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Nuclear technology
s.no
Topics
1
Basic terminologies regarding nuclear technology
2
Nuclear fission reactor, functioning and advantages
3
Three stage nuclear power programme of India
4
Concerns regarding nuclear fission reaction based
power production
5
Nuclear fusion reaction and projects throughout the
world
6
Application of nuclear technology in various sectors
IMPORTANT TERMINOOLOGY REGARDING NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
ATOMIC NUMBER
The atomic number is the number of protons in nuclei of an
atom. The number of proton defines the identity of an
element. The atomic number is represented by symbol Z
MASS NUMBER
The mass number also called as atomic mass number is the
sum of the number of neutrons and protons present in the
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nuclei of atom. The mass number is represented by the
symbol A.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same
atomic number and position in the periodic table, and that
differ in nucleon numbers due to different numbers of
neutrons in their nuclei.
U235, U238, U239 are isotopes of Uranium. Similarly C13, C14
are isotopes of carbon.
ISOBARS
Isobars are atoms of different chemical elements that have
the same number of nucleons. Isobars differ in atomic
number.
Argon, potassium, and calcium having atoms of the same
mass number 40. (Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40 )
ISOTONES
Isotones are atomic species that share the same number of
neutrons and differ in the number of protons. Examples of
isotones include carbon-12, nitrogen-13 and oxygen-14
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What is meant by nuclear fission reaction?
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which atom splits into two or
more smaller nuclei and the fission process often produces
gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.
Uranium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission
reactions in nuclear power reactors because they are easy to
initiate and control.
The energy released by fission in these reactors heats water
into steam. The steam is used to spin a turbine to produce
carbon-free electricity.
Fuels of nuclear fission reactors
1. Fissile isotopes
2. Fertile isotopes
FISSILE ISOTOPES
Fissile isotopes are material capable of sustaining a
nuclear fission chain reaction. fissile material can sustain a
chain reaction with neutrons of thermal energy.
Examples of fissile isotopes- uranium235, plutonium239,
uranium233
FERTILE ISOTOPES
Fertile is a term used to describe an isotope that is not itself
fissile (it cannot simply undergo fission by thermal neutrons),
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but can be converted into a fissile material through
irradiation in a nuclear reactor.
Examples of fertile isotopes- thorium232, uranium238
Examples of nuclear fission reaction
Nuclear fusion reaction
Fusion occurs when two atoms slam together to form a
heavier atom, like when two hydrogen atoms fuse to form
one helium atom.
This is the same process that powers the sun and creates
huge amounts of energy—several times greater than fission.
It also doesn’t produce highly radioactive fission products.
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ABOUT RADIOACTIVITY
What is meant by radioactivity?
Radioactivity is the term used to describe the natural process
by which some atoms spontaneously disintegrate, emitting
both particles and energy as they transform into different,
more stable atoms. This process, also called radioactive
decay, occurs because unstable isotopes tend to transform
into a more stable state.
Different types of radioactive decay
1. Alpha decay
2. Beta decay
3. Gamma decay
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Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma decay
Type of radioactive decay in In beta decay a nucleus Gamma decay, type of
which nuclei of helium atom is spontaneously emits high- radioactivity in which some
emitted. energy, high-speed electron or unstable atomic nuclei dissipate
In alpha decay the mass number positron emitted by the excess energy by a spontaneous
of daughter nuclei is four less radioactive decay of an atomic electromagnetic process. In the
than decaying nuclei and atomic nucleus during the process of most common form of gamma
number is two less than beta decay. decay
decaying nuclei
Alpha particles are relatively Beta particles are relatively Gamma, γ-rays have very large
heavy and slow, and therefore highly ionizing compared to penetrating power. They can pass
have low penetrating power gamma rays but below alpha through several centimeters of
and can be blocked with a sheet particles iron and lead.
of paper. They can penetrate thin
Most ionizing among the three aluminum sheets
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Uranium enrichment
The process of increasing the percentage of
Uranium-235 from 0.7 percent in natural uranium to
about 3 to 5 percent for use in fuel for nuclear
reactors.
Natural uranium consists of two different isotopes -
nearly 99% U-238 and only around 0.7% of U-
235.Enrichment process increases the proportion of
U-235.
Low-enriched uranium, which typically has a 3-5%
concentration of U-235, can be used to produce fuel
for commercial nuclear power plants.
Highly enriched uranium has a purity of 20% or more
and is used in research reactors.
