COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE

TO INTERVIEWS FOR
MACHINE LEARNING

ZEP ANALYTICS
 Introduction
We've curated this series of interview guides to
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in a data analytics interview with this series of guides.
COMPREHENSIVE
GUIDE TO
INTERVIEWS
FOR MACHINE
LEARNING

Machine learning is one of the most important

part of the Data Analytics interview. Most of the
companies prefer to have a person with skills of
Machine Learning.

So here we have brought you the intensive

Machine Learning interview E-book which will
provide you the most important Machine
Learning interview questions that you can
encounter during your interviews.

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 TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1. What are different types of Machine Learning?
2. What is Overfitting, and How Can You Avoid It?
3. What is ‘training Set’ and ‘test Set’ in a Machine
Learning Model? How Much Data Will You Allocate for
Your Training, Validation, and Test Sets?
4. How Do You Handle Missing or Corrupted Data in a
Dataset?
5. How Can You Choose a Classifier Based on a
Training Set Data Size?
6. What Are the Three Stages of Building a Model in
Machine Learning?
7. What Are the Applications of Supervised Machine
Learning in Modern Businesses?
8. What is Semi-supervised Machine Learning?
9. What Are Unsupervised Machine Learning
Techniques?
10. What is the Difference Between Supervised and
Unsupervised Machine Learning?
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CONTENTS
11. What Is ‘naive’ in the Naive Bayes Classifier?
12. Explain How a System Can Play a Game of Chess
Using Reinforcement Learning.
13. How Will You Know Which Machine Learning
Algorithm to Choose for Your Classification Problem?
14. When Will You Use Classification over Regression?
15. What is a Random Forest?
16. What is Bias and Variance in a Machine Learning
Model?
17. What is the Trade-off Between Bias and Variance?
18. What is a Decision Tree Classification?
19. What is Pruning in Decision Trees, and How Is It
Done?
20. Briefly Explain Logistic Regression.
21. Explain the K Nearest Neighbor Algorithm.
22. What is a Recommendation System?
23. What is Kernel SVM?
24. What Are Some Methods of Reducing
Dimensionality?
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CONTENTS
25. What is Principal Component Analysis?
26. What are Support Vectors in SVM?
27. What is Ensemble learning?
28. What is Cross-Validation?
29. What are the different methods to split a tree in a
decision tree algorithm?
30. How does the Support Vector Machine algorithm
handle self-learning?
31. What is the difference between Lasso and Ridge
regression?
32. What are the assumptions you need to take before
starting with linear regression?
33. Explain the Confusion Matrix with Respect to
Machine Learning Algorithms.
34. What Is a False Positive and False Negative and
How Are They Significant?
35. Define Precision and Recall.
36. What do you understand by Type I vs Type II error?
37. What is a Decision Tree in Machine Learning?
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CONTENTS
38. What is Hypothesis in Machine Learning?
39. What are the differences between Deep Learning
and Machine Learning?
40. What is Entropy in Machine Learning?
41. What is Epoch in Machine Learning?
42. How is the suitability of a Machine Learning
Algorithm determined for a particular problem?
43. What is the Variance Inflation Factor?
44. When should Classification be used over
Regression?
45. Why is rotation required in PCA? What will happen if
the components are not rotated?
46. What is ROC Curve and what does it represent?
47. Why are Validation and Test Datasets Needed?
48. Explain the difference between KNN and K-means
Clustering.
49. What is Dimensionality Reduction?
50. Both being Tree-based Algorithms, how is Random
Forest different from Gradient Boosting Machine
(GBM)?
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51. What is meant by Parametric and Non-parametric
Models?
52. Differentiate between Sigmoid and Softmax
Functions.
53. In Machine Learning, for how many classes can
Logistic Regression be used?
54. What is meant by Correlation and Covariance?
55. What are the Various Tests for Checking the
Normality of a Dataset?
56. What are the Two Main Types of Filtering in Machine
Learning? Explain.
57. Outlier Values can be Discovered from which Tools?
58. What is meant by Ensemble Learning?
59. What are the Various Kernels that are present in
SVM?
60. Suppose you found that your model is suffering
from high variance. Which algorithm do you think could
handle this situation and why?
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61. What is Binarizing of Data? How to Binarize?
62. How to Standardize Data?
63. We know that one-hot encoding increases the
dimensionality of a dataset, but label encoding doesn’t.
How?
64. Imagine you are given a dataset consisting of
variables having more than 30% missing values. Let’s
say, out of 50 variables, 16 variables have missing
values, which is higher than 30%. How will you deal with
them?
65. Explain False Negative, False Positive, True Negative,
and True Positive with a simple example.
66. What is F1-score and How Is It Used?
67. How can you avoid overfitting ?
68. What is inductive machine learning?
69. What is Genetic Programming?
70. What is Inductive Logic Programming in Machine
Learning?
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71. What is Model Selection in Machine Learning?
72. What is the difference between heuristic for rule
learning and heuristics for decision trees?
73. What is the general principle of an ensemble
method and what is bagging and boosting in ensemble
method?
74. What is bias-variance decomposition of
classification error in ensemble method?
75. What is an Incremental Learning algorithm in
ensemble?
76. What is PCA, KPCA and ICA used for?
77. When does regularization come into play in Machine
Learning?
78. How can we relate standard deviation and
variance?
79. Is a high variance in data good or bad?
80. Explain the handling of missing or corrupted values
in the given dataset.
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81. What is Time series?
82. What is a Box-Cox transformation?
83. What is the difference between stochastic gradient
descent (SGD) and gradient descent (GD)?
84. What is the exploding gradient problem while using
back propagation technique?
85. Explain the differences between Random Forest and
Gradient Boosting machines.
86. What’s a Fourier transform?
87. What do you mean by Associative Rule Mining
(ARM)?
88. What is Marginalisation? Explain the process.
89. Explain the phrase “Curse of Dimensionality”.
90. What is the difference between regularization and
normalisation?
91. Explain the difference between Normalization and
Standardization.
92. List the most popular distribution curves along with
scenarios where you will use them in an algorithm.
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93. When does the linear regression line stop rotating
or finds an optimal spot where it is fitted on data?
94. Which machine learning algorithm is known as the
lazy learner and why is it called so?
95. Is it possible to use KNN for image processing?
96. Explain the term instance-based learning.
97. What is Bayes’ Theorem? State at least 1 use case
with respect to the machine learning context?
98. What is Naive Bayes? Why is it Naive?
99. Explain the difference between Lasso and Ridge?
100. Why would you Prune your tree?
101. Model accuracy or Model performance? Which one
will you prefer and why?
102. Mention some of the EDA Techniques?
103. Differentiate between Statistical Modeling and
Machine Learning?
104. Differentiate between Boosting and Bagging?
105. What is the significance of Gamma and
Regularization in SVM?
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106. What is the difference between a generative and
discriminative model?
107. What are hyperparameters and how are they
different from parameters?
108. Can logistic regression be used for classes more
than 2?
109. How to deal with multicollinearity?
110. What is Heteroscedasticity?
111. Is ARIMA model a good fit for every time series
problem?
112. What is a voting model?
113. How to deal with very few data samples? Is it
possible to make a model out of it?
114. What is Pandas Profiling?
115. When should ridge regression be preferred over
lasso?
116. What is a good metric for measuring the level of
multicollinearity?
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117. When can be a categorical value treated as a
continuous variable and what effect does it have when
done so?
118. What is the role of maximum likelihood in logistic
regression.
119. What is a pipeline?
120. What do you understand by L1 and L2
regularization?
121. What do you mean by AUC curve?
122. Why does XGBoost perform better than SVM?
123. What is the difference between SVM Rank and SVR
(Support Vector Regression)?
124. What is the difference between the normal soft
margin SVM and SVM with a linear kernel?
125. What are the advantages of using a naive Bayes
for classification?
126. Are Gaussian Naive Bayes the same as binomial
Naive Bayes?
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127. What is the difference between the Naive Bayes
Classifier and the Bayes classifier?
128. In what real world applications is Naive Bayes
classifier used?
129. Is naive Bayes supervised or unsupervised?
130. What do you understand by selection bias in
Machine Learning?
131. What Are the Three Stages of Building a Model in
Machine Learning?
132. What is the difference between Entropy and
Information Gain?
133. What are collinearity and multicollinearity?
134. What is A/B Testing?
135. What is Cluster Sampling?
136. What is deep learning, and how does it contrast
with other machine learning algorithms?
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1. What Are the Different Types of Machine Learning?
There are three types of machine learning:

Supervised Learning
In supervised machine learning, a model makes predictions
or decisions based on past or labeled data. Labeled data
refers to sets of data that are given tags or labels, and thus
made more meaningful.

