General Physics

Electricity and Magnetism

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
AND GAUSS’S LAW
 Electric Field – Continuous
•
Charge Distribution
The distances between charges in a group of charges may be much smaller than the
distance between the group and a point of interest

• In this situation, the system of charges can be modeled as continuous

• The system of closely spaced charges is equivalent to a total charge that is continuously
distributed along some line, over some surface, or throughout some volume
Electric Field – Continuous Charge
Distribution
• Procedure:
– Divide the charge distribution into small
elements, each of which contains Δq

– Calculate the electric field due to one of

these elements at point P
 Δq
ΔE = ke 2 r̂
r
– Evaluate the total field by summing the
contributions of all the charge elements
 Δq dq
E = ke lim ∑ 2 i r̂i = ke ∫ 2 r̂
Δqi →0
i ri r
 Charge Densities
• Volume charge density: when a charge is distributed evenly
throughout a volume
– ρ ≡ Q / V with units C/m3

• Surface charge density: when a charge is distributed evenly

over a surface area
– σ ≡ Q / A with units C/m2

• Linear charge density: when a charge is distributed along a

line
– λ ≡ Q / ℓ with units C/m
 Amount of Charge in a Small Volume

• The amount of charge, dq, within a small element of

volume, surface, or line is given by:
– For the volume: dq = ρ dV
– For the surface: dq = σ dA
– For the length element: dq = λ dℓ
Example: The electric field due to a charged wire

The corona wire in a photocopier is used to charge the paper before

toner is released to print the image. The wire has a length 𝑙 a uniform
positive charge per unit length λ and a total charge Q. Calculate the
electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of the wire
and a distance a from one end.
 Calculation of the Electric Field Problem-
Solving Strategy
•Conceptualize
– Establish a mental representation of the problem
– Sketch a graph. Is the charge distributed over a line, surface or volume?
– Identify what you will take as dq. This depends on the symmetry of the problem and needs
experience.
– See what the symmetry of the charge distribution tells you about the total field upon summing
over all charges, e.g. cancellation of some component of the field, possibility of using
previous results…etc.

•Analyze:
– Express dq in terms of the charge densities
– What is the integration variable/ what are the limits of integration?
– Change of variables?
– Bring the integral into final. Check if integration amounts really to summing over all the
charge.
– Integrate.
 Calculation of the Electric
Field Problem-Solving
Strategy
• Finalize:
- Check units of the final answer.
- Check limits, if applicable.
 Example: The electric field of a
uniform ring of charge
A ring of radius 𝑎 carries a uniformly distributed positive
total charge Q. Calculate the electric field due to the ring at
a point P lying a distance x from its center along the central
axis perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
 Example: The electric field of a uniformly charged disc

The electric field of a uniformly charged disc A disc of radius R has a uniform surface charge
density σ. Calculate the electric field at a point P that lies along the central perpendicular axis
of the disc and a distance x from the center of the disc.
 Gauss’ Law
• Gauss’ Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating electric
fields

• Gauss’ Law is based on the inverse-square behavior of the electric force

between point charges

• It is convenient for calculating the electric field of highly symmetric charge

distributions

• Gauss’ Law is important in understanding and verifying the properties of

conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
 Electric Flux

• Electric flux through a surface is the

product of the magnitude of the electric field
and the surface area, A, perpendicular to
the field
F E = EA

• Units: N · m2 / C
 Electric Flux
• If the area A is NOT perpendicular to the
field, the electric flux is the product of the
magnitude of the electric field and area of
the surface projected in a plane
perpendicular to the field:
A^ = A cos q

• Then:
F E = EA^ = EA cos q
 Electric Flux

• The electric flux is proportional to the

number of electric field lines
penetrating some surface
 Electric Flux
• The flux is a maximum when the surface is perpendicular to the
field : θ = 0°

