05

Vectors

Chapter Contents
5.1 Vector and Scalar Quantities
5.2 General Points regarding Vectors
5.3 Addition and Subtraction of Two Vectors
5.4 Components of a Vector
5.5 Product of Two Vectors
5.1 Vector and Scalar Quantities
Any physical quantity is either a scalar or a vector. A scalar quantity can be described completely by
its magnitude only. Addition, subtraction, division or multiplication of scalar quantities can be done
according to the ordinary rules of algebra. Mass, volume, density, etc., are few examples of scalar
quantities. If a physical quantity in addition to magnitude has a specified direction as well as obeys
the law of parallelogram of addition, then and then only it is said to be a vector quantity.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc., are few examples of vectors.
Any vector quantity should have a specified direction but it is not a A
i1
sufficient condition for a quantity to be a vector. For example, current i
O
flowing in a wire is shown by a direction but it is not a vector because it θ C
does not obey the law of parallelogram of vector addition. For example, i2
in the figure shown here. B
Fig. 5.1
Current flowing in wire OC = current in wire AO + current in wire BO
or i = i1 + i2 was the current a vector quantity, i ≠ i1 + i2
It also depends on angle θ, the angle between i1 and i2 .
1. Scalar quantities Mass, volume, distance, speed, density, work, power, energy, length,
gravitation constant (G ), specific heat, specific gravity, charge, current, potential, time, electric or
magnetic flux, pressure, surface tension, temperature.
2. Vector quantities Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight, acceleration due to
gravity ( g ), gravitational field strength, electric field, magnetic field, dipole moment, torque,
linear momentum, angular momentum.

5.2 General Points Regarding Vectors

Vector Notation
Usually a vector is represented by a bold capital letter with an arrow over it, as A, B, C, etc.
The magnitude of a vector A is represented by A or | A| and is always positive.

Graphical Representation of a Vector

Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow drawn to a chosen scale, parallel Y
A
to the direction of the vector. The length and the direction of the arrow thus
represent the magnitude and the direction of the vector respectively.
θ
Thus, the arrow in Fig. 5.2 represents a vector A in xy-plane making an angle θ
with x-axis. X
Fig. 5.2
Steps Involved Representing a Vector
(i) By choosing a proper scale, draw a line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the
vector.
(ii) By following the standard convention to show direction, indicate the direction of the vector by
marking an arrow head at one end of the line.
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 99

Example To represent the displacement of a body along x-axis.

N

W E Scale: 1cm = 5 km
0 35 km A

S
Fig. 5.3 Graphical representation of a vector

The vector represented by the directed line segment OA in Fig. 5.3 is denoted by OA (to be read as
vector OA) or a simple notation as A (to be read as vector A). For vector OA, O is the initial point and
A is the terminal point. In the figure shown, OA or A is a displacement vector of magnitude 35 km
towards east.
Note A vector can be displaced from one position to another. During the displacement if we do not change
direction and magnitude then the vector remains unchanged.

Angle between Two Vectors (θ)

To find angle between two vectors both the vectors are drawn from one point in such a manner that
arrows of both the vectors are outwards from that point. Now, the smaller angle is called the angle
between two vectors.
For example in Fig. 5.4, angle between A and B is 60° not 120°.Because in Fig.(a), they are wrongly
drawn while in Fig. (b) they are drawn as we desire.
B B
A
120°
⇒
θ
A
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.4

Note 0 ° ≤ θ ≤ 180 °

Kinds of Vectors
Unit Vector
$ read
A vector of unit magnitude is called a unit vector and the notation for it in the direction of A is A
as ‘A cap or A caret’.
Thus, A = AA $ or A $ = A =A
| A| A
A unit vector merely indicates a direction. Unit vector along x, y and z-directions are $i, $j and k.
$

Zero Vector or Null Vector

A vector having zero magnitude is called a null vector or zero vector.
Note (i) Zero vector has no specific direction.
(ii) The position vector of origin is a zero vector.
(iii) Zero vectors are only of mathematical importance.
100 — Mechanics - I

Equal Vectors A
Vectors are said to be equal if both vectors have same magnitude and direction. B
A=B
Parallel Vectors Fig. 5.5
Vectors are said to be parallel if they have the same directions. A
The vectors A and B shown in Fig. 5.6 represent parallel vectors. B

Note Two equal vectors are always parallel but, two parallel vectors may not be equal vectors. Fig. 5.6

Anti-parallel Vectors (Unlike Vectors)

Vectors are said to be anti-parallel if they act in opposite direction. A

The vectors A and B shown in Fig. 5.7 are anti-parallel vectors.

B
Negative Vector Fig. 5.7

The negative vector of any vector is a vector having equal magnitude but acts in opposite direction.
A

B
A = –B or B = –A
Fig. 5.8

Concurrent Vectors (Co-initial Vectors)

Vectors having the same initial points are called concurrent vectors or co-initial vectors.
A

O B

C
Fig. 5.9

A, B and C are concurrent at point O.

Coplanar Vectors
The vectors lying in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.

A A

O
B
B

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10

The vector A and B are coplanar vectors. The vectors A and B shown in Fig. 5.10 (b) are concurrent
coplanar vectors.
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 101

Orthogonal Vectors
Two vectors are said to be orthogonal if the angle between them is 90°.

A
Fig. 5.11

The vector shown in Fig. 5.11, A and B are orthogonal to one another.
Multiplication and Division of Vectors by Scalars
The product of a vector A and a scalar m is a vector mA whose magnitude is m times the magnitude of
A and which is in the direction or opposite to A according as the scalar m is positive or negative. Thus,
| mA| = mA
Further, if m and n are two scalars, then
( m + n) A = mA + nA
and m( nA ) = n( mA ) = ( mn) A
1
The division of vector A by a non-zero scalar m is defined as the multiplication of A by ⋅
m

V Example 5.1
B

A A
150° 145°
45°
A B B
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.12

In the shown Fig. 5.12 (a), (b) and (c), find the angle between A and B .
Solution If we draw both the vectors from one point with their arrows outwards, then they can
be shown as below
B B

45° 150° 35°

A A A
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.13
In Fig. (a), θ = 45°
In Fig. (b), θ = 150° and
In Fig. (c), θ = 35°
 102 — Mechanics - I

3
V Example 5.2 What is the angle between a and − a.
2
3 3
Solution − a has a magnitude equal to times the a
2 2
− 3a
magnitude of a and its direction is opposite to a. Therefore, a 2
3
and − a are antiparallel to each other or angle between Fig. 5.14
2
them is 180°.