Unsupervised Learning
In unsupervised learning, we don't have labeled data. A
model can identify patterns, anomalies, and relationships in
the input data.

Reinforcement Learning
Using reinforcement learning, the model can learn based on
the rewards it received for its previous action.

Consider an environment where an agent is working. The

agent is given a target to achieve. Every time the agent
takes some action toward the target, it is given positive
feedback. And, if the action taken is going away from the
goal, the agent is given negative feedback.

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2. What is Overfitting, and How Can You Avoid It?
The Overfitting is a situation that occurs when a model
learns the training set too well, taking up random
fluctuations in the training data as concepts. These impact
the model’s ability to generalize and don’t apply to new data.
When a model is given the training data, it shows 100
percent accuracy—technically a slight loss. But, when we use
the test data, there may be an error and low efficiency. This
condition is known as overfitting.

There are multiple ways of avoiding overfitting, such as:

Regularization. It involves a cost term for the features
involved with the objective function
Making a simple model. With lesser variables and
parameters, the variance can be reduced
Cross-validation methods like k-folds can also be used
If some model parameters are likely to cause overfitting,
techniques for regularization like LASSO can be used that
penalize these parameters

3. What is ‘training Set’ and ‘test Set’ in a Machine Learning

Model? How Much Data Will You Allocate for Your Training,
Validation, and Test Sets?
There is a three-step process followed to create a model:
1. Train the model
2. Test the model
3. Deploy the model

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Training Set
The training set is examples given to the model to
analyze and learn.
70% of the total data is typically taken as the training
dataset.
This is labeled data used to train the model.

Test Set
The test set is used to test the accuracy of the
hypothesis generated by the model
Remaining 30% is taken as testing dataset
We test without labeled data and then verify results with
labels
Consider a case where you have labeled data for 1,000
records. One way to train the model is to expose all 1,000
records during the training process. Then you take a small
set of the same data to test the model, which would give
good results in this case.
But, this is not an accurate way of testing. So, we set aside a
portion of that data called the ‘test set’ before starting the
training process. The remaining data is called the ‘training
set’ that we use for training the model. The training set
passes through the model multiple times until the accuracy
is high, and errors are minimized.
Now, we pass the test data to check if the model can
accurately predict the values and determine if training is
effective. If you get errors, you either need to change your
model or retrain it with more data.

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Regarding the question of how to split the data into a
training set and test set, there is no fixed rule, and the ratio
can vary based on individual preferences.

4. How Do You Handle Missing or Corrupted Data in a

Dataset?
One of the easiest ways to handle missing or corrupted data
is to drop those rows or columns or replace them entirely
with some other value.
There are two useful methods in Pandas:
IsNull() and dropna() will help to find the columns/rows
with missing data and drop them
Fillna() will replace the wrong values with a placeholder
value

5. How Can You Choose a Classifier Based on a Training Set

Data Size?
When the training set is small, a model that has a right bias
and low variance seems to work better because they are
less likely to overfit.
For example, Naive Bayes works best when the training set is
large. Models with low bias and high variance tend to
perform better as they work fine with complex relationships.

6. What Are the Three Stages of Building a Model in Machine

Learning?
The three stages of building a machine learning model are:

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Model Building
Choose a suitable algorithm for the model and train it
according to the requirement
Model Testing
Check the accuracy of the model through the test data
Applying the Model
Make the required changes after testing and use the final
model for real-time projects

Here, it’s important to remember that once in a while, the

model needs to be checked to make sure it’s working
correctly. It should be modified to make sure that it is up-to-
date.

7. What Are the Applications of Supervised Machine Learning

in Modern Businesses?
Applications of supervised machine learning include:
Email Spam Detection
Here we train the model using historical data that consists of
emails categorized as spam or not spam. This labeled
information is fed as input to the model.
Healthcare Diagnosis
By providing images regarding a disease, a model can be
trained to detect if a person is suffering from the disease or
not.
Sentiment Analysis
This refers to the process of using algorithms to mine
documents and determine whether they’re positive, neutral,
or negative in sentiment.
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8. What is Semi-supervised Machine Learning?
Supervised learning uses data that is completely labeled,
whereas unsupervised learning uses no training data.
In the case of semi-supervised learning, the training data
contains a small amount of labeled data and a large
amount of unlabeled data.

9. What Are Unsupervised Machine Learning Techniques?

There are two techniques used in unsupervised learning:
clustering and association.

Clustering
Clustering problems involve data to be divided into subsets.
These subsets, also called clusters, contain data that are
similar to each other. Different clusters reveal different
details about the objects, unlike classification or regression.

Association
In an association problem, we identify patterns of
associations between different variables or items.
For example, an e-commerce website can suggest other
items for you to buy, based on the prior purchases that you
have made, spending habits, items in your wishlist, other
customers’ purchase habits, and so on.

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10. What is the Difference Between Supervised and
Unsupervised Machine Learning?
Supervised learning - This model learns from the labeled
data and makes a future prediction as output
Unsupervised learning - This model uses unlabeled input
data and allows the algorithm to act on that information
without guidance.

11. What Is ‘naive’ in the Naive Bayes Classifier?

The classifier is called ‘naive’ because it makes assumptions
that may or may not turn out to be correct.
The algorithm assumes that the presence of one feature of
a class is not related to the presence of any other feature
(absolute independence of features), given the class
variable.
For instance, a fruit may be considered to be a cherry if it is
red in color and round in shape, regardless of other features.
This assumption may or may not be right (as an apple also
matches the description).

12. Explain How a System Can Play a Game of Chess Using

Reinforcement Learning.
Reinforcement learning has an environment and an agent.
The agent performs some actions to achieve a specific goal.
Every time the agent performs a task that is taking it towards
the goal, it is rewarded. And, every time it takes a step that
goes against that goal or in the reverse direction, it is
penalized.

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Earlier, chess programs had to determine the best moves
after much research on numerous factors. Building a
machine designed to play such games would require many
rules to be specified.
With reinforced learning, we don’t have to deal with this
problem as the learning agent learns by playing the game. It
will make a move (decision), check if it’s the right move
(feedback), and keep the outcomes in memory for the next
step it takes (learning). There is a reward for every correct
decision the system takes and punishment for the wrong
one.

13. How Will You Know Which Machine Learning Algorithm to

Choose for Your Classification Problem?
While there is no fixed rule to choose an algorithm for a
classification problem, you can follow these guidelines:
If accuracy is a concern, test different algorithms and
cross-validate them
If the training dataset is small, use models that have low
variance and high bias
If the training dataset is large, use models that have high
variance and little bias

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14. When Will You Use Classification over Regression?
Classification is used when your target is categorical, while
regression is used when your target variable is continuous.
Both classification and regression belong to the category of
supervised machine learning algorithms.
Examples of classification problems include:
Predicting yes or no
Estimating gender
Breed of an animal
Type of color
Examples of regression problems include:
Estimating sales and price of a product
Predicting the score of a team
Predicting the amount of rainfall

15. What is a Random Forest?

A ‘random forest’ is a supervised machine learning algorithm
that is generally used for classification problems. It operates
by constructing multiple decision trees during the training
phase. The random forest chooses the decision of the
majority of the trees as the final decision.

16. What is Bias and Variance in a Machine Learning Model?

Bias
Bias in a machine learning model occurs when the predicted
values are further from the actual values. Low bias indicates
a model where the prediction values are very close to the
actual ones.

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Underfitting: High bias can cause an algorithm to miss the
relevant relations between features and target outputs.

Variance
Variance refers to the amount the target model will change
when trained with different training data. For a good model,
the variance should be minimized.

Overfitting: High variance can cause an algorithm to model

the random noise in the training data rather than the
intended outputs.