• The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field :θ = 90°

• If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA cos θ is valid for only a
small element of the area
 Check Point 1
Q: The electric flux is zero through surface
a. A b. B c. C
 Electric Flux, General
• In the more general case, look at a small
area element
! !
DFE = Ei DAi cos θi = Ei × DAi
• In general, this becomes
F E = lim
DAi ®0
åE
× DAii
! !
F E = ò E × dA
surface

• In general, the value of the flux will depend

both on the field pattern and on the surface
 Check Point 2
Q: The figure shows electric fields of various
intensities penetrating surfaces of various areas at
various angles. Which of the following is true
regarding the flux through the surfaces:
a. i: ϕ! > ϕ" ; ii: ϕ! < ϕ" ; iii: ϕ! = ϕ"
b. i: ϕ! < ϕ" ; ii: ϕ! < ϕ" ; iii: ϕ! < ϕ"
c. i: ϕ! = ϕ" ; ii: ϕ! = ϕ" ; iii: ϕ! = ϕ"
d. i: ϕ! = ϕ" ; ii: ϕ! < ϕ" ; iii: ϕ! = ϕ"
 Electric Flux, Closed Surface
• Assume a closed surface

• The vectors ΔAi point in different
directions
– At each point, they are perpendicular
to the surface
– By convention, they point outward.
• We can write:
𝑬. ∆𝐴⃗" = 𝐸∆𝐴" cos 𝜃" = 𝐸# ∆𝐴"
𝐸# is the component of 𝐸 normal
to the surface, i. e. parallel to ∆𝐴⃗" .
 Electric Flux, Closed Surface
! !
• The flux element DFE = Ei DAi cos θi = Ei × DAi
can be positive, negative or zero

• This depends on whether the field lines

are coming out of , going into or are
parallel to the surface element.

• Therefore, the sum : F E = lim

DAi ®0
åE
× DAii
! !
F E = ò E × dA
can be positive, negative surface

or zero
 Electric Flux, Closed Surface
• For a closed surface we write:

• For a closed surface:

- If number of field lines going out is larger than
those coming in, the flux is positive.

- If number of field lines going out is smaller than

those coming in, the flux is negative.

- If net number of field lines going out is equal

than those coming in (or if there are no lines
penetrating the surface) , the flux is zero.
Flux Through Closed Surface: Sum Up
• The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net
number of lines leaving the surface
– This net number of lines is the number of lines leaving the surface
minus the number entering the surface

• If En is the component of the field perpendicular to the surface,

then  
ΦE = 
∫ E ⋅ d A = ∫ En dA

– The integral is over a closed surface

 Example: Flux Through a Cube
Consider a uniform electric field 𝐄
oriented in the x direction in empty
space. A cube of length ! is placed in
the field, oriented as shown in the
figure. Find the net electric flux
through the surface of the cube.
 Example: Flux Through a Cube
! ! ! !
F E = ò E × dA + ò E × dA
1 2
! !
ò E × dA = ò E ( cos180° ) dA = -ò E dA = - EA = - E"
2

1 1 1
! !
ò E × dA = ò E ( cos 0° ) dA
2 1
= E ò dA = + EA = E " 2

F E = - E! + E! + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
2 2
 Gauss’s Law
• Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship
between the net electric flux through a closed surface and
the charge enclosed by the surface.
– The closed surface is often called a Gaussian surface

• Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of

electric fields
 Gauss’s Law
Net flux through any closed
surface surrounding net
charge q is given by q/e0 and
is independent of the shape
of that surface.

! ! qin
ò E × dA =
FE = —
e0
 Example: Gaussian Surface
• Closed surfaces of various shapes can
surround the same charge
– Only S1 is spherical

• The net flux through all surfaces is the same.

