Received: 12 November 2018 Revised: 9 January 2019 Accepted: 9 January 2019

DOI: 10.1002/er.4433

REVIEW PAPER

A review on battery management system from the modeling

efforts to its multiapplication and integration

Ming Shen2 | Qing Gao1,2

1
State Key Laboratory of Automotive
Summary
Simulation and Control, Jilin University,
Changchun 130025, China Progress in battery technology accelerates the transition of battery manage-
2
College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin ment system (BMS) from a mere monitoring unit to a multifunction integrated
University, Changchun 130025, China one. It is necessary to establish a battery model for the implementation of
Correspondence BMS's effective control. With more comprehensive and faster battery model,
Qing Gao, State Key Laboratory of it would be accurate and effective to reflect the behavior of the battery level
Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin
to the vehicle. On this basis, to ensure battery safety, power, and durability,
University, Changchun 130025, China.
Email: [email protected]. some key technologies based on the model are advanced, such as battery state
estimation, energy equalization, thermal management, and fault diagnosis.
Funding information
Double Ten Special Project, Grant/Award
Besides, the communication of interactions between BMS and vehicle control-
Number: 17SS022; High‐tech Industry lers, motor controllers, etc is an essential consideration for optimizing
Special Project, Grant/Award Number: driving and improving vehicle performance. As concluded, a synergistic and
2016C022; National Natural Science
Foundation of China (NSFC) Key Pro-
collaborative BMS is the foundation for green‐energy vehicles to be intelligent,
gram, Grant/Award Number: U1864213 electric, networked, and shared. Thus, this paper reviews the research and
development (R&D) of multiphysics model simulation and multifunction inte-
grated BMS technology. In addition, summary of the relevant research and
state‐of‐the‐art technology is dedicated to improving the synergy and coordina-
tion of BMS and to promote the innovation and optimization of new energy
vehicle technology.

KEYWORDS
battery management system, battery modeling, functional application, system integration

Nomenclature: AET, average execution time; AUKF, adaptive unscented Kalman filter; BMS, battery management system; BTMS, battery thermal
management system; CAN, controller area network; CC‐CV, constant current‐constant voltage; CFD, computational fluid dynamics; DCE,
dissipative cell equalization; DC/DC, direct current to direct current; DOD, depth of discharge; ECM, equivalent circuit model; FEA, finite element
analysis; EKF, extend Kalman filter; EMS, energy management strategy; EPS, electronic power steering; EV, electric vehicles; ERDE, remaining
discharge energy; FLC, fuzzy logic control; GPS, global positioning system; HEV, hybrid electric vehicles; HPPC, hybrid pulse power characteristic;
ITS, intelligent transport system; LiCoO2, lithium cobalt oxide; LIB, lithium‐ion battery; LiFePO4, lithium iron phosphate; LiMnO4, lithium
manganese oxide; MCU, motor control unit; NCA, nickel‐cobalt‐alumina; NCM, nickel‐cobalt‐manganese; P2D, pseudo two dimensional; PDU,
power distribution unit; PRA, power relay assembly; R&D, research and development; RMSE, root‐mean‐square error; OCV, open circuit voltage;
OEMs, original equipment manufacturers; PCM, phase change material; PDEs, partial differential equations; PF, particle filter; MAE, mean
absolute error; NAS, sodium‐sulfur; NEs, nonlinear equations; RC, resistance and capacitance; SBMs, smart battery modules; SEI, solid electrolyte
interphase; SOC, state of charge; SOE, state of energy; SOF, state of function; SOH, state of health; SOP, state of power; SP, single particle; UDF,
user‐defined function; UKF, unscented Kalman filter; VCU, vehicle control unit; ZEBRA, sodium/nickel chloride

Int J Energy Res. 2019;2–33. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 SHEN AND GAO

