the schedule is updated
other interview and revised after each interview to
- however, the researcher also wants the include more topics which have arisen
interview to remain flexible so that other as a result of the previous interview
important information can still arise

Structured - Structured interviews are used in survey

interviews research to ask the same set of
standardized questions to all respondents
in the same order
- The questions are grouped into
predetermined categories that will help to
answer the research question, or confirm/
disconfirm the hypothesis

● Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the telephone.

FOCUS GROUP
● A focus group is where a number of people are asked to come together to discuss a certain issue for the
purpose of research
● Focus groups are held with a number of people to obtain a group opinion.
● Focus groups are run by a moderator or facilitator who asks questions and makes sure the discussion
does not digress.

QUESTIONNAIRE
● 3 basic types of questionnaire: Questionnaires can be closed-ended, open-ended or a combination of
both.
○ Close-ended: This type of questionnaire is used to generate statistics in quantitative research.

○ Open-ended: The questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick, but instead leaves a blank section for the
respondent to write in an answer.
 UNDETAKING PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
There are two main ways in which researchers observe – direct observation and participant observation.
● Direct observation involves the observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain situation and often uses
technology such as visual recording equipment or one-way mirrors.
● In participant observation, however, the researcher becomes much more involved in the lives of
the people being observed.
● In non-participant observation, the researcher just carry out the observation without getting
involved in any activities

ESTABLISHING THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

● Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is designed to measure There are three types
of validity in quantitative research:

1/ Face and content validity: The judgement that an instrument is measuring what it is supposed to is
primarily based upon the logical link between the questions and the objectives of the study
-Each question or item on the research instrument must have a logical link with an objective
-In addition, the coverage of the issue or attitude should be balanced; that is, each aspect should have
similar and adequate representation in the questions or items.

2/ Concurrent and predictive validity: Suppose you develop an instrument to determine the suitability of
applicants for a profession. The instrument’s validity might be determined by comparing it with another
assessment

3/ Construct validity is based upon statistical procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the contribution of
each construct to the total variance observed in a phenomenon.

● The concept of reliability in relation to a research instrument has a similar meaning: if a research tool
is consistent and stable, hence predictable and accurate, it is said to be reliable.

F. HOW TO CONDUCT BACKGROUND RESEARCH (LITERATURE REVIEW)

TWO TYPES OF BACKGROUND RESEARCH
● There are two types of background research – primary and secondary research.
 Primary research Secondary research

● Involves the study of a subject through firsthand ● Involves the collection of information from
observation and investigation. studies that other researchers have made of a
● This is what you will be doing with your main subject.
project, but you may also need to conduct ● The two easiest and most accessible places to
primary research for your background work, access secondary sources are libraries or the
especially if you’re unable to find any previously internet
published material about your topic. ● Any information obtained from secondary
● Primary research may come from your own sources must be carefully assessed for its
observations or experience, or from the relevance and accuracy.
information you gather personally.

● Notes from primary and secondary sources should be carefully filed and labelled so that the source can be
found again, if required.

LITERATURE REVIEW
● A literature review is a critical analysis of published sources, or literature, on a particular topic
● It is an assessment of the literature and provides a summary, classification, comparison and evalution

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1/ It provides a theoretical background to your study.
2/ It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what has already
been studied.
3/ It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge in your
profession. It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge.

In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can:
1/ bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
2/ improve your research methodology;
3/ broaden your knowledge base in your research area;
4/ contextualise your findings.

PROCESS
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1/ Searching for the existing literature in your area of study
● Have at least some idea of the broad subject area and the problem you wish to investigate
● Compile a bibliography for this broad area
2/ Reviewing the selected literature
● Start reading the selected literature to pull together themes and issues relevant to your study
● Analysing the literature you have found
● For each source you are reviewing, ask yourself
-What are the key terms and concepts?
-What are the similarities and differences between the sources?
 -Are there any gaps in the literature that require further study?
-…
3/ Developing a theoretical framework.
● The information obtained needs to
-be sorted under the main themes and theories
-highlight agreements and disagreements among the authors
-identify the unanswered questions and gaps
4/ Developing a conceptual framework.
● The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem.
● It stems from the theoretical framework and usually focuses on the section(s) which become the
basis of your study.
● The conceptual framework grows out of the theoretical framework and relates to the specific
research problem

What should be included in INTRODUCTION and LITERATURE REVIEW?