17. What is the Trade-off Between Bias and Variance?

The bias-variance decomposition essentially decomposes
the learning error from any algorithm by adding the bias,
variance, and a bit of irreducible error due to noise in the
underlying dataset.
Necessarily, if you make the model more complex and add
more variables, you’ll lose bias but gain variance. To get the
optimally-reduced amount of error, you’ll have to trade off
bias and variance. Neither high bias nor high variance is
desired.
High bias and low variance algorithms train models that are
consistent, but inaccurate on average.
High variance and low bias algorithms train models that are
accurate but inconsistent.

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18. What is a Decision Tree Classification?
A decision tree builds classification (or regression) models
as a tree structure, with datasets broken up into ever-
smaller subsets while developing the decision tree, literally in
a tree-like way with branches and nodes. Decision trees can
handle both categorical and numerical data.

19. What is Pruning in Decision Trees, and How Is It Done?

Pruning is a technique in machine learning that reduces the
size of decision trees. It reduces the complexity of the final
classifier, and hence improves predictive accuracy by the
reduction of overfitting.
Pruning can occur in:
Top-down fashion. It will traverse nodes and trim
subtrees starting at the root
Bottom-up fashion. It will begin at the leaf nodes
There is a popular pruning algorithm called reduced error
pruning, in which:
Starting at the leaves, each node is replaced with its
most popular class
If the prediction accuracy is not affected, the change is
kept
There is an advantage of simplicity and speed

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20. Briefly Explain Logistic Regression.
Logistic regression is a classification algorithm used to
predict a binary outcome for a given set of independent
variables.
The output of logistic regression is either a 0 or 1 with a
threshold value of generally 0.5. Any value above 0.5 is
considered as 1, and any point below 0.5 is considered as 0.

21. Explain the K Nearest Neighbor Algorithm.

K nearest neighbor algorithm is a classification algorithm
that works in a way that a new data point is assigned to a
neighboring group to which it is most similar.
In K nearest neighbors, K can be an integer greater than 1.
So, for every new data point, we want to classify, we
compute to which neighboring group it is closest.
Let us classify an object using the following example.
Consider there are three clusters:
Football
Basketball
Tennis ball

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Let the new data point to be classified is a black ball. We use
KNN to classify it. Assume K = 5 (initially).
Next, we find the K (five) nearest data points, as shown.

Observe that all five selected points do not belong to the

same cluster. There are three tennis balls and one each of
basketball and football.

When multiple classes are involved, we prefer the majority.

Here the majority is with the tennis ball, so the new data
point is assigned to this cluster.

22. What is a Recommendation System?

Anyone who has used Spotify or shopped at Amazon will
recognize a recommendation system: It’s an information
filtering system that predicts what a user might want to hear
or see based on choice patterns provided by the user.

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23. What is Kernel SVM?
Kernel SVM is the abbreviated version of the kernel support
vector machine. Kernel methods are a class of algorithms
for pattern analysis, and the most common one is the kernel
SVM.

24. What Are Some Methods of Reducing Dimensionality?

You can reduce dimensionality by combining features with
feature engineering, removing collinear features, or using
algorithmic dimensionality reduction.
Now that you have gone through these machine learning
interview questions, you must have got an idea of your
strengths and weaknesses in this domain.

25. What is Principal Component Analysis?

Principal Component Analysis or PCA is a multivariate
statistical technique that is used for analyzing quantitative
data. The objective of PCA is to reduce higher dimensional
data to lower dimensions, remove noise, and extract crucial
information such as features and attributes from large
amounts of data.

26. What are Support Vectors in SVM?

Support Vectors are data points that are nearest to the
hyperplane. It influences the position and orientation of the
hyperplane. Removing the support vectors will alter the
position of the hyperplane. The support vectors help us build
our support vector machine model.

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27. What is Ensemble learning?
Ensemble learning is a combination of the results obtained
from multiple machine learning models to increase the
accuracy for improved decision-making.
Example: A Random Forest with 100 trees can provide much
better results than using just one decision tree.

28. What is Cross-Validation?

Cross-Validation in Machine Learning is a statistical
resampling technique that uses different parts of the
dataset to train and test a machine learning algorithm on
different iterations. The aim of cross-validation is to test the
model’s ability to predict a new set of data that was not
used to train the model. Cross-validation avoids the
overfitting of data.
K-Fold Cross Validation is the most popular resampling
technique that divides the whole dataset into K sets of equal
sizes.

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29. What are the different methods to split a tree in a
decision tree algorithm?
Variance: Splitting the nodes of a decision tree using the
variance is done when the target variable is continuous.

Information Gain: Splitting the nodes of a decision tree using

Information Gain is preferred when the target variable is
categorical.

Gini Impurity: Splitting the nodes of a decision tree using Gini

Impurity is followed when the target variable is categorical.

30. How does the Support Vector Machine algorithm handle

self-learning?
The SVM algorithm has a learning rate and expansion rate
which takes care of self-learning. The learning rate
compensates or penalizes the hyperplanes for making all
the incorrect moves while the expansion rate handles finding
the maximum separation area between different classes.

31. What is the difference between Lasso and Ridge

regression?
Lasso(also known as L1) and Ridge(also known as L2)
regression are two popular regularization techniques that
are used to avoid overfitting of data. These methods are
used to penalize the coefficients to find the optimum
solution and reduce complexity. The Lasso regression works
by penalizing the sum of the absolute values of the

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coefficients. In Ridge or L2 regression, the penalty function is
determined by the sum of the squares of the coefficients.

32. What are the assumptions you need to take before

starting with linear regression?
There are primarily 5 assumptions for a Linear Regression
model:
Multivariate normality
No auto-correlation
Homoscedasticity
Linear relationship
No or little multicollinearity

33. Explain the Confusion Matrix with Respect to Machine

Learning Algorithms.
A confusion matrix (or error matrix) is a specific table that is
used to measure the performance of an algorithm. It is
mostly used in supervised learning; in unsupervised learning,
it’s called the matching matrix.
The confusion matrix has two parameters:
Actual
Predicted
It also has identical sets of features in both of these
dimensions.

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Here,
For actual values:
Total Yes = 12+1 = 13
Total No = 3+9 = 12
Similarly, for predicted values:
Total Yes = 12+3 = 15
Total No = 1+9 = 10
For a model to be accurate, the values across the diagonals
should be high. The total sum of all the values in the matrix
equals the total observations in the test data set.
For the above matrix, total observations = 12+3+1+9 = 25
Now, accuracy = sum of the values across the
diagonal/total dataset
= (12+9) / 25
= 21 / 25
= 84%

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34. What Is a False Positive and False Negative and How Are
They Significant?
False positives are those cases that wrongly get classified as
True but are False.
False negatives are those cases that wrongly get classified
as False but are True.
In the term ‘False Positive,’ the word ‘Positive’ refers to the ‘Yes’
row of the predicted value in the confusion matrix. The
complete term indicates that the system has predicted it as
a positive, but the actual value is negative.

So, looking at the confusion matrix, we get:

False-positive = 3
True positive = 12
Similarly, in the term ‘False Negative,’ the word ‘Negative’
refers to the ‘No’ row of the predicted value in the confusion
matrix. And the complete term indicates that the system has
predicted it as negative, but the actual value is positive.
So, looking at the confusion matrix, we get:
False Negative = 1
True Negative = 9

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35. Define Precision and Recall.
Precision
Precision is the ratio of several events you can correctly
recall to the total number of events you recall (mix of
correct and wrong recalls).
Precision = (True Positive) / (True Positive + False Positive)

Recall
A recall is the ratio of the number of events you can recall
the number of total events.
Recall = (True Positive) / (True Positive + False Negative)

36. What do you understand by Type I vs Type II error?

Type I Error: Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is
true and we reject it.
Type II Error: Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is
false and we accept it.

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37. What is a Decision Tree in Machine Learning?
A decision tree is used to explain the sequence of actions
that must be performed to get the desired output. It is a
hierarchical diagram that shows the actions.

An algorithm can be created for a decision tree on the basis

of the set hierarchy of actions.

In the above decision-tree diagram, a sequence of actions

has been made for driving a vehicle with or without a
license.

