Edexcel International A Level Your notes
(IAL) Chemistry
Formulae & Equations
Contents
Formulae & Mass
Avogadro & the Mole
Full & Ionic Equations
Calculating Formulae
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Formulae & Mass
Your notes
Formulae - Definitions
Basic terms
There are basic terms that you are expected to know from your previous studies
Atom
A single particle
The smallest part of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction
Element
An atom or group of atoms of only one type, which can be chemically joined or
not
A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
Ion
An atom that has become electrically charged
An atom (or group of atoms) that has gained or lost electrons to become a
charged species
Molecule
Two or more atoms chemically joined together
Compound
A substance with two or more elements chemically joined together
Empirical formula
The smallest whole-number ratio of atoms (of each element) in a
compound/molecule
Molecular formula
The actual number of atoms (of each element) in a compound/molecule
Mass - Definitions
The relative mass of an atom uses the carbon-12 isotope as the international standard
One atom of carbon-12 has an accepted mass of 1.992646538 x 10-26 kg
It is not realistic to work with this value so the mass of a carbon-12 atom is fixed as exactly
12 atomic mass units / 12υ
The standard mass for atomic mass is 1υ
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Therefore, the standard mass for comparison is the mass of 1 12 of a carbon-12
atom Your notes
Relative isotopic mass
Relative isotopic mass is defined as the mass of an isotope relative to 1 12 of a
carbon-12 atom
For A Level Chemistry it is common to work with mass values rounded to one decimal
place, for example:
The accurate relative isotopic mass of nitrogen is 14.00307401 but this is rounded to
14.0
The accurate relative isotopic mass of oxygen is 15.99491464 but this is rounded to 16.0
Relative atomic mass
Most elements on the Periodic Table represent a mixture of different isotopes, which is
shown as their relative atomic mass (Ar)
The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean / average mass of an atom relative to
1 12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom
We have seen previously that the symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a
particular element
The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the
substance
The term relative formula mass should be used for compounds with giant structures
e.g. ionic compounds such as sodium chloride
If the substance is molecular you can use the term relative molecular mass
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all
the atoms present in the formula
Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table
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Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
It is expected that you will use relative atomic mass values from the Periodic Table
This means that your values will be more accurate
e.g. potassium carbonate = (2 x 39.1) + 12.0 + (3 x 16.0) = 138.2
If you are in any doubt whether to use relative molecular mass or relative formula
mass, use the latter because it applies to all compounds whether they are ionic or
covalent.
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Avogadro & the Mole
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The Mole & Avogadro Calculations
The Avogadro constant (NA or L) is the number of particles equivalent to the relative
atomic mass or molecular mass of a substance
The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions and electrons
The value of NA is 6.02 x 1023 g mol-1
The mass of a substance with this number of particles is called a mole (mol)
This can be called the molar mass
This is the mass of substance that contains the same number of fundamental units
as exactly 12.00g of carbon-12
The amount / number of moles of a substance, n, the mass of the substance, m, and the
molar mass, M, are linked by the equation:
mass , m
n=
Molar mass , M
One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams
If you had one mole of carbon in your hand, that is 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon, you
would have a mass of 12.00 g
One mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1 + 16) = 18 g
Worked Example
1. What is the molar mass of water?
2. How many moles are there in 100 g of water?
3. How many water molecules are there in 100g of water?
Answers
1. Molar mass of water, H2O = (2 x 1.0) + 16.0 = 18.0 g mol-1
mass 100
2. Moles = molar mass = 18. 0
= 5.56 moles (to 3 s.f.)
3. Number of molecules = number of moles x Avogadro's constant = 5.56 x (6.02 x
1023) = 3.35 x 1024 molecules
Worked Example
What is the mass of the following:
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1. Five hundred million atoms of platinum
2. (1.31 x 1022) molecules of ethanol
Answer 1: Your notes
number of particles 500 × 106
Number of moles = '
Avogadro s constant, NA
= 6 . 02 × 1023
= 8.31 x
10-16 moles
Mass = moles x molar mass = (8.31 x 10-16) x 195.1 = 1.62 x 10-13 g (lots of atoms, a tiny
mass)
Answer 2:
Molar mass of ethanol, C2H5OH = (2 x 12.0) + (5 x 1.0) + 16.0 + 1.0 = 46.0 g mol-1
number of particles 1 . 31 × 1022
Number of moles = '
Avogadro s constant, NA
= 6 . 02 × 1023
=
0.0218 moles
Mass = moles x molar mass = 0.0218 x 46.0 = 1.00 g (an exceptionally large number of
molecules in just 1 g)
Examiner Tips and Tricks
When you are completing calculations using Avogadro's constant, you may end
up with answers that seem very large or very small - don't automatically assume
that they must be wrong
Remember, Avogadro's constant is a VERY large number:
6.02 x 1023 or 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
So when you multiply or divide by Avogadro's constant, your answers will,
naturally, become very large or very small
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Full & Ionic Equations
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Writing & Balancing Equations
A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using chemical
symbols to show the number and type of each atom in the reactants and products
A word equation is a longer way of describing a chemical reaction using only words to
show the reactants and products
Balancing equations
During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed
The number of each atom on each side of the reaction must therefore be the same
E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced
When balancing equations remember:
Not to change any of the formulae
To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in
combustion reactions of organic compounds
When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
Write the formulae of the reactants and products
Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified by using
state symbols
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous
Formulae for Ionic Compounds
The formulae of simple ionic compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on
the ions
Below are some common ions and their charges:
Common Ions & Their Charges Table
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Your notes
For ionic compounds you have to balance the charge of each part by multiplying each
ion until the sum of the charges = 0
Example: what is the formula of aluminium sulfate?