Introduction:
_ What is the research about?
+ Meaningful problem (Interest, Experience, Test, Things that you want to discover, …)
+ Aims
_ Why is it important?
Literature Review:
_ Definition the meaning of the concept.
_ Review the concept of the topic
_ Show what you think & your perspective about what you know.

*G. HOW TO CHOOSE YOUR PARTICIPANTS (SAMPLING)

● If it is not possible to contact everyone in the research population, researchers select a smaller, a

more manageable number of people to take part in the research ⇒ This is called sampling.

● The class, families living in the city or electorates from which you select your sample are called
the population or study population, and are usually denoted by the letter N.

● The small group of students, families or electors from whom you collect the required information to
estimate the average age of the class, average income or the election outcome is called the sample.

● The way you select students, families or electors is called the sampling design or sampling strategy.

● Each student, family or elector that becomes the basis for selecting your sample is called the sampling
unit or sampling element.
 ● A list identifying each student, family or elector in the study population is called the sampling frame.

● Your findings based on the information obtained from your respondents (sample) are called
sample statistics. Your sample statistics become the basis of estimating the prevalence of the above
characteristics in the study population.
● Your main aim is to find answers to your research questions in the study population, not in
the sample you collected information from. From sample statistics we make an estimate of the
answers to our research questions in the study population. The estimates arrived at from sample
statistics are called population parameters or the population mean.

PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING:
● Principle 1 – in a majority of cases of sampling there will be a difference between the sample
statistics and the true population mean, which is attributable to the selection of the units in the
sample.
● Principle 2 – the greater the sample size, the more accurate the estimate of the true population
mean.
● Principle 3 – the greater the difference in the variable under study in a population for a given
sample size, the greater the difference between the sample statistics and the true population
mean

TYPES OF SAMPLING
● There are two main types of sampling category – probability samples and purposive samples.
● The size of the sample will depend upon the type and purpose of the research.
● It is possible to use a mixture of sampling techniques within one project which may help to overcome
some of the disadvantages found within different procedures.

PROBABILITY SAMPLES NON-PROBABILITY/ PURPOSIVE

SAMPLES

● all people within the research population have a ● Purposive samples are used if generalisation is not
specifiable chance of being selected the goal
● In some purposive samples it is difficult to specify
at the beginning of the research how many people
will be contacted.
1/ Simple random sampling (SRS) Convenience sampling
 -A sample that is easy or convenient for researchers
-Each element in the population is given an equal to find
and independent chance of selection → all -You stop collecting data when you reach the
possible names are identified and selected in a required number of respondents you decided to
random way have in your sample.
Ex: Pull names out of a hat -This method of sampling is common among
market research and newspaper reporters. You
2/ Systematic random are not guided by any obvious characteristics,
-is used when the sampling frame is large some people contacted may not have the
-Systematic refers to using a computer program to required information.
generate numbers and select the desired
numbers in a sample Purposeful sampling
-The primary consideration in purposive sampling
3/ Stratified random sampling is your judgement as to who can provide the
- is used when the working population contains best information to achieve the objectives of
groups of interest that are of unequal size your study.
- the division of a population into units are called -You as a researcher only go to those people who in
strata your opinion are likely to have the required
- Once the sampling population has been separated information and be willing to share it with you
into non overlapping groups, you select the
required number of elements from each stratum, Snowball sampling:
using the simple random sampling technique. -A few individuals in a group or organisation are
- There are two types of stratified sampling: selected and the required information is
proportionate stratified sampling and collected from them.
disproportionate stratified sampling -They are then asked to identify other people in the
group or organisation, and the people selected
4/ Cluster sampling by them become a part of the sample.
- Cluster sampling is based on the ability of the
researcher to divide the sampling population into Quota sampling:
The sample is selected from a location convenient to
groups (based upon visible or easily identifiable
you as a researcher, and whenever a person with this
characteristics), called clusters, then to select visible relevant characteristic is seen that person is
asked to participate in the study. The process
elements within each cluster, using the SRS
continues until you have been able to contact the
technique. required number of respondents
H. HOW TO PREPARE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
● A research proposal is an overall plan that tells a reader about your research problem and how
you are planning to investigate
● A research proposal’s main function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to
your research questions. In doing so it ensures and reassures the reader of the validity of the
methodology for obtaining answers to your research questions accurately and objectively
● A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and reviewers the following information about
your study:
1/ what you are proposing to do;
2/ how you plan to find answers to what you are proposing;
3/ why you selected the proposed strategies of investigation.
● The standard research proposal should include the following:
○ Proposal title
○ Summary/ Abstract
○ An Introduction/ Background (including a brief literature review)
○ Aims and Objectives (research questions of the study)
○ Theoretical framework that underpins your study
○ Conceptual framework which constitutes the basis of your study
○ Study design
○ Research methodology/ Methods
○ Research instrument(s) you are planning to use
○ Sampling design and sample size
○ Problems and limitations of the study
○ Proposed time-frame for the project
○ Budget & resources
○ References
○ Appendices
○ Definition of terms/ Significance of the study/ Ethical consideratio (optional)