5.3 Addition and Subtraction of Two Vectors

Addition
(i) The parallelogram law Let R be the resultant of two vectors A and B. B R
According to parallelogram law of vector addition, the resultant R is the
diagonal of the parallelogram of which A and B are the adjacent sides as
β
shown in figure. Magnitude of R is given by
α
θ A
R = A + B + 2 AB cos θ
2 2
…(i)
Fig. 5.15
Here, θ = angle between A and B. The direction of R can be found by angle α or β of R with A or B.
B sin θ A sin θ
Here, tan α = and tan β = …(ii)
A + B cos θ B + A cos θ
Special cases
If θ = 0° , R = maximum = A + B
θ = 180° , R = minimum = A ∼ B
and if θ = 90° , R = A2 + B 2
In all other cases magnitude and direction of R can be calculated by using Eqs. (i) and (ii).
(ii) The triangle law According to this law, if the tail of one A
vector be placed at the head of the other, their sum or
resultant R is drawn from the tail end of the first to the R
B B
head end of the other. As is evident from the figure R
that the resultant R is the same irrespective of the A
order in which the vectors A and B are taken, Thus, Fig. 5.16
R =A +B=B+A
Subtraction
Negative of a vector say −A is a vector of the same magnitude as vector A but pointing in a direction
opposite to that of A.
A
–A

Fig. 5.17
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 103

Thus, A − B can be written as A + ( −B) or A − B is really the vector addition of A and −B.
Suppose angle between two vectors A and B is θ. Then, angle between A and –B will be 180 – θ as
shown in Fig. 5.18 (b).
B 180 – θ
A
α
β
⇒
θ
A –B S=A–B
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.18

Magnitude of S = A – B will be thus given by

S = | A − B | = | A + ( – B)|
= A 2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos (180 − θ )

or S = A 2 + B 2 − 2 AB cos θ …(i)

For direction of S we will either find angle α or β, where,

B sin (180 − θ ) B sin θ
tan α = = …(ii)
A + B cos (180 − θ ) A − B cos θ
A sin (180 − θ ) A sin θ
or tan β = = …(iii)
B + A cos (180 − θ ) B − A cos θ
Note A – B or B – A can also be found by making triangles as shown in Fig. 5.19 (a) and (b).

A–B
B B B–A
or

A A
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.19

V Example 5.3 Find A + B and A – B in the diagram shown in figure. Given

A = 4 units and B = 3 units.
B

θ = 60°
A
Fig. 5.20

Solution Addition R = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ

= 16 + 9 + 2 × 4 × 3 cos 60°
= 37 units
104 — Mechanics - I

B sin θ
tan α = B R=A+B
A + B cos θ
3 sin 60°
= = 0.472
4 + 3 cos 60° α
A
θ
−1
∴ α = tan (0.472) = 25.3° Fig. 5.21

Thus, resultant of A and B is 37 units at angle 25.3° from A in the direction shown in figure.
Subtraction S = A 2 + B 2 − 2AB cos θ
= 16 + 9 − 2 × 4 × 3 cos 60° = 13 units
B sin θ
and tan α = θ
A − B cos θ A
α
3 sin 60°
= = 1.04
4 − 3 cos 60°
∴ α = tan −1 (1.04) = 46.1° –B S=A–B
Fig. 5.22
Thus, A – B is 13 units at 46.1° from A in the direction
shown in figure.

Polygon Law of Vector Addition for more than Two Vectors

This law states that if a vector polygon be drawn, placing the tail end of each succeeding vector at the
head or the arrow end of the preceding one their resultant R is drawn from the tail end of the first to the
head or the arrow end of the last.
Thus, in the figure R = A + B + C
C
R

A
Fig. 5.23

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 5.1

1. What is the angle between 2a and 4a?
2. What is the angle between 3a and −5a? What is the ratio of magnitude of two vectors?
3. Two vectors have magnitudes 6 units and 8 units respectively. Find magnitude of resultant of two
vectors if angle between two vectors is
(a) 0° (b) 180° (c) 60° (d) 120° (e) 90°
4. Two vectors A and B have magnitudes 6 units and 8 units respectively. Find | A − B |, if the angle
between two vectors is
(a) 0° (b) 180° (c) 60° (d) 120° (e) 90°
5. For what angle between A and B, | A + B | = | A − B |.
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 105

5.4 Components of a Vector

Two or more vectors which, when compounded in accordance with the parallelogram law of vector R
are said to be components of vector R. The most important components with which we are concerned
are mutually perpendicular or rectangular ones along the three co-ordinate axes ox, oy and oz
respectively. Thus, a vector R can be written as R = R x $i + R y $j + R z k$ .
Here, R , R and R are the components of R in x, y and z-axes respectively and $i , $j and k$ are unit
x y z
vectors along these directions. The magnitude of R is given by
R = R x2 + R y2 + R z2
R  R
This vector R makes an angle of α = cos −1  x  with x-axis or cos α = x
 R  R
 Ry  Ry
β = cos −1   with y-axis or cos β =
 R  R
R  R
and γ = cos −1  z  with z-axis or cos γ = z
 R  R
Note Here cos α , cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines of R with x, y and z-axes.
Refer Fig. (a)
y y

Ry R Ry R
β β β
α α
O x O x
Rx Rx
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.24
We have resolved a two dimensional vector R (in xy plane) in mutually perpendicular directions x and y.
Component along x-axis = R x = R cos α or R sin β and component along y-axis = R y = R cos β or
R sin α.
If $i and $j be the unit vectors along x and y-axes respectively, we can write
R = R $i + R $j
x y

Refer Fig. (b)

Vector R has been resolved in two axes x and y not perpendicular to each other. Applying sine law in
the triangle shown , we have
R R Ry
= x =
sin [180 − (α + β)] sin β sin α
R sin β R sin α
or Rx = and R y =
sin (α + β) sin (α + β)
If α + β = 90° , R x = R sin β and R y = R sin α
106 — Mechanics - I

Position Vector
To locate the position of any point P in a plane or space, generally a fixed point of reference called the
origin O is taken. The vector OP is called the position vector of P with respect to O as shown in figure.
If coordinates of point P are ( x, y) then position vector of point P with respect to point O is
OP = r = x$i + y$j
y
P(x, y)

O x

Fig. 5.25

Note (i) For a point P, there is one and only one position vector with respect to the origin O.
(ii) Position vector of a point P changes if the position of the origin O is changed.