Write out the formulae of each ion, including their charges
Al3+ SO42-
Balance the charges by multiplying them out:
Al3+ x 2 = +6 and SO42- x 3 = -6; so +6 – 6 = 0
So the formula is Al2(SO4)3
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Another method that also works is to 'swap the numbers'.
In the example above the numbers in front of the charges of the ions (3 and 2) are
swapped over and become the multipliers in the formula (2 and 3).
Easy when you know how!
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Worked Example
Your notes
Balance the following equation:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Answer:
Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Mg + O2 → MgO
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2
moles of magnesium oxide
Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)
Ionic equations
In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however only
some of the ions in solution take part in the reactions
The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, and not
the spectator ions
Worked Example
1. Balance the following equation
zinc + copper(II) sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper
2. Write down the ionic equation for the above reaction
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Answer 1:
Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing reactants and Your notes
products
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The equation is
already balanced
Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Answer 2:
Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic equation
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Experimental Observations & Equations
Chemical equations give information about the reaction that is taking place
Balanced equations show the number of particles participating in the reaction and
the number of products being formed
Balanced equations can be used to calculate the number of moles involved in
reactions
Balanced equations can, also, be used to calculate masses and volumes involved in
reactions
Ionic equations only show the reacting particles
Ionic equations allow you to identify spectator ion
Types of reaction
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Chemical equations can be used to determine the type of reaction taking place
Displacement reactions Your notes
Br2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq)
In this reaction, the more reactive bromine displaces the less reactive iodide in
potassium iodide
This can also be seen in the ionic equation for the reaction
Br2 (aq) + 2I- (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq)
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The use of chemical equations can help identify risks and hazards in the reaction and
suggest appropriate precautions where necessary
For example, the use of aqueous bromine in the above example should suggest the
potential use of a fume cupboard and nitrile gloves because:
Bromine liquid is toxic, corrosive and harmful to the environment
Bromine water with a concentration of 0.2 mol dm3 is corrosive
With a concentration of between 0.06 mol dm3 and 0.2 mol dm3, bromine water
is an irritant
Only below concentrations of 0.06 mol dm3 is bromine water considered a low
hazard
Neutralisation reactions
These can be identified by the presence of reactant acids and bases as well as the
formation of a neutral solution salt and water (and sometimes other compounds such as
carbon dioxide)
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
The ionic equations can more clearly demonstrate the neutralisation of an acid and a
base:
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Examiner Tips and Tricks
For neutralisation reactions, the main hazards are linked to:
The concentration of the acid
The type of acid
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This could mean strong, e.g. HCl, or weak, e.g. CH3COOH
This could also mean monoprotic, e.g. HNO3, diprotic, e.g. H2SO4, or
triprotic, e.g. H3PO4 Your notes
The concentration of the base
The strength of the base
The physical state of the base, e.g. NaOH (s) is arguably considered more
corrosive than a high concentration solution of NaOH (aq)
Precipitation reactions
These are shown by the reaction of two aqueous solutions to form products which
include one solid
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
The ionic equation shows the precipitation reactions more clearly as there are no other
products considered
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)
Examiner Tips and Tricks
A precipitation reaction is a clear example of where consideration for further practical
procedures is most obvious
The formation of a solid product should tell you that any purification of the product
should include filtering or decanting as a minimum
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Calculating Formulae
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Empirical & Molecular
Empirical formula
Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in one
molecule or formula unit of the compound
It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound
The empirical formula can be found by determining the mass of each element present in
a sample of the compound
It can also be deduced from data that gives the percentage compositions by mass of
the elements in a compound
Worked Example
Empirical formula from mass Determine the empirical formula of a compound that
contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen.
Answer:
The above example shows how to calculate empirical formula from the mass of each
element present in the compound
The example below shows how to calculate the empirical formula from percentage
composition
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Worked Example
Empirical formula from % Determine the empirical formula of a compound that Your notes
contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen.
Answer:
Molecular formula
The molecular formula gives the exact numbers of atoms of each element present in the
formula of the compound
The molecular formula can be found by dividing the relative formula mass of the
molecular formula by the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by this number to
find the molecular formula
Worked Example
Calculating molecular formula
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S and the relative molecular mass of X is 180.2
What is the molecular formula of X?
