Ferdinand de Saussure – The Object of Study

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), a Swiss linguist, is often regarded as the father of

modern linguistics. His theories laid the foundation for structuralism, which later
influenced a wide array of disciplines, including literary theory, anthropology, and semiotics.
His posthumously published work, Course in General Linguistics (1916), compiled from
students’ notes, and presents several revolutionary ideas that changed the way language is
studied.
In the beginning of his essay "The Object of Study", Ferdinand de Saussure contrasts
linguistics with other sciences, emphasizing that linguistics does not have a clearly defined
object of study like the natural sciences. He explains that other sciences are usually given a
tangible, pre-existing object to study, while linguistics must define its own object before it
can begin its investigation.
To illustrate this point, Saussure gives the example of the word "nu" (naked). This example
is crucial in understanding his argument about the complexity of defining language as an
object of study.
The Example of "Nu" (Naked)
Saussure presents the word "nu" to show that linguistic objects are not inherently fixed and
do not have a natural existence in the same way that objects in other sciences do. He
demonstrates that the study of language is more complex than studying objects in physical
sciences.
Here’s how the example works:
1. Multiple Aspects of "Nu"
If one studies the sound of the word "nu," they enter the realm of phonetics.
If one studies the meaning of "nu," they enter the realm of semantics.
If one studies how "nu" functions in a sentence, they move into the study of
syntax or grammar.
This demonstrates that language is not a simple, unified object but rather a complex system
of interconnected elements.
2. Comparing "Nu" Across Languages
The concept of "naked" exists in many languages, but it is expressed
differently.
In English, the equivalent is "naked," while in German, it is "nackt."
While these words all refer to the same idea, they are phonetically different
and follow different linguistic rules in their respective languages.
This highlights that words and meanings do not exist independently but only as part of a
linguistic system.
By using "nu" as an example, Saussure emphasizes that:
1. Linguistic objects (words, meanings, sounds) are not given in the same way as
objects in other sciences (e.g., chemistry studies elements, biology studies living
organisms).
2. A word is not a fixed object but part of a larger structure, where meaning depends
on its relationship with other elements in the system.
3. Linguistics must define its own object of study rather than assuming that words and
meanings are self-evident.
Thus, Saussure argues that the true object of study in linguistics is not individual words or
sounds but the underlying system of language (langue) that governs how words acquire
meaning.
Further, Saussure outlines four key points that highlight the complexity of defining the
linguistic object. These points emphasize the challenges of studying language scientifically
and reinforce his argument that linguistics must first establish its object of study.
The Four Points in Saussure’s Argument
1. "The ear perceives a homogeneous sound phenomenon, but analysis decomposes
it"
When we hear a word, we perceive it as a single continuous sound. However,
linguistic analysis breaks it down into individual phonemes (distinct units of
sound). For example, when we hear "nu" (naked), it sounds like one entity, but
in phonetic terms, it consists of separate sounds: /n/ and /u/. This shows that
language appears simple to speakers but is actually complex when analyzed
scientifically.
2. "The speaker, for his part, has only a confused notion of the physiological
phenomena that allow him to produce this sound"
A speaker naturally produces speech without being aware of the complex
physiological processes involved, such as tongue placement, breath control,
and vocal cord vibration. This means that language functions unconsciously
in everyday use, making it difficult to study without a structured approach.
3. "The grammarian refers in turn to the traditional form of words he finds in
texts"
Traditional grammarians study words based on how they appear in written
texts, treating them as fixed entities. However, language evolves over time,
and words change in form and meaning, which makes a purely textual
approach insufficient for defining language scientifically. For example, the
Latin word "nudus" evolved into French "nu," showing how historical
changes affect language.
4. "Finally, the meaning of the word is the only thing that appears to be a concrete
object, but this meaning itself escapes definition"
 While the meaning of a word seems like the most concrete and stable aspect
of language, it is actually fluid and context-dependent. Words acquire
meaning only in relation to other words in the language system. For
instance, "nu" means "naked," but its meaning depends on cultural and
linguistic conventions. This reinforces Saussure’s argument that meaning is
not fixed but determined by the structure of the language system.
So, before linguists can study language scientifically, they must first define what language
really is.
Saussure on Physical, Physiological, and Psychological Aspects of Language
Saussure explains that language is made up of three different aspects: physical,
physiological, and psychological.
1. Physical (Sound Waves Traveling in the Air)
When we speak, our voice produces sound waves that travel through the air.
Example: If you say "hello" to a friend, the sound waves move from your
mouth to their ears. This is the physical aspect of language—just like how a
radio sends out sound signals.
2. Physiological (Body Movements That Produce and Receive Sound)
Speaking is not just about sound; it also involves movements of the mouth,
tongue, and vocal cords. Example: To say "p," you press your lips together; to
say "s," you use your tongue near your teeth. Similarly, hearing involves the
ear, eardrum, and brain processing sound. This is the physiological aspect,
the body’s role in speech and hearing.
3. Psychological (Understanding and Meaning in the Mind)
The most important part of language happens in the mind. When we hear a
word, our brain recognizes it, gives it meaning, and understands it.
Example: If someone says "apple," your mind instantly forms an image of an
apple. This is the psychological aspect, language exists in our thoughts and
memories.
Whitney’s Reference: Language is a Social Institution
Saussure refers to the American linguist William Dwight Whitney, who said that
language is a social institution (something created and maintained by people in
society). This means that language is not just about individual words or sounds, it
exists because people agree on meanings and rules together. Example: The word
"dog" means a pet animal because English speakers agree on it. If we all decided to
call it "floob," the meaning would change!
Saussure agrees with Whitney that language is not just biological (like breathing) it’s a
system created by society that we all follow.
Saussure’s Reference to Broca (Paul Broca)
Saussure briefly mentions Paul Broca, a French scientist who studied the brain’s role in
language. Broca discovered a special area in the brain (now called Broca’s area) that
controls speech production. He studied patients who had brain damage and found that when
a certain part of the left brain was damaged, people could understand language but struggled
to speak. Some scientists (like Broca) studied language from a biological perspective, how
the brain controls speech. But Saussure says linguistics is not about biology or the brain—
it is about the system of language itself.
Example to Understand the Difference
Broca’s View (Biology of Speech): If a person cannot speak after a brain injury, a
doctor studies which brain area is damaged.
Saussure’s View (Linguistics): A linguist studies how words have meaning and how
language follows rules, not how the brain produces sounds.
Saussure mentions Broca to show that while the brain controls speech, linguistics is not about
brain science but about understanding language as a structured system.
However, he criticizes solely focusing on one level. Studying only the physical properties of
speech sounds wouldn't capture their meaning or social function. Conversely, solely
analyzing the psychological aspects wouldn't address the concrete realization of speech in
physical sound waves.
Arguments about Speech:
Regarding speech, Saussure emphasizes:
Arbitrariness: The link between signifier (sound) and signified (concept) is
arbitrary, not based on natural resemblance. The word "tree" doesn't inherently sound
like a tree.
Linearity: Spoken language unfolds sequentially, one sound after another, unlike
visual signs that can be perceived all at once.
Mutability: Language changes over time, with both spoken and written forms
evolving.
He differentiates parole (individual speech acts) from langue (the larger language system).
Understanding speech, then, requires considering both:
The individual's choices in using language (parole).
The underlying rules and conventions of the language system (langue).