38. What is Hypothesis in Machine Learning?

Machine Learning allows the use of available dataset to
understand a specific function that maps input to output in
the best possible way. This problem is known as function
approximation. Here, approximation needs to be used for the

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the unknown target function that maps all plausible
observations based on the given problem in the best
manner. Hypothesis in Machine learning is a model that
helps in approximating the target function and performing
the necessary input-to-output mappings. The choice and
configuration of algorithms allow defining the space of
plausible hypotheses that may be represented by a model.
In the hypothesis, lowercase h (h) is used for a specific
hypothesis, while uppercase h (H) is used for the hypothesis
space that is being searched. Let us briefly understand
these notations:
Hypothesis (h): A hypothesis is a specific model that
helps in mapping input to output; the mapping can
further be used for evaluation and prediction.
Hypothesis set (H): Hypothesis set consists of a space of
hypotheses that can be used to map inputs to outputs,
which can be searched. The general constraints include
the choice of problem framing, the model, and the
model configuration.

39. What are the differences between Deep Learning and

Machine Learning?
Deep Learning: Deep Learning allows machines to make
various business-related decisions using artificial neural
networks, which is one of the reasons why it needs a vast
amount of data for training. Since there is a lot of computing
power required, Deep Learning requires high-

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-end systems as well. The systems acquire various
properties and features with the help of the given data, and
the problem is solved using an end-to-end method.

Machine Learning: Machine Learning gives machines the

ability to make business decisions without any external help,
using the knowledge gained from past data. Machine
Learning systems require relatively small amounts of data to
train themselves, and most of the features need to be
manually coded and understood in advance. In Machine
Learning, a given business problem is dissected into two and
then solved individually. Once the solutions of both have
been acquired, they are then combined.

40. What is Entropy in Machine Learning?

Entropy in Machine Learning measures the randomness in
the data that needs to be processed. The more entropy in
the given data, the more difficult it becomes to draw any
useful conclusion from the data. For example, let us take the
flipping of a coin. The result of this act is random as it does
not favor heads or tails. Here, the result for any number of
tosses cannot be predicted easily as there is no definite
relationship between the action of flipping and the possible
outcomes.

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41. What is Epoch in Machine Learning?
Epoch in Machine Learning is used to indicate the count of
passes in a given training dataset where the Machine
Learning algorithm has done its job. Generally, when there is
a large chunk of data, it is grouped into several batches. All
these batches go through the given model, and this process
is referred to as iteration. Now, if the batch size comprises
the complete training dataset, then the count of iterations is
the same as that of epochs.
In case there is more than one batch, d*e=i*b is the formula
used, wherein d is the dataset, e is the number of epochs, i is
the number of iterations, and b is the batch size.

42. How is the suitability of a Machine Learning Algorithm

determined for a particular problem?
To identify a Machine Learning Algorithm for a particular
problem, the following steps should be followed:
Step 1: Problem classification: Classification of the problem
depends on the classification of input and output:
Classifying the input: Classification of the input depends
on whether there is data labeled (supervised learning)
or unlabeled (unsupervised learning), or whether a
model has to be created that interacts with the
environment and improves itself (reinforcement
learning.)
Classifying the output: If the output of a model is
required as a class, then some classification techniques
need to be used.

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If the output is a number, then regression techniques must
be used; if the output is a different cluster of inputs, then
clustering techniques should be used.
Step 2: Checking the algorithms in hand: After classifying the
problem, the available algorithms that can be deployed for
solving the classified problem should be considered.
Step 3: Implementing the algorithms: If there are multiple
algorithms available, then all of them are to be
implemented. Finally, the algorithm that gives the best
performance is selected.

43. What is the Variance Inflation Factor?

Variance inflation factor (VIF) is the estimate of the volume
of multicollinearity in a collection of many regression
variables.
VIF = Variance of the model / Variance of the model with a
single independent variable
This ratio has to be calculated for every independent
variable. If VIF is high, then it shows the high collinearity of
the independent variables.

44. When should Classification be used over Regression?

Both classification and regression are associated with
prediction. Classification involves the identification of values
or entities that lie in a specific group. Regression entails
predicting a response value from consecutive sets of
outcomes.

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Classification is chosen over regression when the output of
the model needs to yield the belongingness of data points in
a dataset to a particular category.
For example, If you want to predict the price of a house, you
should use regression since it is a numerical variable.
However, if you are trying to predict whether a house
situated in a particular area is going to be high-, medium-,
or low-priced, then a classification model should be used.

45. Why is rotation required in PCA? What will happen if the

components are not rotated?
Rotation is a significant step in principal component analysis
(PCA.) Rotation maximizes the separation within the
variance obtained by the components. This makes the
interpretation of the components easier.
The motive behind conducting PCA is to choose fewer
components that can explain the greatest variance in a
dataset. When rotation is performed, the original coordinates
of the points get changed. However, there is no change in
the relative position of the components.
If the components are not rotated, then there needs to be
more extended components to describe the variance.

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46. What is ROC Curve and what does it represent?
ROC stands for receiver operating characteristic. ROC Curve
is used to graphically represent the trade-off between true
and false positive rates.
In ROC, area under the curve (AUC) gives an idea about the
accuracy of the model.

The above graph shows an ROC curve. The greater the AUC,
the better the performance of the model.

47. Why are Validation and Test Datasets Needed?

Data is split into three different categories while creating a
model:
Training dataset: Training dataset is used for building a
model and adjusting its variables. The correctness of the
model built on the training dataset cannot be relied on
as the model might give incorrect outputs after being
fed new inputs.

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Validation dataset: Validation dataset is used to look
into a model’s response. After this, the hyperparameters
on the basis of the estimated benchmark of the
validation dataset data are tuned. When a model’s
response is evaluated by using the validation dataset,
the model is indirectly trained with the validation set. This
may lead to the overfitting of the model to specific data.
So, this model will not be strong enough to give the
desired response to real-world data.
Test dataset: Test dataset is the subset of the actual
dataset, which is not yet used to train the model. The
model is unaware of this dataset. So, by using the test
dataset, the response of the created model can be
computed on hidden data. The model’s performance is
tested on the basis of the test dataset.

Note: The model is always exposed to the test dataset after

tuning the hyperparameters on top of the validation dataset.

As we know, the evaluation of the model on the basis of the

validation dataset would not be enough. Thus, the test
dataset is used for computing the efficiency of the model.

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48. Explain the difference between KNN and K-means
Clustering.
K-nearest neighbors (KNN): It is a supervised Machine
Learning algorithm. In KNN, identified or labeled data is given
to the model. The model then matches the points based on
the distance from the closest points.

K-means clustering: It is an unsupervised Machine Learning

algorithm. In K-means clustering, unidentified or unlabeled
data is given to the model. The algorithm then creates
batches of points based on the average of the distances
between distinct points.

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49. What is Dimensionality Reduction?
In the real world, Machine Learning models are built on top
of features and parameters. These features can be
multidimensional and large in number. Sometimes, the
features may be irrelevant and it becomes a difficult task to
visualize them.
This is where dimensionality reduction is used to cut down
irrelevant and redundant features with the help of principal
variables. These principal variables conserve the features,
and are a subgroup, of the parent variables.

50. Both being Tree-based Algorithms, how is Random

Forest different from Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM)?
The main difference between a random forest and GBM is
the use of techniques. Random forest advances predictions
using a technique called bagging. On the other hand, GBM
advances predictions with the help of a technique called
boosting.
Bagging: In bagging, we apply arbitrary sampling and
we divide the dataset into N. After that, we build a model
by employing a single training algorithm. Following that,
we combine the final predictions by polling. Bagging
helps to increase the efficiency of a model by
decreasing the variance to eschew overfitting.
Boosting: In boosting, the algorithm tries to review and
correct the inadmissible predictions at the initial iteration.
After that, the algorithm’s sequence of iterations for
correction continues until we get the desired prediction.

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Boosting assists in reducing bias and variance for
strengthening the weak learners.

51. What is meant by Parametric and Non-parametric

Models?
Parametric models refer to the models having a limited
number of parameters. In case of parametric models, only
the parameter of a model is needed to be known to make
predictions regarding the new data.

Non-parametric models do not have any restrictions on the

number of parameters, which makes new data predictions
more flexible. In case of non-parametric models, the
knowledge of model parameters and the state of the data
needs to be known to make predictions.

52. Differentiate between Sigmoid and Softmax Functions.

Sigmoid and Softmax functions differ based on their usage
in Machine Learning task classification. Sigmoid function is
used in the case of binary classification, while Softmax
function is used in case of multi-classification.