1 | INTRODUCTION battery performance by evaluating SOC (actual energy

content of the battery pack and charge unbalances),
Challenges of the oil crisis and environmental pollution SOH (internal resistance),11,12 or to facilitate performance
have increased the demand for electricity in consumers optimization by monitoring the voltage in the individual
and industry, which bring opportunities and challenges cells of a battery pack,13 as well to stabilize temperature
for energy storage. In electrochemical energy storage sys- across the module.14
tems, lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) are the most promising BMS is the multifunctional integrated organic brain
candidate for new energy vehicles due to the high energy behind the battery pack.15 As early as 1991, the battery
density, power density, and superior cycle performance management BADICHEQ system was the first to take
relative to other secondary batteries. The BMS, as a up the running tests. Based on this, BMS has evolved
connecting link between batteries and vehicles, plays a from a mere monitoring unit to an intelligent and inte-
significant role in the development of automobile. The grated unit that to decide that what battery pack should
in‐depth research of it is the need to develop new energy do at different operation modes. The “EVI” BMS devel-
vehicles and is also a requirement for energy‐saving and oped by General Motors used a microcomputer to man-
emission reduction measures. Therefore, it is urgent to age the battery pack and increased the functions of
exploit a maturer and more comprehensive BMS.1-3 high‐voltage power‐off protection, power mileage calcula-
The LIB pack of electric vehicles (EVs) has a large tion, ground insulation detection, and so on. Meanwhile,
capacity, various series‐parallel topologies, and limited the BatOpt battery management system is composed of a
working range. It needs to be effectively controlled and monitoring system for each battery and a central control
managed by BMS, which can not only ensure the reli- unit by American AC Propulsion to form a distributed
able operation of battery pack (safety) but can also fully system for optimization control.
utilize the existing energy (power) and prolong the ser- Many researchers have concentrated on identification
vice life, thereby reducing the overall cost of vehicles and improvement of battery performance parameter, safe
(durability).4 The BMS consists of various sensors, actu- and efficient operation, and rational power allocation.
ators, controllers, and so on. The key technologies are as Ungurean et al16 reviewed the relevant battery models
follows: the state estimation of cell and battery pack and special methods for SOH estimation. And Al‐Zareer
(state of charge [SOC], state of health [SOH], state of et al17 and Wang et al18 reflected the detailed descriptions
function [SOF], state of energy [SOE], etc), battery vari- of the battery thermal management techniques. Besides,
ation identification and equalization, thermal safety, and Geetha and Subramani19 also explored the topologies,
fault diagnosis. control, and optimization of energy storage device. Moti-
In order to develop an advanced BMS, a battery vated by the previous studies, this survey would make a
model should be firstly established by determining the review on the modeling, management, and application
main factors and changing the rules that affect the bat- of electric vehicle power battery from a progressive and
tery performance. And then the model‐based functional comprehensive perspective.
application and optimization algorithms can be applied In order to manage batteries and even vehicles better,
in BMS design, and the battery system can thus run at safer, and more efficiently, a BMS‐centric theoretical
its optimal status safely.5 As we can see, it is fundamental framework has been established for the modern and
and crucial to establish a model that can fully reflect the future power system. The first part of the paper briefly
battery characteristics. On the one hand, the battery describes the modeling techniques from features to limits.
internal microstructure and mechanism can be modeled In terms of physical field, different approaches, namely,
to optimize the battery design. On the other hand, the thermal model, electrical model, aging model, mechani-
battery external macroscopic characteristics are simu- cal model, and multicoupled model, are explained. Then
lated from a single cell to a module to assist the BMS the paper investigates the development of model applica-
design. However, most of the research is currently on tion in battery state estimation, energy equalization, ther-
the unilateral performance of LIB, such as temperature mal management, and fault diagnosis. The last part of
distribution,6 potential change,7 aging degree,8 and stress this study deepens the development of multifunction
cracking.9 Correspondingly, the implementation of BMS and multicontroller integration to optimize driving
model‐based management system is also decentralized. and vehicle performance. Under the diversified and com-
Some of them are to protect the battery and its circuitry plex operating modes, the key issues and challenges in
systems by restricting the occurrence of deterioration in the process of developing synergistic and collaborative
operations, such as fluctuations in charging schemes.10 BMS are prospected to promote the innovation of new
Some are to evaluate and notify abnormalities over the energy vehicle techniques.
SHEN AND GAO 3