The speech circuit, which depicts the different stages involved in speech production and
perception. The model consists of two main parts: the speaker and the listener. The speaker's
brain transmits a signal to the organs of phonation, which produce sound waves. These sound
waves travel to the listener's ear, where they are converted into electrical signals that are sent
to the brain. The brain then interprets these signals as speech.
Here is a more detailed explanation of the speech circuit, along with some examples:
 1. Speech production:
The speaker's brain forms a concept, such as the word "cat."
The brain then selects the appropriate sound pattern for the word "cat."
The sound pattern is transmitted to the organs of phonation, which include the
larynx, vocal cords, and tongue.
The organs of phonation produce sound waves, which travel to the listener's
ear.
2. Speech perception:
The sound waves enter the listener's ear and vibrate the eardrum.
The vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear, where they are converted into
electrical signals.
The electrical signals are sent to the brain, which interprets them as speech.
The brain recognizes the sound pattern of the word "cat" and matches it to the
concept of "cat."
Additional points to note about the speech circuit:
● The speech circuit is a complex process that involves many different parts of the
brain.
● The speech circuit is not perfect, and errors can occur at any stage of the process.
● The speech circuit can be affected by a variety of factors, such as hearing loss, brain
damage, and language disorders.
it goes deeper into the concept of social interactionism. It talks about how a "social bond" is
created through language, and how this bond is distinct from individual speech.
Saussure’s Four Concepts:

1. Langue and Parole

Langue and parole are two central terms in Saussure’s theory of language:

Langue (Language System):

Refers to the social structure of language shared by a community. It is

systematic, rule-governed, and exists in the minds of the speakers. It includes
grammar, vocabulary, and conventions. Langue is static, collective, and
abstract. Example: English as a language system with its grammar and
vocabulary.

Parole (Speech):
 Refers to individual utterances or acts of speech. It is concrete, variable,
and influenced by personal and situational factors. Example: The actual
sentence spoken by a person: “I’m going to the store.”

Saussure emphasized that linguistics should focus on langue, not parole, because only
langue provides a scientific and structured object of study.

2. Synchronic and Diachronic Linguistics

These terms refer to two different approaches to the study of language:

Synchronic Linguistics:

Study of language at a specific point in time, typically the [Link] on

the structure of the language system (langue). Like taking a photograph of
language at a [Link]: Studying how English verbs function today.

Diachronic Linguistics:

Study of the historical development and evolution of language over time.

Focuses on language change (e.g., Old English → Modern English). Like
watching a movie showing language change through time.

Saussure prioritized synchronic study, arguing that understanding the structure at a

particular moment is more foundational to linguistics than studying historical changes.

3. Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations

These are two types of relationships between linguistic elements in a language system:

Syntagmatic Relation (Horizontal Axis):

Concerned with linear combinations of words in a sequence. Words combine

to create phrases and sentences. Governed by syntax and grammar.
Example: In the sentence “The cat sat on the mat,” the word “cat” is
syntagmatically related to “the,” “sat,” etc.

Paradigmatic Relation (Vertical Axis):

Concerned with substitution of words from the same [Link] relate

through similarity or contrast. Example: In “The cat sat on the mat,” the
word “cat” can be replaced with “dog,” “child,” or “book.”

Understanding these relations is crucial for structural analysis of language and texts.
4. Sign, Signifier, and Signified

At the heart of Saussure’s theory is the linguistic sign, composed of two parts:

Sign: The fundamental unit of meaning in language.

Signifier (Sound Image): The form or “sound pattern” of a word (e.g., the sound
/tree/).

Signified (Concept): The idea or concept the word represents (e.g., the mental
image of a tree).

The sign = signifier + signified

The relationship between the signifier and signified is arbitrary and conventional.
Example: There is no natural connection between the sound /dog/ and the animal it
represents - it’s a social agreement.

Saussure’s idea that the linguistic sign is arbitrary challenges earlier views that language
had a natural connection to the world.

Conclusion

Saussure’s concepts revolutionized the study of language by shifting focus from historical to
structural analysis. Emphasizing the systematic and relational nature of language. Introducing
a scientific model for understanding linguistic signs and structures. His theories became the
foundation of structuralism, which influenced later thinkers like Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland
Barthes, and Jacques Derrida.

Prepared by
Dr Mercy Famila
FMNC