53. In Machine Learning, for how many classes can Logistic

Regression be used?
Logistic regression cannot be used for more than two
classes. Logistic regression is, by default, a binary classifier.
However, in cases where multi-class classification problems
need to be solved, the default number of classes can be
extended, i.e., multinomial logistic regression.
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54. What is meant by Correlation and Covariance?
Correlation is a mathematical concept used in statistics and
probability theory to measure, estimate, and compare data
samples taken from different populations. In simpler terms,
correlation helps in establishing a quantitative relationship
between two variables.
Covariance is also a mathematical concept; it is a simpler
way to arrive at a correlation between two variables.
Covariance basically helps in determining what change or
affect does one variable has on another.

55. What are the Various Tests for Checking the Normality of
a Dataset?
In Machine Learning, checking the normality of a dataset is
very important. Hence, certain tests are performed on a
dataset to check its normality. Some of them are:
D’Agostino Skewness Test
Shapiro-Wilk Test
Anderson-Darling Test
Jarque-Bera Test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

56. What are the Two Main Types of Filtering in Machine

Learning? Explain.
The two types of filtering are:
Collaborative filtering
Content-based filtering

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Collaborative filtering refers to a recommender system
where the interests of the individual user are matched with
preferences of multiple users to predict new content.
Content-based filtering is a recommender system where the
focus is only on the preferences of the individual user and
not on multiple users.

57. Outlier Values can be Discovered from which Tools?

The various tools that can be used to discover outlier values
are scatterplots, boxplots, Z-score, etc.

58. What is meant by Ensemble Learning?

Ensemble learning refers to the combination of multiple
Machine Learning models to create more powerful models.
The primary techniques involved in ensemble learning are
bagging and boosting.

59. What are the Various Kernels that are present in SVM?
The various kernels that are present in SVM are:
Linear
Polynomial
Radial Basis
Sigmoid

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60. Suppose you found that your model is suffering from
high variance. Which algorithm do you think could handle
this situation and why?
Handling High Variance
For handling issues of high variance, we should use the
bagging algorithm.
The bagging algorithm would split data into subgroups
with a replicated sampling of random data.
Once the algorithm splits the data, we can use random
data to create rules using a particular training algorithm.
After that, we can use polling for combining the
predictions of the model.

61. What is Binarizing of Data? How to Binarize?

Converting data into binary values on the basis of threshold
values is known as binarizing of data. The values that are
less than the threshold are set to 0 and the values that are
greater than the threshold are set to 1. This process is useful
when feature engineering has to be performed. This can
also be used for adding unique features. Data can be
binarized using Scikit-learn.

62. How to Standardize Data?

Standardization is the method that is used for rescaling data
attributes. The attributes are likely to have the mean value
as 0 and the value of standard deviation as 1. The main
objective of standardization is to prompt the mean and
standard deviation for the attributes.

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63. We know that one-hot encoding increases the
dimensionality of a dataset, but label encoding doesn’t.
How?
When one-hot encoding is used, there is an increase in the
dimensionality of a dataset. The reason for the increase in
dimensionality is that, for every class in categorical
variables, it forms a different variable.
Example: Suppose there is a variable “Color.” It has three
sublevels, “Yellow,” “Purple,” and “Orange.” So, one-hot
encoding “Color” will create three different variables as
Color.Yellow, Color.Purple, and Color.Orange.
In label encoding, the subclasses of a certain variable get
the value as 0 and 1. So, label encoding is only used for
binary variables.
This is why one-hot encoding increases the dimensionality
of data and label encoding does not.

64. Imagine you are given a dataset consisting of variables

having more than 30% missing values. Let’s say, out of 50
variables, 16 variables have missing values, which is higher
than 30%. How will you deal with them?
To deal with the missing values, we will do the following:
We will specify a different class for the missing values.
Now, we will check the distribution of values, and we will
hold those missing values that are defining a pattern.
Then, we will charge these values into yet another class
while eliminating others.

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65. Explain False Negative, False Positive, True Negative, and
True Positive with a simple example.
True Positive (TP): When the Machine Learning model
correctly predicts the condition, it is said to have a True
Positive value.
True Negative (TN): When the Machine Learning model
correctly predicts the negative condition or class, then it is
said to have a True Negative value.
False Positive (FP): When the Machine Learning model
incorrectly predicts a negative class or condition, then it is
said to have a False Positive value.
False Negative (FN): When the Machine Learning model
incorrectly predicts a positive class or condition, then it is
said to have a False Negative value.

66. What is F1-score and How Is It Used?

F-score or F1-score is a measure of overall accuracy of a
binary classification model. Before understanding F1-score, it
is crucial to understand two more measures of accuracy, i.e.,
precision and recall.
Precision is defined as the percentage of True Positives to
the total number of positive classifications predicted by the
model. In other words,
Precision = (No. of True Positives / No. True Positives + No. of
False Positives)
Recall is defined as the percentage of True Positives to the
total number of actual positive labeled data passed to the
model. In other words,

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Precision = (No. of True Positives / No. True Positives + No. of
False Negatives)
Both precision and recall are partial measures of accuracy
of a model. F1-score combines precision and recall and
provides an overall score to measure a model’s accuracy.
F1-score = 2 × (Precision × Recall) / (Precision + Recall)
This is why, F1-score is the most popular measure of
accuracy in any Machine-Learning-based binary
classification model.

67. How can you avoid overfitting ?

By using a lot of data overfitting can be avoided, overfitting
happens relatively as you have a small dataset, and you try
to learn from it. But if you have a small database and you
are forced to come with a model based on that. In such
situation, you can use a technique known as cross
validation. In this method the dataset splits into two section,
testing and training datasets, the testing dataset will only
test the model while, in training dataset, the datapoints will
come up with the model.
In this technique, a model is usually given a dataset of a
known data on which training (training data set) is run and
a dataset of unknown data against which the model is
tested. The idea of cross validation is to define a dataset to
“test” the model in the training phase.

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68. What is inductive machine learning?
The inductive machine learning involves the process of
learning by examples, where a system, from a set of
observed instances tries to induce a general rule.

69. What is Genetic Programming?

Genetic programming is one of the two techniques used in
machine learning. The model is based on the testing and
selecting the best choice among a set of results.

70. What is Inductive Logic Programming in Machine

Learning?
Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) is a subfield of machine
learning which uses logical programming representing
background knowledge and examples.

71. What is Model Selection in Machine Learning?

The process of selecting models among different
mathematical models, which are used to describe the same
data set is known as Model Selection. Model selection is
applied to the fields of statistics, machine learning and data
mining.

72. What is the difference between heuristic for rule

learning and heuristics for decision trees?
The difference is that the heuristics for decision trees
evaluate the average quality of a number of disjointed sets
while rule learners only evaluate the quality of the set of
instances that is covered with the candidate rule.
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73. What is the general principle of an ensemble method
and what is bagging and boosting in ensemble method?
The general principle of an ensemble method is to combine
the predictions of several models built with a given learning
algorithm in order to improve robustness over a single
model. Bagging is a method in ensemble for improving
unstable estimation or classification schemes. While
boosting method are used sequentially to reduce the bias of
the combined model. Boosting and Bagging both can
reduce errors by reducing the variance term.

74. What is bias-variance decomposition of classification

error in ensemble method?
The expected error of a learning algorithm can be
decomposed into bias and variance. A bias term measures
how closely the average classifier produced by the learning
algorithm matches the target function. The variance term
measures how much the learning algorithm’s prediction
fluctuates for different training sets.

75.What is an Incremental Learning algorithm in ensemble?

Incremental learning method is the ability of an algorithm to
learn from new data that may be available after classifier
has already been generated from already available dataset.

76. What is PCA, KPCA and ICA used for?

PCA (Principal Components Analysis), KPCA ( Kernel based
Principal Component Analysis) and ICA ( Independent
Component Analysis) are important feature extraction
techniques used for dimensionality reduction.
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77. When does regularization come into play in Machine
Learning?
At times when the model begins to underfit or overfit,
regularization becomes necessary. It is a regression that
diverts or regularizes the coefficient estimates towards zero.
It reduces flexibility and discourages learning in a model to
avoid the risk of overfitting. The model complexity is reduced
and it becomes better at predicting.