2 | BATTERY MODELS time, the thermal conductivity of the material is con-

verted into a temperature output. A lumped parameter
A precise battery model contributes to the battery's model was built for predicting the thermal behavior of a
behavioral description and analysis, as well as the pre- single cell and a battery stack by Pals et al.22,23 They accu-
mise of battery state estimation and management. rately predicted the battery stack temperature profile
Lithium‐ion batteries are a complex polysystem with using heat generation rates calculated by the one‐cell
strong nonlinearity and time varying, and its parameters model under the isothermal discharges. The model is sim-
are susceptible to external environment, which increases ple, universe, and can be accurate to calculate the overall
the modeling difficulty. Based on the in‐depth analysis average temperature variation of batteries. However, this
of battery mechanism and the existing battery model, assumption does not apply to the condition with large
the following part describes the battery modeling method temperature changes and high heat generation rates,
from the perspective of multiphysics, heat, electricity, and it is not possible to describe the spatial distribution
aging, and machine field. of temperature inside the battery.
In order to explore the multidimensional temperature
distribution of batteries, Onda et al24 used the Sony
2.1 | Thermal modeling
LiCo2/C cylindrical LIB as the research object to establish
a one‐dimensional thermal model along the radial direc-
The temperature of a LIB is determined by the heat out-
tion. The thermal behavior of the battery is presented
put and cooling methods under different conditions.
by measuring overpotential resistance, heat capacity,
The thermal model combines the battery's phrases of heat
and heat transfer coefficient of the battery to the ambient
generation, heat transfer, and heat dissipation to analyze
environment. As for large‐scale batteries or high‐rate
the temperature distributions of battery cells, modules,
loading conditions, one dimension is insufficient. There-
and stacks in the time and space domains, to optimize
fore, the finite element method was applied to establish
the design and safety of the battery thermal management
a two‐dimensional simplified model of the electrode unit
system (BTMS).
(positive electrode and negative electrode) for the LG
The battery heat transfer process is a typical unsteady,
14.6‐Ah LiMnO4/C cell in Kim et al.25 The charge conser-
time‐varied subject with an internal heat source. In addi-
vation law was used to describe the material transport
tion to determining the thermal conductivity and bound-
relationship between the two electrodes, which predicted
ary conditions of batteries, the heat generation rate q is
the thermal behaviors of an LIB during charge and dis-
an essential part of the modeling. And its calculation
charge processes. The two‐dimensional model extends
can be derived from the battery heat generation expres-
the battery temperature prediction to large‐scale batteries.
sion based on the thermodynamic energy balance pro-
To further improve the accuracy of calculation, Du et al26
posed by Bernardi et al.20 The expression took into
selected a laminate LiFePO4/C battery and put forward a
account the heating process of electrochemical reaction,
three‐dimensional thermal model considering the heat
phase transition, and heat mixing. Further, Thomas and
generated by the body and the current collector. The
Newman21 found the total by heat mixing and phase
results showed that the battery thermal behavior of dis-
change is usually small, and the entropy heat is equiva-
charge process can be simulated effectively by coupling
lent to the Joule heat. After neglecting the heat exchange
the dynamic changes of the cell temperature, internal
between the battery and the outside, the basic form that
resistance, and temperature coefficient.
used the average heat capacity method is obtained.
As can be seen, the above methods promote the accu-
  racy of prediction but made the calculation complex. It is
I ∂U 0
q¼ ðU − U 0 Þ þ T ; (1) not conducive to the application in vehicles. Lin et al27
Vb ∂T
regarded the battery as two layers inside and outside
where q is the unit heat generation rate of battery, I is and proposed a thermal model that can capture the bat-
the battery current, U is the measured voltage of battery, tery surface and core temperature. Compared with the
U0 is the open circuit voltage, T is the battery tempera- traditional lumped parameter model (single state), it can
∂U 0 simultaneously acquire two battery temperatures. For
ture, and is the entropy heat coefficient.
∂T ease of distinction, it can also be called a dual‐state
Under the premise that the total heat of LIB is quan- lumped parameter model. It has moderate complexity
titatively guaranteed, the idea of building a thermal and can reflect of the differences between the battery
model of lithium‐ion battery has gradually deepened. internal and surface temperature, which is beneficial to
Based on the assumption that the heating rate of the real‐time control. Similar to the original intention of this
entire module is uniform, but allows the variation over method, Xiao28 applied the equivalent circuit thermal
4 SHEN AND GAO