For nuclear weapons, enrichment is required up
to 90% or more which is known as weapons-grade
uranium.
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Important types of nuclear reactors
1. PHWR(Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor)
2. PWR(Pressurized Water Reactor)
3. BWR(Boiling Water Reactor)
4. FBR(Fast Breeder Reactors)
• The light water reactors are of two types viz. Boiling
Water Reactors (BWR) and Pressurized Water Reactors
(PWR).
• In a BWR, the reactor core heats water which turns to
steam and then drives a steam turbine. The reactors at
Fukushima Daiichi were among the first reactors of such
kind.
• In a PWR, the reactor core heats water, which does not
boil, thus no steam is produced in PWR because of high
pressure.
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• In a BWR, the reactor core heats water which turns to
steam and then drives a steam turbine. The reactors at
Fukushima Daiichi were among the first reactors of such
kind.
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Pressurized heavy water reactor
The heavy water reactors use Deuterium oxide (D2O) as
its coolant as well as moderator. These reactors use “un-
enriched” natural Uranium for production of energy.
Why water act as an excellent moderator?
The Hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are very close in mass to
a single neutron. When a neutron and a hydrogen atom collide, there
is an efficient momentum transfer.
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Fast reactors
• All the other reactors are thermal reactors which use
moderators to control the speed of neutrons.
• However, in a fast reactor, this process is avoided. The fast
reactors use fast neutrons. This means they don’t use neutron
moderator.
Fast breeder Reactor
• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating
more fissile material than it consumes because its neutron
economy is high enough to breed fissile fuel from fertile
material like uranium-238 or thorium-232.
• Breeders were at first considered attractive because of their
superior fuel economy compared to light water reactors.
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Three stage nuclear power program of India
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• India’s three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated
by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the country’s long term
energy independence, through the use
of uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite
sands of coastal regions of South India.
• The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the
thorium reserves of India to be utilized in meeting the country’s
energy requirements.
• In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium fuelled
pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce electricity
while generating plutonium-239 as by-product.
• [U-238 → Plutonium-239 + Heat]
• Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D 2O) is used as moderator and
coolant in PHWR.
• In 2nd stage use plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing
spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium.
• In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy,
while the uranium-238 present in the fuel transmutes to
additional plutonium-239.
• Stage II FBRs are designed to “breed” more fuel than they
consume.
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• Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be
introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted
to uranium-233 for use in the third stage.
• A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system
involves a self-sustaining series of thorium-232-uranium-
233 fuelled reactors.
• This would be a thermal breeder reactor, which in principle can
be refueled – after its initial fuel charge – using only naturally
occurring thorium.
Project Bhavini
Bhavini refers to BHARATIYA NABHIKIYA VIDYUT NIGAM LIMITED.
Objective:
The objectives of BHAVINI is to plan, execute and operate an
integrated programme of Fast Breeder Technology based
Nuclear Power Stations for generating electricity on commercial
basis, commencing with Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR).
Project BHAVINI was incorporated at Chennai on 22.10.2003.
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Isotopes Applications
Calcium-47 Biomedical researchers studying cellular
function and bone formation in
mammals will benefit greatly from this
discovery.
Carbon-14 Important research tool. Biological
research, agriculture, pollution control,
and archaeology all use it
Caesium- 147 Used to treat cancerous tumours, to
measure correct patient doses of
radioactive pharmaceuticals, to
measure and control liquid flow in oil
pipelines, to tell researchers whether oil
wells are plugged by sand, and to
ensure the proper fill level for packages
of food, drugs, and other products.
Cobalt-60 Sterilizes surgical instruments as well as
improves the safety and reliability of
industrial fuel oil burners. Cancer
treatment, food irradiation, gauges,
and radiography all use it.
Gallium-67 Used in medical diagnosis
Iodine 123 It is commonly used to diagnose
Thyroid disorders and other metabolic
disorders, including brain function.
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Phosphorous 32 This term is used in molecular biology
and genetics research.
Xenon 133 Nuclear medicine, it is used in studying
lung ventilation and blood flow
Uranium-234 Used to provide natural colour and in
dental fixtures such as crown and
dentures
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Nuclear fusion reactor
ITER- international thermonuclear experimental reactor
About ITER
ITER ("The Way" in Latin) is one of the most ambitious energy
projects in the world today.
In southern France, 35 nations are collaborating to build the world's
largest tokamak, a magnetic fusion device that has been designed to
prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source
of energy based on the same principle that powers our Sun and stars.