Displacement Vector
If coordinates of point A are ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B are ( x 2 , y2 , z 2 ). y
Then, position vector of A A s
B
= r A = OA = x1 $i + y1 $j + z1 k$ rA
Position vector of B = r = OB = x $i + y $j + z k$
B 2 2 2 rB

and AB = OB − OA = rB − r A = displacement vector ( s ) x

O
= ( x 2 − x1 ) $i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j + ( z 2 − z1 ) k$
Fig. 5.26

V Example 5.4 A force F has magnitude of 15 N . Direction of F is at 37° from

negative x-axis towards positive y-axis. Represent F in terms of $i and $j .
Solution The given force is as shown in figure. Let us find its y
x and y components. |F| = F = 15 N
F
N
Fx = F cos 37°
4 Fy
= 15 × 37°
5 M Fx O
x

= 12 N (along negative x-axis)

F y = F sin 37°
3
= 15 ×
5
Fig. 5.27
= 9 N (along positive y -axis)
From parallelogram law of vector addition, we can see that
F = OM + ON
= Fx ( − $i ) + F y ( $j )
= ( −12i$ + 9$j ) N Ans.

V Example 5.5 Find magnitude and direction of a vector, A = (6$i − 8$j).

 Chapter 5 Vectors — 107

Solution Magnitude of A
| A | or A = ( 6) 2 + ( −8) 2
= 10 units Ans.
Direction of A Vector A can be shown as
y

6^i
x
O α

^
−8 j A

Fig. 5.28

8 4
tan α = =
6 3
 4
∴ α = tan −1   = 53°
 3
Therefore, A is making an angle of 53° from positive x-axis towards negative y-axis.

V Example 5.6 Resolve a weight of 10 N in two directions which are parallel

and perpendicular to a slope inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
Solution Component perpendicular to the plane

w| |

30° w⊥

30° w = 10 N

Fig. 5.29

w ⊥ = w cos 30°
3
= (10) =5 3N
2
and component parallel to the plane
 1
w | | = w sin 30° = (10)  
 2
= 5N

V Example 5.7 Resolve horizontally and vertically a force F = 8 N which makes

an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
 108 — Mechanics - I

Solution Horizontal component of F is Fv

 1
FH = F cos 45° = ( 8)   = 4 2 N
 2
F
and vertical component of F is
 1
FV = F sin 45° = ( 8)   = 4 2 N 45° FH
 2
Fig. 5.30
Note Two vectors given in the form of $i , $j and k$ can be added, subtracted or multiplied
( by a scalar ) directly as is done in the example 5.8.

V Example 5.8 Obtain the magnitude of 2A − 3B if

A = i$ + $j − 2k$ and B = 2i$ − $j + k$
Solution 2A − 3B = 2( i$ + $j − 2k$ ) − 3 ( 2i$ − $j + k$ ) = − 4$i + 5$j − 7k$

∴ Magnitude of 2A − 3B = ( −4 ) 2 + ( 5) 2 + ( −7) 2 = 16 + 25 + 49 = 90

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 5.2

1. Find magnitude and direction cosines of the vector, A = (3$i − 4$j + 5k$ ).
2. Resolve a force F = 10 N along x and y-axes. Where this force vector is making an angle of 60°
from negative x-axis towards negative y-axis?
3. Find magnitude of A − 2 B + 3 C, where, A = 2$i + 3$j, B = $i + $j and C = k$ .
4. Find angle between A and B, where,
(a) A = 2$i and B = − 6$i (b) A = 6$j and B = − 2 k$
(c) A = (2$i − 3$j) and B = 4 k$ (d) A = 4 $i and B = ( −3$i + 3$j)

5.5 Product of Two Vectors

The product of two vectors is of two kinds
(i) scalar or dot product.
(ii) a vector or a cross product.

Scalar or Dot Product

B
The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and Bis denoted by A ⋅ B and is read
as A dot B.
It is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors A and B and
θ
the cosine of their included angle θ. A
Fig. 5.31

Thus, A ⋅ B = AB cos θ (a scalar quantity)

Important Points Regarding Dot Product
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 109

The following points should be remembered regarding the dot product.

(i) A ⋅ B = B ⋅ A
(ii) A ⋅ ( B + C) = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ C
(iii) A ⋅ A = A 2
(iv) A ⋅ B = A ( B cos θ ) = A (Component of B along A)
or A ⋅ B = B ( A cos θ ) = B (Component of A along B)
(v) $i ⋅ $i = $j ⋅ $j = k$ ⋅ k$ = (1)(1) cos 0° = 1
(vi) $i ⋅ $j = $j ⋅ k$ = $i ⋅ k$ = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0
(vii) ( a1 $i + b1 $j + c1 k$ ) ⋅ ( a 2 $i + b2 $j + c2 k$ ) = a1 a 2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
A⋅B
(viii) cos θ = = (cosine of angle between A and B)
AB
(ix) Two vectors are perpendicular if their dot product is zero. (θ = 90° )

V Example 5.9 Work done by a force F on a body is W = F • s, where s is the

displacement of body. Given that under a force F = ( 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ ) N a body is
displaced from position vector r1 = ( 2$i + 3$j + k$ ) m to the position vector
r2 = ( $i + $j + k$ ) m. Find the work done by this force.
Solution The body is displaced from r1 to r 2 . Therefore, displacement of the body is
s = r 2 − r1 = ( $i + $j + k$ ) − ( 2$i + 3$j + k$ ) = ( − $i − 2$j ) m
Now, work done by the force is W = F ⋅ s
= ( 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ ) ⋅ ( − i$ − 2$j )
= ( 2)( −1) + ( 3)( −2) + ( 4 )( 0) = − 8 J