model to battery temperature estimation to analogize the system requirements. Existing models for the field of
thermal simulation system of electricity. That is, when EVs can be divided into two categories: electrochemical
the heat source is activated, the current is converted into model and equivalent circuit model.
heat flow, causing the temperature to rise. The current is Electrochemical models, starting from internal reac-
used to represent the heat flow, the voltage is the temper- tion mechanism of battery, establish a series of electrode
ature, the resistance is the heat transfer resistance, and and electrolyte kinetic partial differential equations
the capacitance is the heat capacity. With this hypothesis, (PDEs). It can accurately predict the macroscopic physi-
the material thermodynamic properties of the battery can cal quantities (such as voltage and current) of batteries;
be converted into equivalent electrical parameters. A meanwhile, it can also stimulate the distribution of
model based on the analogy principle for LIBs was pre- microscopic physical quantities (such as electrolyte
sented, as shown in Figure 1. The heat balance equation overpotential, electrode current density, and solid‐state/
was established to predict the core and surface tempera- liquid‐phase lithium‐ion concentration). Such kind of
ture of the battery according to the law of electricity. model is accurate, but with high calculation cost. It is
And convection phenomenon between the battery surface worth noting that the electrochemical models are suitable
and surroundings was also considered. Meanwhile, for battery optimal design and safety analysis and can
Forgez et al29 further simplified the dual‐state equivalent also be applied to the battery management technology
circuit thermal model. The correctness of the internal after proper simplification.
temperature estimation of the model is verified by current The battery is usually stacked or wound by a multi-
pulse experiment and full charge and discharge experi- layer structure (micron‐sized electrode sheets,
ment, and it is within 1.5°C. This approach is simple centimeter‐size body), and the large size span makes it
enough to be applied in the BMS for EVs. The mathemat- difficult to build a high‐quality model when simulating
ical equations and diagrams for the above models are the actual battery structure. Therefore, when establishing
shown in Table 1. a three‐dimensional model, the average volume method
is generally adopted, that is, the average behavior of a cer-
tain volume is taken as the overall battery characteristics
2.2 | Electrical modeling for calculation. The US NREL30-32 presented a general
multiscale LIB modeling framework. It input parameters
The electrical property model can either respond to the (potential φ, temperature T, etc.) in the high dimension
macroscopic electrical parameters of batteries, save test into the low dimension in the form of the field, and the
time and cost, or characterize the particle domain param- parameters (current i, heat generation q, etc.) in the low
eters in the microstructure to analyze battery perfor- dimension were entered into the high dimension as a vol-
mances for meeting different levels of management ume source. The particle mechanism model and the

FIGURE 1 Equivalent electrical representation of the thermal model for the battery28 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]
SHEN AND GAO 5