● Research proposals stand a better chance of being accepted if you’re able to prove that you have the
required knowledge and/or experience to carry out the research effectively.
● It is important to make sure that your proposed methods will address the problem you have identified and
that you are able to display an understanding of these methods.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD PROPOSAL?

● Relevance, either to the work of the funding body or to the student’s course.
● The research is unique, or offers new insight or development.
● The title, aims and objectives are all clear and succinct.
● Comprehensive and thorough background research and literature review has been undertaken.
● There is a good match between the issues to be addressed and the approach being adopted.
● The researcher demonstrates relevant background knowledge and/or experience.
● Timetable, resources and budget have all been worked out thoroughly, with most eventualities covered.
● Useful policy and practice implications.

REASONS WHY RESEARCH PROPOSALS FAIL

● Aims and objectives are unclear or vague.
● There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed.
● The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the timescale.
● The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in- depth background research.
● Problem is of insufficient importance.
● Information about the data collection method is insufficiently detailed.
● Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently detailed.
● Timescale is inappropriate or unrealistic.

I. CITATION
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
• derived from the Latin word, plagiare, which means "to kidnap."
• means the act of taking another individual's work and using it as your own, without acknowledging the
original author (American Psychological Association, 2020 p. 21)
WHAT ARE IN-TEXT CITATIONS?
• In-text citations are included when you're adding information from another individual's work into your own
project.
• When you add text word-for-word from another source into your project, or take information from another
source and place it in your own words and writing style (known as paraphrasing), you create an in-text
citation.
• These citations are short in length and are placed in the main part of your project, directly after the
borrowed information.
WHAT ARE REFERENCES?
• References are founded at the end of your research project, usually on the last page.
• Included on this reference list page is the full information for any in-text citations found in the body of the
project.
• These references are listed in alphabetical order by the author's last name.
Why is it important to include citations and references?
• Including APA citations and references in your research projects is a very important component of the
research process.
• When you include citations, you're being a responsible researcher.
• You're showing readers that you were able to find valuable, high-quality information from other sources,
place them into your project where appropriate, all while acknowledging the original authors and their
work.

*J. HOW TO CONSTRUCT QUESTIONNAIRES

WHAT IS QUESTIONNAIRE?
-A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents
-In a questionnaire, respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the
answers

DECIDING WHICH QUESTIONNAIRE TO USE

If you’re sure that a questionnaire is the most appropriate method for your research, you need to decide
whether you intend to construct a closed-ended, open-ended or combination questionnaire.

OPEN QUESTIONS CLOSED QUESTIONS

Respondents use their own words to answer a Prewritten response categories are provided
question

Tend to be slower to administer. Tend to be quicker to administer.

Can be harder to record responses. Often easier and quicker for the researcher to
record responses.

May be difficult to code, especially if multiple Tend to be easy to code.

answers are given.