V Example 5.10 Find the angle between two vectors A = 2$i + $j − k$ and
B = $i − k$ .
Solution A = | A | = ( 2) 2 + (1) 2 ( −1) 2 = 6

B = | B | = (1) 2 + ( −1) 2 = 2
A ⋅ B = ( 2$i + $j − k$ ) • ( $i − k$ )
= ( 2)(1) + (1)( 0) + ( −1)( −1) = 3
A⋅B 3
Now, cos θ = =
AB 6⋅ 2
3 3
= =
12 2
∴ θ = 30°

V Example 5.11 Prove that the vectors A = 2$i − 3$j + k$ and B = $i + $j + k$ are
mutually perpendicular.
110 — Mechanics - I

Solution A ⋅ B = ( 2i$ − 3$j + k$ ) ⋅ ( i$ + $j + k$ )

= ( 2)(1) + ( −3)(1) + (1)(1) = 0 = AB cos θ
∴ cos θ = 0 (as A ≠ 0, B ≠ 0)
or θ = 90°
or the vectors A and B are mutually perpendicular.

Vector or Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors A and B is denoted by A × B and read as A cross B. B

It is defined as a third vector C whose magnitude is equal to the product of the

magnitudes of the two vectors A and B and the sine of their included angle θ. θ
A
Thus, if C = A × B, then C = AB sin θ. Fig. 5.32

The vector C is normal to the plane of A and B and points in the direction
in which a right handed screw would advance when rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in the direction from A to B
through the smaller angle θ between them or alternatively, we might state
the rule as below
If the fingers of the right hand be curled in the direction in which vector A
must be turned through the smaller included angle θ to coincide with the
direction of vector B, the thumb points in the direction of C as shown in
Fig. 5.33.
Either of these rules is referred to as the right handed screw rule. Thus, if
n$ be the unit vector in the direction of C, we have
C = A × B = AB sin θ n$ Fig. 5.33
where, 0≤θ ≤ π
Important Points About Vector Product
(i) A × B = − B × A
(ii) The cross product of two parallel (or antiparallel) vectors is zero, as | A × B | = AB sin θ and
θ = 0° or sin θ = 0 for two parallel vectors. Thus, $i × $i = $j × $j = k$ × k$ = a null vector.
(iii) If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, we have θ = 90° and therefore, sin θ =1. So that
A × B = AB n$ . The vectors A, B and A × B thus form a right handed system of mutually
perpendicular vectors. It follows at once from the above that ∧ ∧
i i
in case of the orthogonal triad of unit vectors $i , $j and k$ (each
perpendicular to each other) Plus Minus
$i × $j = − $j × $i = k$ ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧
k j k j
$j × k$ = − k$ × $j = $i and k$ × $i = − $i × k$ = $j
Fig. 5.34
(iv) A × ( B + C) = A × B + A × C
(v) A vector product can be expressed in terms of rectangular components of the two vectors and put
in the determinant form as may be seen from the following:
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 111

Let A = a1 $i + b1 $j + c1 k$
and B = a $i + b $j + c k$
2 2 2

Then, A × B = ( a1 $i + b1 $j + c1 k$ ) × ( a 2 $i + b2 $j + c2 k$ )
= a1 a 2 ( $i × $i ) + a1 b2 ( $i × $j) + a1 c2 ( $i × k$ ) + b1 a 2 ( $j × $i ) + b1 b2 ( $j × $j)
+ b c ( $j × k$ ) + c a ( k$ × $i ) + c b ( k$ × $j) + c c ( k$ × k$ )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Since, $i × $i = $j × $j = k$ × k$ = a null vector and $i × $j = k$ , etc., we have

A × B = ( b c − c b ) $i + (c a − a c ) $j + ( a b − b a ) k$
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
or putting it in determinant form, we have
$i $j k$
A × B = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
It may be noted that the scalar components of the first vector A occupy the middle row of the
determinant.

V Example 5.12 Find a unit vector perpendicular to A = 2$i + 3$j + k$ and

B = $i − $j + k$ both.
Solution As we have read, C = A × B is a vector perpendicular to both A and B. Hence, a unit
vector n$ perpendicular to A and B can be written as
C A×B
n$ = =
C | A × B|
$i $j k$
Here, A×B= 2 3 1
1 –1 1

= $i ( 3 + 1) + $j(1 − 2) + k$ ( −2 − 3) = 4$i − $j − 5k$

Further, | A × B | = ( 4 ) 2 + ( −1) 2 + ( −5) 2 = 42

∴ The desired unit vector is
A×B 1
n$ = or n$ = ( 4$i − $j − 5k$ )
|A × B| 42

V Example 5.13 Show that the vector A = $i − $j + 2k$ is parallel to a vector

B = 3$i − 3$j + 6k$ .
Solution A vector A is parallel to an another vector B if it can be written as
A = mB
1 1
Here, A = ( $i − $j + 2k$ ) = ( 3$i − 3$j + 6k$ ) or A = B
3 3
112 — Mechanics - I

1
This implies that A is parallel to B and magnitude of A is times the magnitude of B.
3
Note Two vectors can be shown parallel (or antiparallel) to one another if :
(i) The coefficients of $i, $j and k$ of both the vectors bear a constant ratio. For example, a vector
a b c
A = a1 $i + b1 $j + c1 k$ is parallel to an another vector B = a2 $i + b2 $j + c2 k$ if : 1 = 1 = 1 = constant. If
a2 b 2 c 2
this constant has positive value, then the vectors are parallel and if the constant has negative value then
the vectors are antiparallel.
(ii) The cross product of both the vectors is a null vector. For instance, A and B are parallel (or antiparallel)
$i $j k$
to each other if A × B = a1 b1 c1 = a null vector
a2 b2 c2