TABLE 1 Modeling equations and illustrations on battery thermal model

Model Equations Diagram

Lumped thermal models ∂T

ρc ¼q
∂t
 2 
One‐dimensional model ∂T ∂ T 1∂T
ρc ¼ kr þ þq
∂t ∂r 2 r ∂t

 2 
Two‐dimensional model ∂T ∂ T k r ∂T ∂2 T
ρc ¼ kr 2 þ þ kz 2 þ q
∂t ∂r r ∂r ∂z

   
Three‐dimensional model ∂T 1∂ ∂T k z ∂2 T ∂2 T
ρc ¼ kr r þ 2 2 þ kz 2 þ q
∂t r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z

Two‐state lumped thermal models dT c Ts − Tc

Cc ¼qþ
dt Rc
dT s T f − T s T s − T c
Cs ¼ −
dt Ru Rc

electrode model were packaged separately, which simpli- the battery size dimension, it is not a two‐dimensional
fied the calculation and update of the model. model in the strict sense. For the convenience of identifi-
Generally speaking, there is a repetition of a plurality cation, it is called a pseudo‐two‐dimensional (P2D)
of identical structures (sandwich structure) inside the bat- model, as shown in Figure 2. The model can directly sim-
tery, so it is unrealistic and unnecessary to establish a ulate the internal microscopic information of the battery
multilayer model to simulate the overall performance of (such as particle concentration distribution and current
the battery. To achieve a certain simplification, Newman potential distribution) and evaluate the material perfor-
et al33-36 assumed that the current density on the elec- mance of the battery quickly, which is difficult to
trode was equal, and the three line segments respectively complete for the traditional experimental methods. And
represented the positive electrode, separator, and nega- the control equations are given in Table 2.
tive electrode. Of course, there was a dimension on the This marks an establishment of a relatively fast and
cell size. At the same time, the model used Fick law of complete scientific system for evaluating battery perfor-
diffusion to idealize the battery active material into mance from a material perspective. Therefore, the P2D
uniform spherical particles to describe the embedding model has gained wide attention and application since
and disembedding of li‐ions in the solid phase material. its birth. The model study shifts from single‐phase
Since Fick's law was solved only in the radial direction (lithium manganese oxide [LMO]37-39 and lithium cobalt
of particles, it meant that there was a radial dimension. oxide [LCO]40,41) to multiphase materials, (lithium iron
However, due to the smaller radial dimension relative to phosphate [LFP],42-44 nickel‐cobalt‐manganese [NCM],45
and nickel‐cobalt‐alumina[NCA]46,47). What is more,
when Newman et al established the P2D model, a set of
BAND program derive from the finite difference method
was proposed to settle the coupled PDEs. Then the end-
less simplified algorithms have been introduced into the
calculation, including the finite element method,45,47
finite difference method,48 lattice Boltzmann.49,50 Other
FIGURE 2 The schematic diagram of pseudo‐two‐dimensional than using mathematical method to reduce or reconstruct
(P2D) model [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary. the PDEs, there is also a method of approximating some
com] physical and chemical processes inside the battery, for
6 SHEN AND GAO

TABLE 2 Mathematical equations and boundary conditions of P2D model

Description Equations Boundary Conditions

 
Solid phase charge conservation ∂ ∂φs ∂φs eff ∂φ I app ðt Þ
jLi ¼ σ eff −σ eff
− jx¼0 ¼ þσ þ s jx¼ Lc ¼
∂x s ∂x ∂x ∂x A
∂φs ∂φs
x ¼Ln ¼ x ¼Ln þLs ¼ 0
∂x ∂x
 
Material conservation in solid phase ∂cs 1∂ ∂cs ∂cs
¼ 2 Ds r 2 jr¼0 ¼ 0
∂t r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∂cs jLi
Ds jr¼Rs ¼ −
∂r as F
   
Electrolyte phase charge conservation ∂ eff ∂φe ∂ eff ∂ lnce ∂φe ∂φ
k þ kD þ jLi ¼ 0 jx¼0 ¼ e x¼Lc ¼ 0
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
 
Material conservation in electrolyte phase ∂ðεe ce Þ ∂ ∂ce 1 − t 0þ Li ∂ce ∂ce
¼ Deff þ j jx¼0 ¼ x¼Lc ¼ 0
∂t ∂x e
∂x F ∂x ∂x
    