78. How can we relate standard deviation and variance?

Standard deviation refers to the spread of your data from
the mean. Variance is the average degree to which each
point differs from the mean i.e. the average of all data
points. We can relate Standard deviation and Variance
because it is the square root of Variance.

79. Is a high variance in data good or bad?

Higher variance directly means that the data spread is big
and the feature has a variety of data. Usually, high variance
in a feature is seen as not so good quality.

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80. Explain the handling of missing or corrupted values in the
given dataset.
An easy way to handle missing values or corrupted values is
to drop the corresponding rows or columns. If there are too
many rows or columns to drop then we consider replacing
the missing or corrupted values with some new value.
Identifying missing values and dropping the rows or columns
can be done by using IsNull() and dropna( ) functions in
Pandas. Also, the Fillna() function in Pandas replaces the
incorrect values with the placeholder value.

81. What is Time series?

A Time series is a sequence of numerical data points in
successive order. It tracks the movement of the chosen data
points, over a specified period of time and records the data
points at regular intervals. Time series doesn’t require any
minimum or maximum time input. Analysts often use Time
series to examine data according to their specific
requirement.

82. What is a Box-Cox transformation?

Box-Cox transformation is a power transform which
transforms non-normal dependent variables into normal
variables as normality is the most common assumption
made while using many statistical techniques. It has a
lambda parameter which when set to 0 implies that this
transform is equivalent to log-transform. It is used for
variance stabilization and also to normalize the distribution.

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83. What is the difference between stochastic gradient
descent (SGD) and gradient descent (GD)?
Gradient Descent and Stochastic Gradient Descent are the
algorithms that find the set of parameters that will minimize
a loss function.
The difference is that in Gradient Descend, all training
samples are evaluated for each set of parameters. While in
Stochastic Gradient Descent only one training sample is
evaluated for the set of parameters identified.

84. What is the exploding gradient problem while using

back propagation technique?
When large error gradients accumulate and result in large
changes in the neural network weights during training, it is
called the exploding gradient problem. The values of weights
can become so large as to overflow and result in NaN
values. This makes the model unstable and the learning of
the model to stall just like the vanishing gradient problem.

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85. Explain the differences between Random Forest and
Gradient Boosting machines.
Random forests are a significant number of decision trees
pooled using averages or majority rules at the end. Gradient
boosting machines also combine decision trees but at the
beginning of the process unlike Random forests. Random
forest creates each tree independent of the others while
gradient boosting develops one tree at a time. Gradient
boosting yields better outcomes than random forests if
parameters are carefully tuned but it’s not a good option if
the data set contains a lot of outliers/anomalies/noise as it
can result in overfitting of the model. Random forests
perform well for multiclass object detection. Gradient
Boosting performs well when there is data which is not
balanced such as in real time risk assessment.

86. What’s a Fourier transform?

Fourier Transform is a mathematical technique that
transforms any function of time to a function of frequency.
Fourier transform is closely related to Fourier series. It takes
any time-based pattern for input and calculates the overall
cycle offset, rotation speed and strength for all possible
cycles. Fourier transform is best applied to waveforms since
it has functions of time and space. Once a Fourier transform
applied on a waveform, it gets decomposed into a sinusoid.

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87. What do you mean by Associative Rule Mining (ARM)?
Associative Rule Mining is one of the techniques to discover
patterns in data like features (dimensions) which occur
together and features (dimensions) which are correlated. It
is mostly used in Market-based Analysis to find how
frequently an itemset occurs in a transaction. Association
rules have to satisfy minimum support and minimum
confidence at the very same time. Association rule
generation generally comprised of two different steps:
“A min support threshold is given to obtain all frequent
item-sets in a database.”
“A min confidence constraint is given to these frequent
item-sets in order to form the association rules.”
Support is a measure of how often the “item set” appears in
the data set and Confidence is a measure of how often a
particular rule has been found to be true.

88. What is Marginalisation? Explain the process.

Marginalisation is summing the probability of a random
variable X given joint probability distribution of X with other
variables. It is an application of the law of total probability.
P(X=x) = ∑YP(X=x,Y)
Given the joint probability P(X=x,Y), we can use
marginalization to find P(X=x). So, it is to find distribution of
one random variable by exhausting cases on other random
variables.

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89. Explain the phrase “Curse of Dimensionality”.
The Curse of Dimensionality refers to the situation when your
data has too many features.
The phrase is used to express the difficulty of using brute
force or grid search to optimize a function with too many
inputs.
It can also refer to several other issues like:
If we have more features than observations, we have a
risk of overfitting the model.
When we have too many features, observations become
harder to cluster. Too many dimensions cause every
observation in the dataset to appear equidistant from all
others and no meaningful clusters can be formed.
Dimensionality reduction techniques like PCA come to the
rescue in such cases.

90. What is the difference between regularization and

normalisation?
Normalisation adjusts the data; regularisation adjusts the
prediction function. If your data is on very different scales
(especially low to high), you would want to normalise the
data. Alter each column to have compatible basic statistics.
This can be helpful to make sure there is no loss of
accuracy. One of the goals of model training is to identify
the signal and ignore the noise if the model is given free rein
to minimize error, there is a possibility of suffering from
overfitting. Regularization imposes some control on this by
providing simpler fitting functions over complex ones.

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91. Explain the difference between Normalization and
Standardization.
Normalization and Standardization are the two very popular
methods used for feature scaling. Normalization refers to re-
scaling the values to fit into a range of [0,1]. Standardization
refers to re-scaling data to have a mean of 0 and a
standard deviation of 1 (Unit variance). Normalization is
useful when all parameters need to have the identical
positive scale however the outliers from the data set are lost.
Hence, standardization is recommended for most
applications.

92. List the most popular distribution curves along with

scenarios where you will use them in an algorithm.
The most popular distribution curves are as follows-
Bernoulli Distribution, Uniform Distribution, Binomial
Distribution, Normal Distribution, Poisson Distribution, and
Exponential Distribution.
Each of these distribution curves is used in various scenarios.
Bernoulli Distribution can be used to check if a team will win
a championship or not, a newborn child is either male or
female, you either pass an exam or not, etc.
Uniform distribution is a probability distribution that has a
constant probability. Rolling a single dice is one example
because it has a fixed number of outcomes.
Binomial distribution is a probability with only two possible
outcomes, the prefix ‘bi’ means two or twice. An example of
this would be a coin toss. The outcome will either be heads
or tails.

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Normal distribution describes how the values of a variable
are distributed. It is typically a symmetric distribution where
most of the observations cluster around the central peak.
The values further away from the mean taper off equally in
both directions. An example would be the height of students
in a classroom.
Poisson distribution helps predict the probability of certain
events happening when you know how often that event has
occurred. It can be used by businessmen to make forecasts
about the number of customers on certain days and allows
them to adjust supply according to the demand.
Exponential distribution is concerned with the amount of
time until a specific event occurs. For example, how long a
car battery would last, in months.

92. What is target imbalance? How do we fix it? A scenario

where you have performed target imbalance on data.
Which metrics and algorithms do you find suitable to input
this data onto?
If you have categorical variables as the target when you
cluster them together or perform a frequency count on them
if there are certain categories which are more in number as
compared to others by a very significant number. This is
known as the target imbalance.
Example: Target column – 0,0,0,1,0,2,0,0,1,1 [0s: 60%, 1: 30%,
2:10%] 0 are in majority. To fix this, we can perform up-
sampling or down-sampling. Before fixing this problem let’s
assume that the performance metrics used was confusion
metrics. After fixing this problem we can shift the metric

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system to AUC: ROC. Since we added/deleted data [up
sampling or downsampling], we can go ahead with a
stricter algorithm like SVM, Gradient boosting or ADA
boosting.

93. When does the linear regression line stop rotating or

finds an optimal spot where it is fitted on data?
A place where the highest RSquared value is found, is the
place where the line comes to rest. RSquared represents the
amount of variance captured by the virtual linear regression
line with respect to the total variance captured by the
dataset.

94. Which machine learning algorithm is known as the lazy

learner and why is it called so?
KNN is a Machine Learning algorithm known as a lazy learner.
K-NN is a lazy learner because it doesn’t learn any machine
learnt values or variables from the training data but
dynamically calculates distance every time it wants to
classify, hence memorises the training dataset instead.

95. Is it possible to use KNN for image processing?

Yes, it is possible to use KNN for image processing. It can be
done by converting the 3-dimensional image into a single-
dimensional vector and using the same as input to KNN.