• Verifies the net flux through any closed

surface surrounding a point charge q is given
by q/eo and is independent of the shape of the
surface
 Gauss’s Law – Demonstration For A Point
Charge
• A positive point charge, q, is located at the
center of a sphere of radius r

• The magnitude of the electric field

everywhere on the surface of the sphere is

E = keq / r2
 Gauss’s Law – Demonstration For A Point
Charge
• The field lines are directed radially outward and are perpendicular
to the surface at every point
! !
FE = —ò E × dA = E —
ò dA
• This will be the net flux through the Gaussian surface, the sphere
of radius r
• We know E = keq/r2 and Asphere = 4πr2,
q
F E = 4πkeq =
εo
 Check Point 3
Suppose a point charge is located at the center of a
spherical surface. The electric field at the surface of the
sphere and the total flux through the sphere are determined.
Now the radius of the sphere is halved. What happens to
the flux through the sphere and the magnitude of the
electric field at the surface of the sphere?
(a) The flux and field both increase.
(b) The flux and field both decrease.
(c) The flux increases, and the field decreases.
(d) The flux decreases, and the field increases.
(e) The flux remains the same, and the field increases.
(f) The flux decreases, and the field remains the same.
 Gauss’s Law – General, notes
• The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge, q, is
given by q/εo and is independent of the shape of that surface

• The net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no net charge is
zero

• The electric field at the Gaussian surface that is used to calculate the flux is
the vector sum of ALL the electric fields produced by ALL sources, whether
inside or outside the surface:
! ! ! ! !
ò E × dA = —
— ( )
ò E1 + E2 " × dA
 Example: Gaussian Surface
• The charge is outside the closed surface with
an arbitrary shape

• Any field line entering the surface leaves at

another point

• Verifies the electric flux through a closed

surface that surrounds no charge is zero

• The Field at the surface is, however, NOT zero.

 Check Point 4
If the net flux through a gaussian surface is zero, the following
four statements could be true. Which of the statements must be
true?
(a) There are no charges inside the surface.
(b) The net charge inside the surface is zero.
(c) The electric field is zero everywhere on the surface.
(d) The number of electric field lines entering the surface equals
the number leaving the surface.
 Example: Which charge contribute to the
flux
Consider the system of charges shown in the figure,
Write an expression for the flux through each of the
surfaces 𝑆, 𝑆′ and 𝑆′′.
$"
• For surface S: ϕ = , 𝑞& < 0 → ϕ < 0
%#
$$ '$%
• For surface S’: ϕ′ = %#
, can be >0 or <0
• For surface S’’: ϕ′′ = 0 since q=0
• 𝑞( Does not contribute to the flux through
any surface.
• All q’s contribute to the electric field at ALL
surfaces
Applying Gauss’s Law to Find The Electric Field

• To use Gauss’s law to find 𝐸 at point in space, the idea is to take

advantage of the symmetry to choose a Gaussian surface that:
• passes through that point

• 𝐄 is constant over the surface or portion of the surface.

• 𝐄 and d𝐀 parallel: dot product = E dA

(OR antiparallel : dot product = - E dA OR perpendicular: dot product = 0 OR 𝐄 = 0
over portion of surface)
Applying Gauss’s Law to Find The Electric Field

Consequently 𝐸 can be taken outside the integral so that the

integral:

• Thus,
𝑞#$
𝐸=
ε%
• Remember, the Gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it
does not have to coincide with a real surface
Applying Gauss’s Law to Find The Electric Field

• If the charge distribution does not have sufficient symmetry such

that a Gaussian surface that satisfies these conditions can be
found, Gauss’ law is not useful for determining the electric field for
that charge distribution
 Example
A Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution
An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform volume
charge density r and carries a total positive charge Q.
(A) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point
outside the sphere.

! ! Q
ò E × dA = —
FE = — ò E dA = e0
Q
ò dA = E ( 4p r ) = e
ò E dA = E —
—
2

Q Q
E= = ke 2 ( for r > a )
4p r e 0
2
r
 Example
A Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution
(B) Find the magnitude of the electric field at a point inside the
sphere.
æ4 3ö
qin = rV ¢ = r ç p r ÷
è3 ø
qin
ò dA = E ( 4p r ) = e
ò E dA = E —
—
2

q r( pr ) r
4
3
3

E= in
= = r
4p r e 0
2
4pe 0 r 2 3e 0
Q / 34 p a 3 Q
E= r = ke 3 r ( for r < a )
3 (1/4p ke ) a
 Example
A Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution
Suppose the radial position r = a is approached from
inside the sphere and from outside. Do we obtain the
same value of the electric field from both directions?