Do not stifle response. Respondents can only answer in a predefined

way.
 Enable respondents to raise new issues. New issues cannot be raised.

Respondents tend to feel that they have been able to Respondents can only answer in a way which
speak their mind. may not match their actual opinion and may,
therefore, become frustrated.

In self-administered questionnaires, respondents Is quick and easy for respondents to tick boxes
might not be willing to write a long answer and – might be more likely to answer all the
decide to leave the question blank. How do you questions.
know the meaning of a blank answer when you
come to the analysis?

Can use open questions to find out all the possible Can include a section at the end of a closed-
responses before designing a closed - ended ended questionnaire for people to write in a
questionnaire. longer response if they wish.

WORDING AND STRUCTURE OF QUESTIONS

When constructing each question, think about the words you use.
➔ Avoid jargon and technical terms whenever possible.
➔ Avoid words which may have a double meaning or be misinterpreted, as some words have different
meanings for different groups of people.
➔ Avoid emotive words. Make sure the question is not ambiguous.
➔ Avoid questions which will cause annoyance, frustration, offense, embarrassment or sadness.
➔ Questions should be kept short and simple.
● Make sure that your questions don’t contain some type of prestige bias.
● Some issues may be very sensitive and you might be better asking an indirect question rather than a direct
question.
● If you are constructing a closed-ended question, try to make sure that all possible answers are covered.
● Don’t ask leading questions.

LENGTH AND ORDERING OF QUESTIONS

● Keep your questionnaire as short as possible.
● Be realistic about how long a questionnaire will take to fill in.
● Make your questionnaire as interesting as possible and easy to follow.
● Try to vary the type and length of questions as variety provides interest.
● Group the questions into specific topics as this makes it easier to understand and follow.
● Layout and spacing are extremely important.

PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that you must test it out to see if
it is obtaining the results you require.
➔ First of all, ask people who have not been involved in its construction to read it through and see if there
are any ambiguities which you have not noticed.
➔ Once this has been done, alter the questions accordingly, then send out a number of questionnaires to
the type of people who will be taking part in the main survey. Make sure they know it is a pilot test and
ask them to forward any comments they may have about the length, structure and wording of the
questionnaire. Go through each response very carefully, noting comments and looking at the answers
to the questions as this will help you to discover whether there are still ambiguities present.
➔ Alter the questionnaire again. If you have had to undertake major alterations, you may need to pilot the
questionnaire again. This may seem a rather long and laborious process, but it is incredibly important,
especially if you’re intending to send out a large number of questionnaires.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

Advantages Disadvantages

• It is less expensive. • Application is limited (cannot be used on a

• It offers greater anonymity. population that is illiterate, very young, very old
or handicapped).
• Response rate is low.
• There is a self-selecting bias.
• Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking.
• Spontaneous responses are not allowed for.
• The response to a question may be influenced by
the response to other questions.
• It is possible to consult others.
• A response cannot be supplemented with other
information.
*K. HOW TO CONDUCT INTERVIEWS
● Practise with the recording equipment before the interview takes place. It might be useful to conduct
some pilot interviews so that you can become familiar with the recording equipment.
● Develop an interview schedule, starting with general, non- personal issues.
● Check the recording equipment works and make sure you have enough tapes, disks, memory and/or
batteries, paper, pens, etc.
● Check that you have a suitable venue in which to carry out the interview, free from noise and
interruptions.
● Make sure you know how to get to the interview and arrive at a good time.
● Dress and behave appropriately.
● Establish rapport: Treat interviewees with respect, Think about your appearance, Think about body
language, Firm eye contact, Don’t invade their space.
● Negotiate a length of time for the interview and stick to it, unless the interviewee is happy to continue.
● Ask open questions, listen to responses and probe where necessary.
● Keep questions short and to the point.
● Avoid jargon, double-barrelled questions and leading questions.
● Listen carefully and acknowledge that you are listening.
● Check recording equipment is working without drawing attention to it.
● Repeat and summarize answers to aid clarity and under- standing.
● Achieve closure, thank them and leave a contact number in case they wish to get in touch with you about
anything that has arisen.
● Respect their confidentiality – do not pass on what has been said to third parties unless you have
requested permission to do so.