V Example 5.14 Let a force F be acting on a body free to rotate about a point O
and let r the position vector of any point P on the line of action of the force. Then
torque ( τ ) of this force about point O is defined as
τ=r×F
Given, F = ( 2i + 3 j − k ) N and r = ( $i − $j + 6k$ ) m
$ $ $
Find the torque of this force.
i$ $j k$
Solution τ = r × F = 1 –1 6
2 3 –1

= $i (1 − 18) + $j(12 + 1) + k$ ( 3 + 2)
or τ = ( −17i$ + 13$j + 5k$ ) N-m

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 5.3

1. Cross product of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is a null vector. Is this statement true or
false?
2. Find the values of
(a) (4$i ) × ( −6 k$ ) (b) (3$j) ⋅ ( −4$j) (c) (2 $i ) ⋅ ( −4k$ )
3. Two vectors A and B have magnitudes 2 units and 4 units respectively. Find A ⋅ B if angle
between these two vectors is
(a) 0° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 120°
(e) 180°
4. Find (2 A) × ( −3 B), if A = 2$i − $j and B = ( $j + k$ )
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 113

Final Touch Points

1. The moment of inertia has two forms, a scalar form I (used when the axis of rotation is known) and a
more general tensor form that does not require knowing the axis of rotation. Although tensor is a
generalized term which is characterized by its rank. For example, scalars are tensors of rank zero.
Vectors are tensors of rank two.
2. Pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector quantity. It has magnitude but no direction sense
associated with it. Pressure acts in all directions at a point inside a fluid.
3. Surface tension is scalar because it has no specific direction.
4. Stress is neither a scalar nor a vector quantity, it is a tensor.
5. To qualify as a vector, a physical quantity must not only possess magnitude and direction but must
also satisfy the parallelogram law of vector addition. For instance, the finite rotation of a rigid body
about a given axis has magnitude (the angle of rotation) and also direction (the direction of the axis)
but it is not a vector quantity. This is so for the simple reason that the two finite rotations of the body do
not add up in accordance with the law of vector addition. However if the rotation be small or
infinitesimal, it may be regarded as a vector quantity.
6. Area can behave either as a scalar or a vector and how it behaves depends on circumstances.
7. Area (vector), dipole moment and current density are defined as vectors with specific direction.
8. Vectors associated with a linear or directional effect are called polar vectors or simply as vectors and
those associated with rotation about an axis are referred to as axial vectors. Thus, force, linear
velocity and linear acceleration are polar vectors and angular velocity, angular acceleration are axial
vectors.
9. Examples of dot-product and cross-product
Examples of Dot-product Examples of Cross-product

W = F⋅ s τ= r× F
P = F⋅ v L= r× P
dφe = E ⋅ ds v=ω ×r
dφ B = B ⋅ ds τe = P × E
Ue = P ⋅ E τ B =M × B
UB = M ⋅ B FB = q (v × B)
µ 0 i (dl × r )
dB =
4π r3

10. Students are often confused over the direction of cross product. Let us discuss a simple method. To
find direction of A × B curl your fingers from A to B through smaller angle. If it is clockwise then A × B is
perpendicular to the plane of A and B and away from you and if it is anti-clockwise then A × B is
towards you perpendicular to the plane of A and B.
1
11. The area of triangle bounded by vectors A and B is | A × B |. B
2
Exercise : Prove the above result.

A
114 — Mechanics - I

12. Area of parallelogram shown in figure is, Area = | A × B |

B

O A

Exercise : Prove the above relation.

13. Scalar triple product : A ⋅ (B × C ) is called scalar triple product. It is a scalar quantity. We can show
that A ⋅ (B × C ) = ( A × B ) ⋅ C = B ⋅ (C × A ).
14. The volume of a parallelopiped bounded by vectors A , B and C can be obtained by ( A × B ) ⋅ C.
15. If three vectors are coplanar then the volume of the parallelopiped bounded by these three vectors
should be zero or we can say that their scalar triple product should be zero.
16. If A = a1$i + a 2$j + a 3k$ , B = b1$i + b2$j + b3k$ and C = c1$i + c 2$j + c 3k$ then A ⋅ (B × C ) is also written as
[ ABC ] and it has the following value :
a1 a 2 a 3 
[ ABC ] =  b1 b2 b3 

 c1 c2 c3 
= Volume of parallelopiped whose adjacent sides are along A, B and C.
17. If | A| = | B| = A (say) then,
θ
| R| = | A + B| = 2A cos
2
Exercise : Prove the above result.
For θ = 0°, | R| = 2A
θ = 60°, | R| = 3 A
θ = 90°, | R| = 2 A
θ = 120°, | R| = A and
θ = 180°, | R | = O
In this case, resultant of A and B always passes through the bisector line of A and B.
18. If | A| = | B| = A (say) then,
θ
| S| = | A − B | = 2A sin
2
Exercise : Prove the above result.
19. Angle between two vectors is obtained by their dot product (not from cross product) i.e.
 A ⋅ B
θ = cos −1  
 AB 
| A × B | 
It is not always, sin−1  
 AB 
Exercise : Explain the reason why θ is not always given by the following relation ?
| A × B| 
θ = sin−1  
 AB 
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 115

20. A unit vector perpendicular to both A and B

A ×B
C$ = ±
| A × B|
A ⋅B
21. Component of A along B = A cos θ =
B
A

θ B
A cos θ

Similarly, component of B along A

A ⋅B
= B cos θ =
A
Component of A along B = component of B along A
If | A| = | B| or A = B. Otherwise they are not equal.
22. In the figure shown,
D1
B

θ D2

diagonal D1 = | A + B or R | = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ

diagonal D2 = | A − B or S | = A 2 + B 2 − 2AB cos θ

D1 = D2 = A 2 + B 2 if θ = 90°
Solved Examples
V Example 1 Find component of vector A + B along (i) x-axis, (ii) C .
Given A = $i − 2$j, B = 2$i + 3k$ and C = $i + $j .
Solution A + B = ($i − 2$j) + (2i$ + 3k$ ) = 3$i − 2$j + 3k$
(i) Component of A + B along x-axis is 3.
(ii) Component of A + B = R (say) along C is
R ⋅ C (3i$ − 2$j + 3k$ ) • ($i + $j) 3 − 2 1
R cos θ = = = =
C (1)2 + (1)2 2 2