Butler‐Volmer equation
α
α αa F αc F
jLi ¼ k ðce Þαa cs; max −cs;e a cs;e c exp η − exp − η
RT RT

example, the single‐particle (SP) model38,51 where the battery dynamic behavior more accurately. And
battery electrode is regarded as a material particle for multiorder Thevenin equivalent circuit model was
calculation. applied to a 47.8‐kW LMO battery,56,57 as shown in figure
The equivalent circuit model (ECM) refers to the use (c). Moreover, many people proposed some extended
of circuit elements such as constant voltage source model for different situations on the basis of Thevenin
(indicating open circuit voltage), resistance (indicating model. Among them, the PNGV battery test manual
the difficulty of electron and ion movement), and RC net- added a series capacitor based on it to describe the perfor-
work (indicating the polarization inside the battery) to mance of batteries under high‐power pulse condition,68,69
capture the I‐V characteristics and transient behavior as shown in figure (d). For the battery composed of
of the battery. This model provides a good trade‐off LiFePO4, the response has a short‐time and long‐term
between the characterization of the external dynamic characteristics. Tsinghua University put forward the
behavior of the battery and the insight into internal or GNL model and split the parallel RC circuit into two on
microscopic behavior. And ECMs are generally divided the basis of the PNGV model, as shown in figure (e).
into two types: the ECM in the time domain and in the The entire circuit includes a series resistor and two RC
frequency domain. branches to consider the ohmic internal resistance, the
The time‐domain ECM establishes a circuit through electrochemical polarization internal resistance, and the
capacitance, inductance, resistor, and other circuit concentration difference polarization internal resistance,
elements to simulate the external characteristics like the respectively.70 Min and Rincon‐Mora61 also introduced
battery terminal voltage and current. The model is widely an ECM based on the predecessors. The left part was a
used in electric vehicle management system for its few capacitor and a current source, inherited from the Rint
parameters and easy identification.52 The time‐domain model, modeled the capacity, SOC, and runtime of the
ECMs are presented in Table 3. The simplest time‐ battery. The right part was similar to the GNL model,
domain ECM is a structure, in which a resistor is con- which was used to simulate the battery transient
nected in series with a voltage source. It is designed to response, as shown in figure (f). The model combined
describe the open circuit voltage of batteries, also known characteristics and advantages of the aforementioned
as the Rint model shown in figure (a).65 This model is model to meet the accuracy requirements for battery
easily parameterized and integrated into battery perfor- runtime, steady‐state characteristics and transient
mance simulation.66 However, owing to the simplified response analysis. These improved models can be called
form, the results react too quickly to capture the dynam- equivalent circuit models based on the Thevenin model.
ics that occur inside the battery, such as charge transfer. Besides, some researchers have proposed the dynamic
To further improve the model accuracy is to add a paral- equivalent resistance electrical model that used only one
lel RC network in the circuit of a single resistance model, variable resistor to describe the battery electrical charac-
also called the Thevenin equivalent circuit model,67 as teristics.71,72 It mainly gives a reasonable method for the
shown in figure (b). This model can reflect the polariza- steady‐state and transient battery modeling in the form
tion between electrode and electrolyte and describe the of internal resistance as a function of current and DOD
SHEN AND GAO 7

TABLE 3 Schemes of battery time‐domain ECM

Model Model
Model Structure Expression Type Variables Refs.