METHOD OF RECORDING?
-Audio recording equipment
-Visual recording equipment
-Note-taking (paper or laptop)

*L. HOW TO CONDUCT FOCUS GROUPS

● Find a suitable venue and check availability. Is it accessible physically and mentally?
● Visit the venue and check it is free from background noises, distractions and interruptions.
● Obtain appropriate recording equipment and practise.
● Try your recording equipment in the venue to test suitability. & Contact participants and check
availability for time and place.
● Over-recruit to ensure enough participants.
● Telephone participants the day before the focus group to check they’re still intending to participate.
● Arrive at the venue early and arrange the seating in a way which will suit the group.
● Test the recording equipment from each seat.
● Lay out refreshments away from the recorder.
● Greet participants with drinks and nibbles.
● Introduce yourself; explain what the group is about, what is expected of the participants, who the research
is for and what will happen to the results.
● Negotiate a discussion length and ask that no one leaves early.
● Discuss issues of confidentiality, anonymity and personal disclosure.
● Start recorder and begin with general, easy to answer questions.
● Watch for group dynamics and deal with them accordingly.
● Listen and take notes.
● Ask questions and probe for more detail.
● Wind up within negotiated time, unless participants wish to continue.
● Thank participants and give them your name and contact number in case they wish to follow up any of
the issues with you.
● Send a summary report to anyone interested.

Advantages Disadvantages

Can receive a wide range of responses during one Some people may be uncomfortable in a group
meeting setting and nervous about speaking in front of others

Participants can ask questions of each other, Not everyone may contribute
lessening impact of researcher bias

Helps people to remember issues they might Other people may contaminate an individual’s view
otherwise have forgottened

Help participants to overcome inhibitions, especially Some researchers may find it difficult or intimidating
if they know other in the group to moderate a focus group

The group effect is a useful resource in data analysis Venues and equipment can be expensive
 Participant interaction is useful to analyse Difficult to extract individual views during the
analysis

M. HOW TO CARRY OUT PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

● In participant observation, the researcher immerses herself into a community, culture or context. The
action is deliberate and intended to add to knowledge.
● To gain access a researcher must be non-threatening, displaying appropriate behaviour and body language
and wearing appropriate dress.
● A useful way of gaining access is to find a gatekeeper who can introduce you to other members of the
community.
● A researcher needs to do much soul-searching before going into the field as the experience can raise many
ethical, moral and personal dilemmas.
● It is sometimes quicker and more economical to wait for questions to come to the researcher, rather than
ask questions of informants in the early stages of a study.
● Field notes may record practical details, methodological issues, personal thoughts, preliminary analyses
and working hypotheses.
● Data analysis takes place in the field so that hypotheses can be discussed with key informants.
● The community should be left on good terms and any written reports should be given back to the people
for their interest and personal comments.

Carry out participants observation:

_ Researcher join in a place of study (a community)
_ Gaining access (using gatekeepers or creating a good impression)
_ Acting ethically
_ Collecting and analyzing information (using Field notes & IT equipment)
_ Withdrawing from the field

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
1. Obtrusive observers
• Any observer in the classroom runs the risk of being an obtrusive observer, which can be problematic for
research.
(Obtrusive: noticeable in an unpleasant way)
• An obtrusive observer's presence may be felt in the classroom to the extent that the events observed cannot
be said to be fully representative of the class in its typical behavior,
⇒ Therefore the observation data may have limited validity

2. The Hawthorne Effect

• When the observers were present, the productivity of workers increased regardless of whether or not there
were positive changes in working conditions.
• The workers were apparently happy to receive attention from researchers who expressed an interest in them
by observing them, and this impacted their behavior.
• In observational research, it may be difficult to be sure that the observed classes are the same as they would
be without the observation
• In controlled research it may be difficult to separate Hawthorne effects from experimental variables.
3. Objectivity and Subjectivity
• When conducting observations, the level of objectivity or subjectivity of the observer should be taken into
account.