V Example 2 Find the angle that the vector A = 2$i + 3$j − k$ makes with y-axis.
Ay 3 3
Solution cos θ = = =
A (2) + (3) + (− 1)
2 2 2 14
 3 
∴ θ = cos −1  
 14 

V Example 3 If a and b are the vectors AB and BC determined by the adjacent

sides of a regular hexagon. What are the vectors determined by the other sides
taken in order?
E D
Solution Given AB = a and BC = b
From the method of vector addition (or subtraction) we can show that,
CD = b − a F
–a
C
Then DE = − AB = − a
b
EF = − BC = − b
A B
and FA = − CD = a − b

V Example 4 If a × b = b × c ≠ 0 with a ≠ − c then show that a + c = kb, where k is

scalar.
Solution a × b = b × c
a× b= − c× b
∴ a× b+ c× b=0
(a + c) × b = 0
∴ a × b ≠ 0, b × c ≠ 0, a , b, c are non-zero vectors. (a + c) ≠ 0
Hence, a + c is parallel to b.
∴ a + c = kb
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 117

V Example 5 If A = 2$i − 3$j + 7k$ , B = $i + 2$j and C = $j − k.

$ Find A •( B × C).
Solution A •(B × C) = [ABC], volume of parallelopiped
2 −3 7
= 1 2 0 = 2 (− 2 − 0) + 3 (− 1 − 0) + 7 (1 − 0) = − 4 − 3 + 7 = 0
0 1 −1
Therefore A , B and C are coplanar vectors.

V Example 6 Find the resultant of three vectors OA ,OB and OC shown in figure.
Radius of circle is ‘ R ’.
C
B
°
45
45°
O A

Solution OA = OC
OA + OC is along OB, (bisector) and its magnitude is 2R cos 45° = R 2
(OA + OC) + OB is along OB and its magnitude is R 2 + R = R (1 + 2 )

V Example 7 Prove that|a × b|2 = a 2 b2 − (a ⋅ b)2

Solution Let|a|= a,|b|= b and θ be the angle between them.
|a × b|2 = (ab sin θ )2 = a 2b2 sin 2 θ
= a 2b2 (1 − cos 2 θ ) = a 2b2 − (a ⋅ b cos θ )2
= a 2b2 − (a •b)2 Hence Proved.

V Example 8 Show that the vectors a = 3$i − 2$j + k,

$ b = $i − 3$j + 5k$ and
c = 2 i + j − 4k form a right angled triangle.
$ $ $
Solution We have b + c = (i$ − 3$j + 5k$ ) + (2i$ + $j − 4k$ ) = 3$i − 2$j + k$ = a
Hence, a, b, c are coplanar.
Also, we observe that no two of these vectors are parallel.
Further, a ⋅ c = (3$i − 2$j + k$ ) ⋅ (2i$ + $j − 4k$ ) = 0
Dot product of two non-zero vectors is zero. Hence, they are perpendicular b
c
so they form a right angled triangle.
|a|= 9 + 4 + 1 = 14 ,
|b| = 1 + 9 + 25 = 35 a
and |c|= 4 + 1 + 16 = 21
⇒ a 2 + c2 = b2 Hence Proved.
118 — Mechanics - I

V Example 9 Let A , B and C be the unit vectors. Suppose that A ⋅ B = A ⋅ C = 0 and

π
the angle between B and C is then prove that A = ± 2 ( B × C)
6
Solution Since, A ⋅ B = 0, A ⋅ C = 0
Hence, (B + C) ⋅ A = 0
So, A is perpendicular to (B + C). Further, A is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of
vectors B and C.
B× C
A=±
| B × C|
π 1 1
|B × C|= |B||C|sin = 1 × 1 × =
6 2 2
B× C
∴ A=± = ± 2 (B × C)
|B × C|

V Example 10 A particle moves on a given line with a constant speed v. At a

certain time, it is at a point P on its straight line path. O is a fixed point. Show
that ( OP × v ) is independent of the position P.
Solution Let v = v$i

x P v y
(x, y)
y
x
O

OP = x$i + y$j
Take OP × v = (xi$ + y$j) × vi$
= − yvk$
= constant (because y is constant)
Hence, OP × v, which is independent of position of P.

V Example 11 Prove that the mid-point of the hypotenuse of right angled triangle
is equidistant from its vertices.
Solution Here, ∠CAB = 90°, let D be the mid-point of hypotenuse, we have
BD = DC C
AB = AD + DB
AC = AD + DC = AD + BD D
Since, ∠BAC = 90° AB ⊥ AC
(AD + DB) ⋅ (AD + BD) = 0
(AD − BD) ⋅ (AD + BD) = 0 A B
AD 2 − BD 2 = 0
∴ AD = BD also BD = DC
Q D is mid-point of BC
Thus,| AD| = |BD| = |DC|. Hence, the result.
Exercises
Objective Questions
Single Correct Option
1. Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?
(a) Dipole moment (b) Electric field (c) Acceleration (d) Work
2. Which one of the following is not the vector quantity?
(a) Torque (b) Displacement (c) Velocity (d) Speed
3. Which one is a vector quantity?
(a) Time (b) Temperature
(c) Magnetic flux (d) Magnetic field intensity
4. Minimum number of vectors of unequal magnitudes which can give zero resultant are
(a) two (b) three
(c) four (d) more than four
5. Which one of the following statement is false?
(a) A vector cannot be displaced from one point to another point
(b) Distance is a scalar quantity but displacement is a vector quantity
(c) Momentum, force and torque are vector quantities
(d) Mass, speed and energy are scalar quantities
6. What is the dot product of two vectors of magnitudes 3 and 5, if angle between them is 60°?
(a) 5.2 (b) 7.5 (c) 8.4 (d) 8.6
7. The forces, which meet at one point but their lines of action do not lie in one plane, are called
(a) non-coplanar non-concurrent forces (b) non-coplanar concurrent forces
(c) coplanar concurrent forces (d) coplanar non-concurrent forces
8. A vector A points vertically upward and B points towards north. The vector product A × B is
(a) along west (b) along east (c) zero (d) vertically downward
9. The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors|A| and|B| may be
(More than one correct options)
(a) greater than AB (b) equal to AB (c) less than AB (d) equal to zero
10. A force ( 3i$ + 4$j) newton acts on a body and displaces it by ( 3i$ + 4$j) metre. The work done by the
force is
(a) 5 J (b) 25 J (c) 10 J (d) 30 J
11. The torque of force F = ( 2 $i − 3$j + 4 k$ ) newton acting at the point r = ( 3 $i + 2 $j + 3 k$ ) metre about
origin is (in N-m)
(a) 6 i$ − 6 $j + 12 k$ (b) 17 i$ − 6 $j − 13 k$ (c) − 6 i$ + 6 $j − 12 k$ (d) − 17 i$ + 6 $j + 13 k$
$ the value of c is
12. If a unit vector is represented by 0.5 $i + 0.8 $j + ck
(a) 1 (b) 0.11 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.39
120 — Mechanics - I