ITER will be the first fusion device to produce net energy.
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ITER will be the first fusion device to maintain fusion for long
periods of time. And ITER will be the first fusion device to test
the integrated technologies, materials, and physics regimes
necessary for the commercial production of fusion-based
electricity.
ITER was set in motion at the Geneva Superpower Summit in
November 1985, when the idea of a collaborative international
project to develop fusion.
In ITER, fusion will be achieved in a tokamak device that uses
magnetic fields to contain and control the hot plasma.
The plasma particles are heated—that is, sped up—by different
types of auxiliary heating methods.
The fusion between deuterium and tritium (DT) nuclei produces
one helium nucleus, one neutron, and great amounts of
energy.
What is a tokamak?
The tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness the
energy of fusion. Inside a tokamak, the energy produced through the
fusion of atoms is absorbed as heat in the walls of the vessel. Just
like a conventional power plant, a fusion power plant will use this
heat to produce steam and then electricity by way of turbines and
generators.
The heart of a tokamak is its doughnut-shaped vacuum chamber.
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Inside, under the influence of extreme heat and pressure, gaseous
hydrogen fuel becomes a plasma—a hot, electrically charged gas. In
a star as in a fusion device, plasmas provide the environment in which
light elements can fuse and yield energy.
The amount of fusion energy a tokamak is capable of producing is a
direct result of the number of fusion reactions taking place in its
core.
In ITER, this heat will be captured by cooling water circulating in the
vessel walls and eventually dispersed through cooling towers.
In the type of fusion power plant envisaged for the second half of
this century, the heat will be used to produce steam and—by way of
turbines and alternators—electricity.
What will ITER do?
Produce 500 MW of fusion power
Demonstrate the integrated operation of technologies for a
fusion power plant
Achieve a deuterium-tritium plasma in which the reaction is
sustained through internal heating
Test tritium breeding
Demonstrate the safety characteristics of a fusion device
ITER-INDIA
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• ITER-India is the Indian domestic agency, a specially
empowered project of the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR),
an aided organization under Dept. of Atomic Energy, Govt. of
India. ITER-India is responsible for delivery of the following ITER
packages:
• Cryostat, In-wall Shielding, Cooling Water System, Cryogenic
System, Ion-Cyclotron RF Heating System, Electron Cyclotron RF
Heating System, Diagnostic Neutral Beam System, Power
Supplies and some Diagnostics.
• India’s ITER Head Quarter is Gandhi Nagar Gujarat.
Application of nuclear technology in various fields
1. AGRICULTURE
i. Nuclear applications in agriculture rely on the use of isotopes
and radiation techniques to combat pests and diseases,
increase crop production, protect land and water resources,
ensure food safety and authenticity, and increase livestock
production.
ii. Nuclear technology can be effectively used in livestock
reproduction, breeding, artificial insemination and disease
control programmes.
iii. Nuclear and related technologies have made a difference in
improving livestock productivity, controlling and preventing
transboundary animal diseases and protecting the environment.
iv. Nuclear techniques are now used in many countries to help
maintain healthy soil and water systems.
v. The nuclear-derived sterile insect technique (SIT) involves mass-
rearing and sterilizing male insects before releasing them over
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pest-infested areas. The technique suppresses and gradually
eliminates already established pests or prevents the
introduction of invasive species – and is safer for the
environment and human health than conventional pesticides.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
i. Nuclear technology in recent days plays pivotal role in various
pollution control programme. Ionizing radiation provides fast
and effective sewage and sludge water treatment.
ii. Gamma radiation and electron beam useful in disinfection of
harmful pathogen and disintegration of toxic organic pollutant.
iii. Heavy metals are those minerals whose relative density is more
than 5gm/cm3. Along with nutrients and organic matter the
sewage sludge also contains heavy metal contaminants. The
heavy metals results in contamination of soil as well as enters
the food chain.
iv. The technique of irradiation helps in reducing the level of heavy
metals in sewage water.
v. Radioactive isotopes, stable isotopes and neutron moisture
meters can be used in environmental studies.
3. MEDICINE
i. 99mTc-Technetium based radiopharmaceuticals: For diagnosing
diseases related to all the important organs of the body
comprising cerebral, myocardial, renal, liver, lung, etc. and for
cancer detection.
ii. 18F- fluorine based diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals: PET based
products for diagnosis of cancer, cardiac and neuro diseases.
iii. 220 Nuclear medicine centres are currently operational in India
which employ above radioactive products for medical
applications.
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