Ubat = UOCV − Ibat ⋅ R0 Analytic SOC, T, Pathiyil et al53

Ubat is the terminal voltage, function C‐rate and Sibi
UOCV indicates the open Krishnan
circuit voltage, Ibat is the et al54
(a) Rint model discharging current, and
R0 is the Ohm resistence.
Ubat = UOCV − Us − I ⋅ R0 Analytic SOC, T, Antaloae
Rs is the polarization resistance function C‐rate et al55
and Cs is the polarization
capacitance Us is the voltage
of the RC network.
(b) Thevenin model
U bat ¼ U OCV − U s1 − U s2 − Look‐up SOC, T, Dambone
U s3 − I⋅R0 table C‐rate et al56
and Benato
(c)
et al57

Multiorder Thevenin model

Ubat = UOCV − Ub − Us − I ⋅ R0 Look‐up SOC, T Zhang et al58
Cb is the bulk capacitance. table

(d) PNGV model

U bat ¼ U OCV − U b − U s − Analytic SOC, T, Saxena et al59
U L − I⋅R0 function C‐rate, and Serrao
RL, CL are the concentration SOH et al60
polarization resistance
and capacitance.

(e) GNL model

U bat ¼ U OCV − U s − U L Analytic SOC Min and
−I⋅R0 function Rincon‐
(f) Mora61

Improved model
U bat ¼ U Eo − U CT − U W Analytic SOC, T Dai et al63 and
−I⋅RE function Greenleaf
RE is the electrolyte and electrode et al64
resistance, RW is the linear ohmic
characteristics, RCT is the
charge transfer, and CDLelectrochemical
(g) Impedance‐based model62
double
layer effect.
8 SHEN AND GAO

and has obtained satisfactory verification results in Na‐ in parameters extraction, which restricts its application
beta family batteries. in battery state monitoring and management to some
The frequency‐domain ECM also uses the same com- extent.74
ponents to construct a circuit from the time‐domain Dynamic representation of electrical characteristics of
ECM. The difference is the principle of the constructed the battery model depends largely on the expression type
circuit, making the response of sinusoidal excitation in a and variables selection. For instance, temperature, SOC,
certain frequency range coincide with the measured elec- and charge and discharge rate, involving in model param-
trochemical impedance spectrum of the battery. And the eterization, will have a great impact on model accuracy.
idea is a simulation of battery impedance spectrum, not Table 3 also lists some literatures that use the ECM to
a description of battery terminal voltage and current. reflect the electrical characteristics of battery from the
The relevant instrument measures the potential across a aspects of model structure, expression type, and variable
battery by applying small AC currants over a wide range selection.
of frequencies, and then a Nyquist plot is drew to show
the complex impedance of the battery over the entire
frequency range, as shown in Figure 3.73 These features
2.3 | Multiphysics modeling
can be divided into three regions over the frequency
The individual thermal or electrical properties are not
range. The mass transport (ie, diffusion effect) in the
sufficient to characterize all the properties of batteries.
low‐frequency region from millihertz to hertz is similar
As a closed organic system, it is necessary to combine var-
to the linear ohmic characteristics. There is a semicircle
ious physical characteristics with a more comprehensive
in the middle of hertz to kilohertz, similar to the RC
vision for battery modeling.
parallel circuit, which represents the charge transfer
phenomenon at the electrode. The high frequency
ranging from kilohertz to megahertz reveals the 2.3.1 | The coupling of thermal and elec-
conductance effect, which is similar to the inductor trical characteristics
characteristics. A frequency‐domain ECM can be made
on the basis of this plot, as shown in figure (g). The model The amount of heat, acting as the joint, directly affects
more specifically abstracts the electrochemical reactions the thermodynamic properties of the battery like the rate
occurring in the battery and maps the physical meanings of temperature changes. Conversely, the battery tempera-
to the circuit components to make the components more ture also affects the size of battery parameters, such as
practical. More comprehensive, meanwhile, there are resistances, thereby changing the battery voltage charac-
also shortcomings such as large calculation and difficulty teristics. In general, the higher the temperature, the