13. Two vectors of equal magnitudes have a resultant equal to either of them, then the angle
between them will be
(a) 30° (b) 120° (c) 60° (d) 150°
14. If a vector 2$i + 3$j + 8k
$ is perpendicular to the vector 4$i − 4$j + αk
$ , then the value of α is
1 1
(a) −1 (b) (c) − (d) 1
2 2
15. The angle between the two vectors A = 3 $i + 4$j + 5 k
$ and B = 3 i$ + 4 $j − 5 k
$ is
(a) 60° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 30°
16. Maximum and minimum values of the resultant of two forces acting at a point are 7 N and
3 N respectively. The smaller force will be equal to
(a) 5 N (b) 4 N (c) 2 N (d) 1 N
17. If the vectors P = ai$ + a$j + 3k$ and Q = ai$ − 2$j − k$ are perpendicular to each other, then the
positive value of a is
(a) zero (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
18. The ( x , y , z ) co-ordinates of two points A and B are given respectively as ( 0, 3, − 1) and ( −2, 6, 4).
The displacement vector from A to B is given by
(a) −2 $i + 6 $j + 4 k$ (b) −2 $i + 3 $j + 3 k$
(c) −2 $i + 3 $j + 5 k$ (d) 2 $i − 3 $j − 5 k
$

19. A vector is not changed if

(a) it is rotated through an arbitrary angle
(b) it is multiplied by an arbitrary scalar
(c) it is cross multiplied by a unit vector
(d) it is displaced parallel to itself
20. Which of the sets given below may represent the magnitudes of three vectors adding to zero?
(a) 2, 4, 8 (b) 4, 8, 16
(c) 1, 2, 1 (d) 0.5, 1, 2
21. The resultant of A and B makes an angle α with A and β with B, then
(a) α is always less than β (b) α < β if A < B
(c) α < β if A > B (d) α < β if A = B
22. The angles which the vector A = 3$i + 6$j + 2k
$ makes with the co-ordinate axes are
3 6 2 4 5 3
(a) cos −1 , cos −1 and cos −1 (b) cos −1 , cos −1 and cos −1
7 7 7 7 7 7
3 −1 4 −1 1
(c) cos −1 , cos and cos (d) None of these
7 7 7
23. Unit vector parallel to the resultant of vectors A = 4i$ − 3$j and B = 8 $i + 8 $j will be
24$i + 5$j 12 $i + 5$j
(a) (b)
13 13
6 i$ + 5$j
(c) (d) None of these
13
24. The component of vector A = 2 $i + 3$j along the vector i$ + $j is
5
(a) (b) 10 2 (c) 5 2 (d) 5
2
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 121

25. Two vectors A and B are such that A + B = C and A2 + B2 = C 2. If θ is the angle between positive
direction of A and B, then the correct statement is
2π
(a) θ = π (b) θ =
3
π
(c) θ = 0 (d) θ =
2
26. If| A × B| = 3 A ⋅ B, then the value of| A + B| is
1/ 2
 AB
(a) ( A 2 + B2 + AB)1/ 2 (b)  A 2 + B2 + 
 3
(c) ( A + B) (d) ( A 2 + B2 + 3 AB)1/ 2
27. If the angle between the vectors A and B is θ, the value of the product ( B × A) ⋅ A is equal to
(a) BA 2 cos θ (b) BA 2 sin θ
(c) BA 2 sin θ cos θ (d) zero
28. Given that P = 12, Q = 5 and R = 13 also P + Q = R, then the angle between P and Q will be
π
(a) π (b)
2
π
(c) zero (d)
4
29. Given that P + Q + R = 0. Two out of the three vectors are equal in magnitude. The magnitude of
the third vector is 2 times that of the other two. Which of the following can be the angles
between these vectors?
(a) 90°, 135°, 135° (b) 45°, 45°, 90°
(c) 30°, 60°, 90° (d) 45°, 90°, 135°
30. The angle between P + Q and P − Q will be
(a) 90° (b) between 0° and 180°
(c) 180° only (d) None of these
31. The value of n so that vectors 2 i$ + 3 $j − 2k
$ , 5 i$ + n $j + k
$ and − i$ + 2$j + 3 k
$ may be coplanar, will
be
(a) 18 (b) 28 (c) 9 (d) 36
32. If a and b are two vectors, then the value of (a + b ) × (a − b ) is
(a) 2 (b × a ) (b) − 2 (b × a ) (c) b × a (d) a × b
33. The resultant of two forces 3P and 2P is R. If the first force is doubled then the resultant is also
doubled. The angle between the two forces is
(a) 60° (b) 120° (c) 30° (d) 135°
34. The resultant of two forces, one double the other in magnitude, is perpendicular to the smaller
of the two forces. The angle between the two forces is
(a) 120° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 150°
35. Three vectors satisfy the relation A ⋅ B = 0 and A ⋅ C = 0, then A is parallel to
(a) C (b) B (c) B × C (d) B ⋅ C
36. The sum of two forces at a point is 16 N. If their resultant is normal to the smaller force and has
a magnitude of 8 N, then two forces are
(a) 6 N, 10 N (b) 8 N, 8 N
(c) 4 N, 12 N (d) 2 N, 14 N
122 — Mechanics - I