*N. HOW TO ANALYSE YOUR DATA (QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE)

● The methods you use to analyse your data will depend upon whether you have chosen to conduct
qualitative or quantitative research.
● For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and reliability are important.
● Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process. Ask two researchers to analyse a transcript and they
will probably come up with very different results.
● After having conducted an interview or a focus group, it is useful to complete a summary form which
contains details about the interview. This can be attached to the transcript and can be used to help the
analysis.
● Qualitative data analysis methods can be viewed as forming a continuum from highly qualitative methods
to almost quanti- tative methods, which involve an element of counting.
● Examples of qualitative data analysis include thematic analysis, comparative analysis, discourse analysis
and content analysis.
● The analysis of large-scale surveys is best done with the use of statistical software, although simple
frequency counts can be undertaken manually.
● Data can be measured using nominal scales, ordinal scales or interval scales.
● A simple average is called an arithmetic mean; the middle value of a range is called the median; the most
frequently occurring value is called the mode.
 WHEN TO ANALYSE DATA?
Quantitative and qualitative data are analysed in different ways. For qualitative data, the researcher might
analyse as the research progresses, continually refining and reorganising in light of the emerging results.
For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the data collection process, and if it is a large
survey, statistical software is the easiest and most efficient method to use. For this type of analysis time has
to be put aside for the data input process which can be long and laborious, unless your questionnaires can be
scanned. However, once this has been done the analysis is quick and efficient, with most software packages
producing well presented graphs, pie charts and tables which can be used for the final report.

VARIABLES
From the viewpoint of causal relationship

Independent the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change(s) in a phenomenon or situation
Variable -Example: The amount of study time (in hours) given to students.

Dependent the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an independent variable

Variable -Example: The scores obtained by students in an English language proficiency test.

Extraneous several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect changes in the dependent
variable variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or
strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Intervening sometimes called the confounding variable, links the independent and dependent variables. In
variable certain situations the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable cannot be
established without the intervention of another variable.
-Example: Teaching methodology. If different teaching methodologies are used for different
groups of students, it may confound the relationship between study time and test scores,
as the teaching methodology may also influence test scores independently of study time.

From the viewpoint of causal relationship

Active variables Attribute variables

those variables that can be manipulated, changed or those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed
 controlled or controlled, and that reflect the characteristics of
the study population, for example age, gender,
education and income

From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement

There are two ways of categorising variables:

1. Whether the unit of measurement is categorical (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or continuous

in nature (as in interval and ratio scales)

-3 types of categorical variables

Constant variable Dichotomous variable Polytomous variables

has only one category or value, has only two categories, as in can be divided into more than two
for example taxi, tree and male/female, yes/no, good/bad, categories, for example religion
water head/tail, up/down and rich/poor (Christian, Muslim, Hindu);
political parties (Labor, Liberal,
Democrat); and attitudes (strongly
favourable, favourable, uncertain,
unfavourable, strongly
unfavourable).

Example: Educational level. It can be categorized into groups such as high school, bachelor's degree,
master's degree, etc.

-Continuous variables: These variables have a range of possible values and can be measured on a
continuous scale. Examples include age, weight, or time. Example: Age. It can take on any value
within a certain range (e.g., 18 years, 20 years, 22.5 years)

2. Whether it is qualitative (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or quantitative in nature (as in interval

and ratio scales)

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
 Nominal or - Enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses based on a common/ shared
Classificatory property or characteristic.
Scale - These people, objects or responses are divided into a number of subgroups in such a way
that each member of the subgroup has a common characteristic.
- A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more subcategories
depending upon the extent of variation.
⇒ The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no
relationship among subgroups.

Ordinal Or - An ordinal scale has all the properties of a nominal scale but also ranks the subgroups in
Ranking Scale a certain order.
- They are arranged in either ascending or descending order according to the extent that a
subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable.
- The magnitude itself is not quantifiable.

Interval Scale - An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale.
- An interval scale uses a unit of measurement that enables the individual or responses to
be placed at equally spaced intervals in relation to the spread of the variable. It has a unit
of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating point.

Ratio Scale - A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales and it also has a
starting point fixed at zero. Therefore, it is an absolute scale – the difference between the
intervals is always measured from a zero point. This means the ratio scale can be used for
mathematical operations.