æ Qö Q
E = lim ç ke 2 ÷ = ke 2
r ®a
è r ø a

æ Q ö Q Q
E = lim ç ke 3 r ÷ = ke 3 a = ke 2
r ®a
è a ø a a
 Example
A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution
Find the electric field a distance r from a line of
positive charge of infinite length and constant
charge per unit length l.
 Example
An Infinite Non-conducting Plane of Charge
Find the electric field due to an infinite plane of positive
charge with uniform surface charge density s.
 Example
Two Infinite Non-conducting Planes of Charge
Suppose two infinite planes of
charge are parallel to each other, one
positively charged and the other
negatively charged. The surface
charge densities of both planes are
of the same magnitude. What does
the electric field look like in this
situation?
 Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
• When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the
conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium

• As a Consequence of electrostatic equilibrium:

1.The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor

-whether the conductor is solid or hollow.

2. If the conductor carries a charge, the field just outside the surface
of the conductor is normal to its surface.
 Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
• Using Gauss’s Law for a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium we can show that:

3. If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge

resides on its surface
-whether the conductor is solid or hollow.

4. The electric field just outside the conductor which is normal to

its surface is (σ is the surface charge density at that point):
σ
𝐸=
ε)
 Properties of a Conductor in Electrostatic
Equilibrium

5. On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density

is greatest at locations where the radius of curvature is the
smallest. Therefore, the field is strongest near these locations.
( will be proven later using the concept of electric potential)
 Property 1: Electric Field inside = 0
• Consider a conducting slab in an external field

• If the field inside the conductor were not zero, free

electrons in the conductor would experience an
electrical force

• These electrons would accelerate

• These electrons would not be in static equilibrium

• Therefore, there cannot be a field inside the

conductor
 Property 1: Electric Field inside = 0
• Before the external field is applied, free electrons are distributed
throughout the conductor

• When the external field is applied, the electrons redistribute until

the magnitude of the internal field equals the magnitude of the
external field

• There is a net field of zero inside the conductor

• This redistribution takes about 10-16 s and can be considered

instantaneous

• If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside the conductor

is also zero ( to be discussed with Electric Potential)
Property 3: Charge Resides on the Surface
• Choose a Gaussian surface inside but close to the actual
surface

• The electric field inside is zero (property 1)

• There is no net flux through the Gaussian surface

• Because the Gaussian surface can be as close to the actual

surface as desired, there can be no charge inside the surface
Property 3: Charge Resides on the Surface

• Since no net charge can be inside the surface, any net

charge must reside on the surface

• Gauss’s law does not indicate the distribution of these

charges, only that it must be on the surface of the
conductor
 Properties 2 + 4 : Field's Magnitude and
Direction
• The field must be perpendicular to
the surface
– If there
! were a parallel component
of E , charges would experience a
force and accelerate along the
surface and it would not be in
static equilibrium
 Properties 2 + 4 : Field's Magnitude and
Direction
• The net flux through the Gaussian
surface is through only the flat face
outside the conductor because
the field here is perpendicular to the
surface.

• Applying Gauss’s law

σA σ
F E = EA = and E =
εo εo
 Property 5: Field is strongest near sharp
edges
• The charge density is larger when
the radius of curvature is smaller
( to be proven later). So, with
!
𝐸= the field is larger there.
"!
 Example: Conductor with Cavity
A conductor carrying a charge +Q has a
cavity inside it.
What is the charge on the inner surface
of the cavity?
 Example: Conductor with Cavity
– The electric field at the Gaussian surface
is zero.
– Therefore, the flux ϕ through the surface
is zero.
! "
—ò E × dA = —
ò 0 × dA = 0
– Thus, the charge enclosed by the surface
is zero. Þ qenclosed = 0
– No charge on the surface of the cavity.