37. The sum of two vectors A and B is at right angles to their difference. Then
(a) A=B
(b) A =2B
(c) B = 2A
(d) A and B have the same direction
38. Let C = A + B.
(a)|C|is always greater than|A|
(b) It is possible to have|C| < |A|and|C| < |B|
(c) C is always equal to A + B
(d) C is never equal to A + B
39. Let the angle between two non-zero vectors A and B be 120° and its resultant be C.
(a) C must be equal to| A − B|
(b) C must be less than| A − B|
(c) C must be greater than| A − B|
(d) C may be equal to| A − B|

Match the Columns

1. Column I shows some vector equations. Match Column I with the value of angle between A and
B given in Column II.

Column I Column II

(a) |A × B|=|A ⋅ B| (p) zero

π
(b) A ×B=B×A (q)
2
π
(c) |A + B|=|A − B| (r)
4
3π
(d) A + B = C and A + B = C (s)
4

Subjective Questions
1. If a = 2$i + 3$j + 4k$ and b = 4$i + 3$j + 2k$ , find the angle between a and b .
2. The vector A has a magnitude of 5 unit, B has a magnitude of 6 unit and the cross product of A
and B has a magnitude of 15 unit. Find the angle between A and B .
3. Suppose a is a vector of magnitude 4.5 unit due north. What is the vector (a) 3a (b) −4a ?
4. Two vectors have magnitudes 3 unit and 4 unit respectively. What should be the angle between
them if the magnitude of the resultant is (a) 1 unit, (b) 5 unit and (c) 7 unit.
5. The work done by a force F during a displacement r is given by F ⋅ r. Suppose a force of 12 N acts
on a particle in vertically upward direction and the particle is displaced through 2.0 m in
vertically downward direction. Find the work done by the force during this displacement.
6. If A, B, C are mutually perpendicular, then show that C × ( A × B) = 0.
7. Prove that A ⋅ ( A × B) = 0 .
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 123

8. Find the resultant of the three vectors shown in figure.

Y

2.0 m
m 3.0 m
5.0
37°
X

9. Give an example for which A ⋅ B = C ⋅ B but A ≠ C.

10. Obtain the angle between A + B and A − B if A = 2$i + 3$j and B = $i − 2$j .
11. Deduce the condition for the vectors 2i$ + 3$j − 4k$ and 3i$ − a$j + bk$ to be parallel.
12. Find the area of the parallelogram whose sides are represented by 2$i + 4$j − 6k$ and $i + 2k.
$
13. If vectors A and B be respectively equal to 3$i − 4$j + 5k$ and 2$i + 3$j − 4k.
$ Find the unit vector
parallel to A + B .
14. If A = 2$i − 3$j + 7k$ , B = i$ + 2k$ and C = $j − k$ find A ⋅ ( B × C).
15. The x and y-components of vector A are 4 m and 6 m respectively. The x and y-components of
vector A + B are 10 m and 9 m respectively. Calculate for the vector B the following :
(a) its x andy-components
(b) its length
(c) the angle it makes with x-axis
16. Three vectors which are coplanar with respect to a certain rectangular co-ordinate system are
given by
a = 4i$ − $j, b = − 3i$ + 2$j and c = − 3$j
Find
(a) a + b + c
(b) a + b − c
(c) Find the angle between a + b + c and a + b − c
17. Let A and B be the two vectors of magnitude 10 unit each. If they are inclined to the x-axis at
angles 30° and 60° respectively, find the resultant.
18. The resultant of vectors OA and OB is perpendicular to OA as shown in figure. Find the angle
AOB.
B Y

6m
θ
X
O 4m A

19. Find the components of a vector A = 2 $i + 3$j along the directions of i$ + $j and i$ − $j .
20. If two vectors are A = 2$i + $j − kand
$ B = $j − 4k
$ . By calculation, prove that A × B is perpendicular
to both A and B .
21. The resultant of two vectors A and B is at right angles to A and its magnitude is half of B. Find
the angle between A and B.
22. Four forces of magnitude P , 2P , 3P and 4P act along the four sides of a square ABCD in cyclic
order. Use the vector method to find the magnitude of resultant force.
124 — Mechanics - I

23. If P + Q = R and P − Q = S , prove that R 2 + S 2 = 2 ( P 2 + Q 2 )

24. Prove by the method of vectors that in a triangle
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C

Answers
Introductory Exercise 5.1
1. 0°
2. 180° , 0.6
3. (a) 14 units (b) 2 units (c) 2 37 units (d) 2 13 units (e) 10 units
4. (a) 2 units (b) 14 units (c) 2 13 units (d) 2 37 units (e) 10 units
5. 90°

Introductory Exercise 5.2

3 −4 1
1. A = 5 2 units, cos α = , cos β = and cos γ =
5 2 5 2 2
2. Fx = − 5 N, Fy = − 5 3 N
3. 10 units
4. (a) 180° (b) 90° (c) 90° (d) 135°

Introductory Exercise 5.3

1. True
2. (a) 24 $j (b) −12 (c) zero
3. (a) 8 units (b) 4 units (c) zero (d) −4 units (e) −8 units
$
4. (6 $i + 12 j − 12 k
$)

Exercises
Single Correct Option
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b,c,d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (c)

Match the Columns

1. (a) →r,s (b) →p, (c) → q (d) → p
 Chapter 5 Vectors — 125

Subjective Questions
1. cos −1 
25 

 29 
2. 30° or 150°
3. (a) 13.5 unit due north (b) 18 unit due south
4. (a) 180° (b) 90° (c) 0°
5. −24 J

74 m at angle tan−1   from x-axis towards y-axis

5
8.
 7
9. See the hints
 4 
10. cos −1   11. a = − 4.5, b = − 6
 65 
1 $ $
12. Area = 13.4 units 13. (5$i − j + k)
27
14. zero
15. (a) 6m, 3m (b) 3 5 m (c) θ = tan−1  
1
 2
$ $  −7 
16. (a) $i − 2 j (b) $i + 4 j (c) cos −1  
 85 
−2 
17. 20 cos 15° unit at 45° with x-axis. 18. cos −1  
 3
5 −1
19. , 21. 150°
2 2
22. 2 2 P