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96. Explain the term instance-based learning.
Instance Based Learning is a set of procedures for
regression and classification which produce a class label
prediction based on resemblance to its nearest neighbors in
the training data set. These algorithms just collects all the
data and get an answer when required or queried. In simple
words they are a set of procedures for solving new problems
based on the solutions of already solved problems in the
past which are similar to the current problem.

97. What is Bayes’ Theorem? State at least 1 use case with

respect to the machine learning context?
Bayes’ Theorem describes the probability of an event, based
on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the
event. For example, if cancer is related to age, then, using
Bayes’ theorem, a person’s age can be used to more
accurately assess the probability that they have cancer
than can be done without the knowledge of the person’s
age.
Chain rule for Bayesian probability can be used to predict
the likelihood of the next word in the sentence.

98. What is Naive Bayes? Why is it Naive?

Naive Bayes classifiers are a series of classification
algorithms that are based on the Bayes theorem. This family
of algorithm shares a common principle which treats every
pair of features independently while being classified.

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Naive Bayes is considered Naive because the attributes in it
(for the class) is independent of others in the same class.
This lack of dependence between two attributes of the same
class creates the quality of naiveness.

99. Explain the difference between Lasso and Ridge?

Lasso(L1) and Ridge(L2) are the regularization techniques
where we penalize the coefficients to find the optimum
solution. In ridge, the penalty function is defined by the sum
of the squares of the coefficients and for the Lasso, we
penalize the sum of the absolute values of the coefficients.
Another type of regularization method is ElasticNet, it is a
hybrid penalizing function of both lasso and ridge.

100. Why would you Prune your tree?

In the context of data science or AIML, pruning refers to the
process of reducing redundant branches of a decision tree.
Decision Trees are prone to overfitting, pruning the tree helps
to reduce the size and minimizes the chances of overfitting.
Pruning involves turning branches of a decision tree into leaf
nodes and removing the leaf nodes from the original
branch. It serves as a tool to perform the tradeoff.

101. Model accuracy or Model performance? Which one will

you prefer and why?
This is a trick question, one should first get a clear idea, what
is Model Performance? If Performance means speed, then it
depends upon the nature of the application, any application
related to the real-time scenario will need high speed as an

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important feature. Example: The best of Search Results will
lose its virtue if the Query results do not appear fast.
If Performance is hinted at Why Accuracy is not the most
important virtue – For any imbalanced data set, more than
Accuracy, it will be an F1 score than will explain the business
case and in case data is imbalanced, then Precision and
Recall will be more important than rest.

102. Mention some of the EDA Techniques?

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) helps analysts to
understand the data better and forms the foundation of
better models.
Visualization
Univariate visualization
Bivariate visualization
Multivariate visualization
Missing Value Treatment – Replace missing values with
Either Mean/Median
Outlier Detection – Use Boxplot to identify the distribution of
Outliers, then Apply IQR to set the boundary for IQR
Transformation – Based on the distribution, apply a
transformation on the features
Scaling the Dataset – Apply MinMax, Standard Scaler or Z
Score Scaling mechanism to scale the data.
Feature Engineering – Need of the domain, and SME
knowledge helps Analyst find derivative fields which can
fetch more information about the nature of the data
Dimensionality reduction — Helps in reducing the volume of
data without losing much information

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103. Differentiate between Statistical Modeling and Machine
Learning?
Machine learning models are about making accurate
predictions about the situations, like Foot Fall in restaurants,
Stock-Price, etc. where-as, Statistical models are designed
for inference about the relationships between variables, as
What drives the sales in a restaurant, is it food or Ambience.

104. Differentiate between Boosting and Bagging?

Bagging and Boosting are variants of Ensemble Techniques.
Bootstrap Aggregation or bagging is a method that is used
to reduce the variance for algorithms having very high
variance. Decision trees are a particular family of classifiers
which are susceptible to having high bias.
Decision trees have a lot of sensitiveness to the type of data
they are trained on. Hence generalization of results is often
much more complex to achieve in them despite very high
fine-tuning. The results vary greatly if the training data is
changed in decision trees.
Hence bagging is utilised where multiple decision trees are
made which are trained on samples of the original data and
the final result is the average of all these individual models.
Boosting is the process of using an n-weak classifier system
for prediction such that every weak classifier compensates
for the weaknesses of its classifiers. By weak classifier, we
imply a classifier which performs poorly on a given data set.
It’s evident that boosting is not an algorithm rather it’s a

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process. Weak classifiers used are generally logistic
regression, shallow decision trees etc.
There are many algorithms which make use of boosting
processes but two of them are mainly used: Adaboost and
Gradient Boosting and XGBoost.

105. What is the significance of Gamma and Regularization

in SVM?
The gamma defines influence. Low values meaning ‘far’ and
high values meaning ‘close’. If gamma is too large, the
radius of the area of influence of the support vectors only
includes the support vector itself and no amount of
regularization with C will be able to prevent overfitting. If
gamma is very small, the model is too constrained and
cannot capture the complexity of the data.
The regularization parameter (lambda) serves as a degree
of importance that is given to miss-classifications. This can
be used to draw the tradeoff with OverFitting.

106. What is the difference between a generative and

discriminative model?
A generative model learns the different categories of data.
On the other hand, a discriminative model will only learn the
distinctions between different categories of data.
Discriminative models perform much better than the
generative models when it comes to classification tasks.

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107. What are hyperparameters and how are they different
from parameters?
A parameter is a variable that is internal to the model and
whose value is estimated from the training data. They are
often saved as part of the learned model. Examples include
weights, biases etc.
A hyperparameter is a variable that is external to the model
whose value cannot be estimated from the data. They are
often used to estimate model parameters. The choice of
parameters is sensitive to implementation. Examples include
learning rate, hidden layers etc.

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108. Can logistic regression be used for classes more than
2?
No, logistic regression cannot be used for classes more
than 2 as it is a binary classifier. For multi-class
classification algorithms like Decision Trees, Naïve Bayes’
Classifiers are better suited.

109. How to deal with multicollinearity?

Multi collinearity can be dealt with by the following steps:
Remove highly correlated predictors from the model.
Use Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS) or Principal
Components Analysis

110. What is Heteroscedasticity?

It is a situation in which the variance of a variable is unequal
across the range of values of the predictor variable.
It should be avoided in regression as it introduces
unnecessary variance.

111. Is ARIMA model a good fit for every time series problem?
No, ARIMA model is not suitable for every type of time series
problem. There are situations where ARMA model and others
also come in handy.
ARIMA is best when different standard temporal structures
require to be captured for time series data.

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112. What is a voting model?
A voting model is an ensemble model which combines
several classifiers but to produce the final result, in case of a
classification-based model, takes into account, the
classification of a certain data point of all the models and
picks the most vouched/voted/generated option from all
the given classes in the target column.

113. How to deal with very few data samples? Is it possible

to make a model out of it?
If very few data samples are there, we can make use of
oversampling to produce new data points. In this way, we
can have new data points.

114. What is Pandas Profiling?

Pandas profiling is a step to find the effective number of
usable data. It gives us the statistics of NULL values and the
usable values and thus makes variable selection and data
selection for building models in the preprocessing phase
very effective.

115. When should ridge regression be preferred over lasso?

We should use ridge regression when we want to use all
predictors and not remove any as it reduces the coefficient
values but does not nullify them.

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116. What is a good metric for measuring the level of
multicollinearity?
VIF or 1/tolerance is a good measure of measuring
multicollinearity in models. VIF is the percentage of the
variance of a predictor which remains unaffected by other
predictors. So higher the VIF value, greater is the
multicollinearity amongst the predictors.
A rule of thumb for interpreting the variance inflation factor:
1 = not correlated.
Between 1 and 5 = moderately correlated.
Greater than 5 = highly correlated.

117. When can be a categorical value treated as a

continuous variable and what effect does it have when
done so?
A categorical predictor can be treated as a continuous one
when the nature of data points it represents is ordinal. If the
predictor variable is having ordinal data then it can be
treated as continuous and its inclusion in the model
increases the performance of the model.

118. What is the role of maximum likelihood in logistic

regression.
Maximum likelihood equation helps in estimation of most
probable values of the estimator’s predictor variable
coefficients which produces results which are the most likely
or most probable and are quite close to the truth values.