(Ar data: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, S = 32.1 )
Answer
Step 1: Calculate relative mass of the empirical formula
Relative empirical mass = (C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1)
Relative empirical mass = (12.0 x 4) + (1.0 x 10) + (32.1 x 1)
Relative empirical mass = 90.1
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Step 2: Divide relative formula mass of X by relative empirical mass
Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 180.2 / 90.1 Your notes
Ratio between Mr of X and the Mr of the empirical formula = 2
Step 3: Multiply each number of elements by 2
(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
Molecular Formula of X is C8H20S2
Percentage Composition by Mass
The percentage by mass of an element in a compound can be calculated using the
following equation:
Ar × number of atoms of the element
% mass of an element = Mr of the compound
× 100
Worked Example
Calculate the percentage by mass of calcium in calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Answer:
Water of Crystallisation
Water of crystallisation is when some compounds can form crystals which
have water as part of their structure
A compound that contains water of crystallisation is called a hydrated compound
The water of crystallisation is separated from the main formula by a dot when writing the
chemical formula of hydrated compounds
E.g. hydrated copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4∙5H2O
A compound which doesn’t contain water of crystallisation is called an anhydrous
compound
E.g. anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is CuSO4
A compound can be hydrated to different degrees
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E.g. cobalt(II) chloride can be hydrated by six or two water molecules
CoCl2 ∙6H2O or CoCl2 ∙2H2O Your notes
The conversion of anhydrous compounds to hydrated compounds is reversible by
heating the hydrated salt:
Hydrated: CuSO4•5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O :Anhydrous
The degree of hydration can be calculated from experimental results:
The mass of the hydrated salt must be measured before heating
The salt is then heated until it reaches a constant mass
The two mass values can be used to calculate the number of moles of water in the
hydrated salt - known as the water of crystallisation
Worked Example
Calculating water of crystallisation 10.0 g of hydrated copper sulfate are heated to a
constant mass of 5.59 g. Calculate the formula of the original hydrated copper
sulfate. (Mr data: CuSO4 = 159.6, H2O = 18.0)
Answer:
List the components CuSO4 H 2O
Note the mass of each component 5.59 g 10 - 5.59 = 4.41
g
Divide the component mass by the 5 59 .
=
.
4 41
= 0.245
components Mr 159 6 . 18 0 .
0.035
Divide by the lowest figure to obtain the ratio .
0 035
=1
.
0 245
=7
.
0 035 .
0 035
Hydrated salt formula CuSO4•7H2O
Ideal Gas Equation
The ideal gas equation is:
PV = nRT
P = pressure in pascals (Pa)
V = volume in cubic metres (m3)
n = the amount of substance in moles (mol)
R = the gas constant, which is given in the Data Booklet as 8.31 J mol-1 K-1
T = temperature in Kelvin (K)
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Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
There are several calculations in Chemistry where you need to convert the units to or
from SI units
The ideal gas equation has three:
1. Pressure is often quoted in kPa but the calculation needs pressure in Pa
kPa to Pa = multiply by 1000 or 103
2. Volume is usually quoted in cm3 or dm3 but the calculation needs volume in m3
cm3 to m3 = divide by 1000000 or multiply by 10-6
dm3 to m3 = divide by 1000 or multiply by 10-3
3. Temperature can be quoted in Kelvin or Celsius
Celsius to Kelvin = + 273
This is why you should always show your working! Examiners can't take all of your
marks for one error, if you show your working then they should check through for
errors and award marks accordingly
The ideal gas equation can be used to find the amount of moles in a gaseous substance
It can also be used for volatile liquids at temperatures above their boiling point
If the mass of the substance is known, then the molar mass can be calculated
This can then be used with empirical formula data to determine the molecular
formula of a compound
Worked Example
An unknown compound was analysed and found to contain 66.7% of carbon, 11.1%
hydrogen and the remainder was oxygen
0.135 g of the unknown compound had a volume of 56.0 cm3 at a temperature of 90
oC and a pressure of 101 kPa
Determine the molecular formula of the unknown compound
Answer
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
66 . 7 Hydrogen: 100 − 66. 7 − 11 . 1
Carbon:
12 . 0
= 11 . 1 Oxygen:
(
=
)
= 11.1 16 . 0
5.558 moles 1 . 00 1.3875 moles
moles
Step 2: Divide by the smallest answer to get the ratio
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5 . 558 11 . 1 1 . 3875
Carbon:
1 . 3875
=4 Hydrogen:
1 . 3875
=8 Oxygen:
1 . 3875
=1 Your notes
Step 3: State the empirical formula
The empirical formula is C4H8O
Step 4: Calculate the amount in moles, using PV = nRT
PV 101 × 103 × 56. 0 × 10−6
n= = = = 1.875 x 10-3 moles
( ) ( )
RT 8 . 31 × 90 + 273
( )
Step 5: Calculate the molar mass
0 . 135
Molar mass = 1 . 875 × 10−3 = 72
Step 6: Deduce the molecular formula
The empirical formula, C4H8O, has a mass of (4 x 12.0) + (8 x 1.0) + 16.0 = 72.0
Therefore, the molecular formula is also C4H8O
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