TYPES OF ATTITUDINAL SCALES

1. Likert scale
• It's a question that uses a 5 or 7-point scale, sometimes referred to as a satisfaction scale, that ranges from
one extreme attitude to another.
• Typically, the Likert survey question includes a moderate or neutral option in its scale.
• Likert scales were named after their creator, American social scientist Rensis Likert.
• Likert scales are quite popular because they are one of the most reliable ways to measure opinions,
perceptions, and behaviors.
• Likert scales are great for digging down deep into one specific topic to find out (in greater detail) what
people think about it.
2. Thurstone scale
• The Thurstone scale was the first formal method of measuring attitude both in psychology and sociology.
• Its origins go back to the early 20th century, where psychologist Louis Leon Thurstone began measuring
religious attitudes by asking respondents to agree or disagree with a series of related statements.
• He understood that attitude was cumulative and that he could, therefore, calculate it as the sum total of each
statement the respondent agreed with.
How do you use the Thurstone scale?
Use the Thurstone scale to measure and compare your respondents' attitudes on a particular issue. You can
apply the Thurstone scale to a wide range of surveys, including:
• Those that measure opinions. The Thurstone scale produces quantifiable measures of the strength of your
respondents' opinions.
• Those that gauge sentiment, including customer satisfaction and employee engagement. For customers, the
scale can help you predict things like repeat purchases; for employees, it can be future turnover.
3. Guttman scale
• The Guttman scale is based on a hierarchy of related questions.
• Respondents must answer "yes" or "no" to dichotomous questions that represent an increasingly extreme
position on an issue.
• The more often a respondent answers "yes," the more that respondent supports a particular opinion.
• By listing questions from least to most supportive, you can connect the number of times the respondent
answers "yes" to a particular opinion.
How do you use the Guttman scale?
• To evaluate cumulative learning. Guttman originally used his scale to evaluate students' academic
achievement.
• To measure opinion. The Guttman scale produces quantifiable measures of the strength of your respondents'
opinions.
• To gauge sentiment. This includes measuring customer satisfaction and employee engagement.

DATA PROCESSING IN QUALITATIVE DATA

Step 1: Familiarization of data
Step 2: Initial coding
Step 3: Generating themes
Step 4: Validity and Reliability of themes
Step 5: Defining and naming themes
Step 6: Interpreting and reporting

DATA PROCESSING IN QUANTITATIVE DATA

1) Editing
2) Coding
3) Analysis

MEAN, MODE, MEDIAN

The mean is the average of a data set.
The mode is the most common number in a data set.
The median is the middle of the set of numbers.

STANDARD DEVIATION
How spread-out numbers are.

● Low standard deviation => most of the numbers are close to the average.

● High standard deviation => the numbers are more spread out.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
CONTENT ANALYSIS
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

O. HOW TO REPORT YOUR FINDINGS

● There are three main ways of reporting your findings: written reports, journal articles and oral
presentations.
● Before starting your research, find out whether you are going to be restricted by the structure, style and
content of your final report.
● Think about your audience and produce your report accord- ingly.
● A traditional written report includes the following:
○ title page

○ contents page

○ list of illustrations
 ○ acknowledgements

○ abstract/summary

○ introduction

○ background

○ methodology/methods

○ findings/analysis

○ conclusions

○ recommendations

○ further research

○ references

○ bibliography

○ appendices.

● If you are interested in writing an article for a journal, do your market research. Make sure that the subject
matter, style, structure and length of your article suit the journal.
● Try to seek advice and comments from people experienced in writing journal articles.
● Think about producing your first article with another, more experienced researcher.
● Remember that anyone can reproduce reports or articles on- line. If you were to do so, your work would
reach a wider audience than it might do otherwise.
● When making oral presentations, always be prepared. Arrive early, make sure equipment works and that
you have everything you need.
● Show that you are interested in what you are saying and try to keep audience interest by using visual aids
and altering tone, pitch and gestures.
● Don’t shrug off questions or patronize your audience – pitch your presentation at the right level.
● Never let an audience leave without taking away a record of what you have said.