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119. What is a pipeline?
A pipeline is a sophisticated way of writing software such
that each intended action while building a model can be
serialized and the process calls the individual functions for
the individual tasks. The tasks are carried out in sequence
for a given sequence of data points and the entire process
can be run onto n threads by use of composite estimators in
scikit learn.

120. What do you understand by L1 and L2 regularization?

L2 regularization: It tries to spread error among all the terms.
L2 corresponds to a Gaussian prior.
L1 regularization: It is more binary/sparse, with many
variables either being assigned a 1 or 0 in weighting. L1
corresponds to setting a Laplacean prior on the terms.

121. What do you mean by AUC curve?

AUC (area under curve). Higher the area under the curve,
better the prediction power of the model.

122. Why does XGBoost perform better than SVM?

First reason is that XGBoos is an ensemble method that uses
many trees to make a decision so it gains power by
repeating itself.
SVM is a linear separator, when data is not linearly separable
SVM needs a Kernel to project the data into a space where it
can separate it, there lies its greatest strength and
weakness, by being able to project data into a high
dimensional space SVM can find a linear separation for

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almost any data but at the same time it needs to use a
Kernel and we can argue that there’s not a perfect kernel for
every dataset.

123. What is the difference between SVM Rank and SVR

(Support Vector Regression)?
One is used for ranking and the other is used for regression.
There is a crucial difference between regression and ranking.
In regression, the absolute value is crucial. A real number is
predicted.
In ranking, the only thing of concern is the ordering of a set
of examples. We only want to know which example has the
highest rank, which one has the second-highest, and so on.
From the data, we only know that example 1 should be
ranked higher than example 2, which in turn should be
ranked higher than example 3, and so on. We do not know
by how much example 1 is ranked higher than example 2, or
whether this difference is bigger than the difference between
examples 2 and 3.

124. What is the difference between the normal soft margin

SVM and SVM with a linear kernel?
Hard-margin
You have the basic SVM – hard margin. This assumes that
data is very well behaved, and you can find a perfect
classifier – which will have 0 error on train data.
Soft-margin
Data is usually not well behaved, so SVM hard margins may
not have a solution at all. So we allow for a little bit of error

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on some points. So the training error will not be 0, but
average error over all points is minimized.

Kernels
The above assume that the best classifier is a straight line.
But what is it is not a straight line. (e.g. it is a circle, inside a
circle is one class, outside is another class). If we are able to
map the data into higher dimensions – the higher
dimension may give us a straight line.

125. What are the advantages of using a naive Bayes for

classification?
Very simple, easy to implement and fast.
If the NB conditional independence assumption holds,
then it will converge quicker than discriminative models
like logistic regression.
Even if the NB assumption doesn’t hold, it works great in
practice.
Need less training data.
Highly scalable. It scales linearly with the number of
predictors and data points.
Can be used for both binary and mult-iclass
classification problems.
Can make probabilistic predictions.
Handles continuous and discrete data.
Not sensitive to irrelevant features.

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126. Are Gaussian Naive Bayes the same as binomial Naive
Bayes?
Binomial Naive Bayes: It assumes that all our features are
binary such that they take only two values. Means 0s can
represent “word does not occur in the document” and 1s as
“word occurs in the document”.
Gaussian Naive Bayes: Because of the assumption of the
normal distribution, Gaussian Naive Bayes is used in cases
when all our features are continuous. For example in Iris
dataset features are sepal width, petal width, sepal length,
petal length. So its features can have different values in the
data set as width and length can vary. We can’t represent
features in terms of their occurrences. This means data is
continuous. Hence we use Gaussian Naive Bayes here.

127. What is the difference between the Naive Bayes

Classifier and the Bayes classifier?
Naive Bayes assumes conditional independence, P(X|Y,
Z)=P(X|Z)
P(X|Y,Z)=P(X|Z)
P(X|Y,Z)=P(X|Z), Whereas more general Bayes Nets
(sometimes called Bayesian Belief Networks), will allow the
user to specify which attributes are, in fact, conditionally
independent.
For the Bayesian network as a classifier, the features are
selected based on some scoring functions like Bayesian
scoring function and minimal description length(the two are
equivalent in theory to each other given that there is enough
training data). The scoring functions mainly restrict the

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structure (connections and directions) and the
parameters(likelihood) using the data. After the structure
has been learned the class is only determined by the nodes
in the Markov blanket(its parents, its children, and the
parents of its children), and all variables given the Markov
blanket are discarded.

128. In what real world applications is Naive Bayes classifier

used?
Some of real world examples are as given below
To mark an email as spam, or not spam?
Classify a news article about technology, politics, or
sports?
Check a piece of text expressing positive emotions, or
negative emotions?
Also used for face recognition software

129. Is naive Bayes supervised or unsupervised?

First, Naive Bayes is not one algorithm but a family of
Algorithms that inherits the following attributes:
1.Discriminant Functions
2.Probabilistic Generative Models
3.Bayesian Theorem
4.Naive Assumptions of Independence and Equal
Importance of feature vectors.
Moreover, it is a special type of Supervised Learning
algorithm that could do simultaneous multi-class
predictions (as depicted by standing topics in many news
apps).

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Since these are generative models, so based upon the
assumptions of the random variable mapping of each
feature vector these may even be classified as Gaussian
Naive Bayes, Multinomial Naive Bayes, Bernoulli Naive Bayes,
etc.

130. What do you understand by selection bias in Machine

Learning?
Selection bias stands for the bias which was introduced by
the selection of individuals, groups or data for doing analysis
in a way that the proper randomization is not achieved. It
ensures that the sample obtained is not representative of
the population intended to be analyzed and sometimes it is
referred to as the selection effect. This is the part of
distortion of a statistical analysis which results from the
method of collecting samples. If you don’t take the selection
bias into the account then some conclusions of the study
may not be accurate.
The types of selection bias includes:
Sampling bias: It is a systematic error due to a non-
random sample of a population causing some members
of the population to be less likely to be included than
others resulting in a biased sample.
Time interval: A trial may be terminated early at an
extreme value (often for ethical reasons), but the
extreme value is likely to be reached by the variable with
the largest variance, even if all variables have a similar
mean.

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Data: When specific subsets of data are chosen to
support a conclusion or rejection of bad data on
arbitrary grounds, instead of according to previously
stated or generally agreed criteria.
Attrition: Attrition bias is a kind of selection bias caused
by attrition (loss of participants) discounting trial
subjects/tests that did not run to completion.

131. What Are the Three Stages of Building a Model in

Machine Learning?
To build a model in machine learning, you need to follow few
steps:
1. Understand the business model
2. Data acquisitions
3. Data cleaning
4. Exploratory data analysis
5. Use machine learning algorithms to make a model
6. Use unknown dataset to check the accuracy of the
model

132. What is the difference between Entropy and

Information Gain?
The information gain is based on the decrease in entropy
after a dataset is split on an attribute. Constructing a
decision tree is all about finding the attribute that returns the
highest information gain (i.e., the most homogeneous
branches). Step 1: Calculate entropy of the target.

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133. What are collinearity and multicollinearity?
Collinearity is a linear association between two predictors.
Multicollinearity is a situation where two or more predictors
are highly linearly related.

134. What is A/B Testing?

A/B is Statistical hypothesis testing for randomized
experiment with two variables A and B. It is used to
compare two models that use different predictor
variables in order to check which variable fits best for a
given sample of data.
Consider a scenario where you’ve created two models
(using different predictor variables) that can be used to
recommend products for an e-commerce platform.
A/B Testing can be used to compare these two models
to check which one best recommends products to a
customer.

135. What is Cluster Sampling?

It is a process of randomly selecting intact groups within
a defined population, sharing similar characteristics.
Cluster Sample is a probability sample where each
sampling unit is a collection or cluster of elements.
For example, if you’re clustering the total number of
managers in a set of companies, in that case, managers
(samples) will represent elements and companies will
represent clusters.

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136. What is deep learning, and how does it contrast with
other machine learning algorithms?
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that is
concerned with neural networks: how to use
backpropagation and certain principles from neuroscience
to more accurately model large sets of unlabelled or semi-
structured data. In that sense, deep learning represents an
unsupervised learning algorithm that learns representations
of data through the use of neural nets.

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