FIGURE 3 Typical Nyquist plot of a

battery73 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SHEN AND GAO 9

smaller the internal resistance and the lower the battery throughout the entire transformation from normal run-
voltage at a relatively load current. In order to fully reveal ning to thermal runaway. Results demonstrated that the
this coupling relationship and accurately simulate the model was helpful to predict the potential occurrence of
dynamic characteristics of batteries, the development of thermal runaway and assist the BMS. As for the construc-
a thermal and electric coupling model has a significant tion of pack model, a three‐dimensional thermal model
scientific and engineering application value. was built in Sun et al84 for better understanding the ther-
Electrochemical‐thermal coupled model, as one of the mal behavior of batteries under various operations. The
coupling forms, usually uses the electrochemical model approach comprised a pack‐level CFD model and an
as the electrical characteristic model and couples a thermal electro‐thermal cell‐level model, which are in three
model based on the heat equations at the same time. There- dimensions, as well a one‐dimensional battery network
fore, the model is all described by PDEs, which can reveal model. Thereby, it is possible to quickly predict the char-
battery voltage and temperature response characteristics acteristic parameters of the battery, such as nonuniform
very accurately. The studies on the thermo‐electric heat generation rate, temperature distribution, and varia-
coupling characteristics of batteries are shown in Table 4. tions. The flow diagram of the calculation process is
In addition, there is the electro‐thermal coupled shown in Figure 4.
model adopts ECMs as the electrical characteristic model
and couples a thermal model to simulate the electro‐
thermal response of LIBs. This kind of model is relatively 2.3.2 | The coupling of thermo‐electric
simple and easy to promote on real vehicles. Miranda and and aging characteristics
Hong81 established the coupling model of Thevenin
equivalent circuit model and thermal model for high‐ The battery aging, that is, capacity/power reduction,
power LiFePO4 batteries under normal temperature and internal resistance increasing, voltage drop, and self‐
achieved the estimation of the relative error in average discharge is inevitable. And it degrades the battery perfor-
temperature and voltage as 1% and 5%. In order to extend mance and life. Through tracking of aging phenomenon,
the temperature ranges of the model usage, especially for the prediction of the remaining life and health manage-
the low‐temperature condition, Jiang et al82 developed an ment of batteries can be completed. Therefore, the devel-
electro‐thermal coupled model with lower computation opment of coupled models that consider aging is critical
based on the frequency‐domain ECM. The novel model to assessing and improving the life of LIBs for EVs.
yielded a promising candidate for developing the fast Like all electrochemical cells, LIBs consist of an
charging and internal heating strategy and stimulating anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, and a separator. In the
the power batteries in cold weather. Besides, Ping et al83 charge and discharge cycle, lithium metal embedded in
established a complete electro‐thermal model that the carbon material is ionized and travels among the elec-
described variations in heat, voltage, and current trolyte, the cathode material, and the anode material

TABLE 4 Summary of Electrochemical‐thermal coupled models used in literature

Modeling Dimension Analysis Objects Keywords Ref.

1D electrochemical‐thermal LiFeP04 Dynamic response analysis, effects of Li et al42

model current collectors
NCA Cell performance prediction at Basu et al47
various conditions
LiCoO2/LiMn2O4 Terminal voltage and core temperature Farag et al75
prediction for BMS
2D electrochemical‐thermal LiFeP04 Effect of contact resistances on thermal Ye et al76
model and electrical performance
LiMn2O4 Contribution of individual heat source Xiao and Choe77
terms and asymmetric tab configuration
3D electrochemical‐thermal LiFePO4 Tab location design Xu et al78
model LiFePO4 Analysis the anode's important meaning Li et al79
‐ Interdigitated arrangements of the electrodes Allu et al37
NCA Temperature prediction considering Basu et al46
contact resistance and cooling for battery packs
1D electrochemical and NCA The influence of tab and contact resistance Ghalkhani et al80
3D thermal model on battery thermal behavior
10 SHEN AND GAO

FIGURE 4 Typical Nyquist plot of a

battery84

through the porous medium to release or accept elec- The data analysis pointed out that a degradation
trons. From the microscopic point of view, the main fac- mechanism, such as cracking of the SEI film, would take
tors affecting the aging degradation of LIBs are metal an essential role in the driving cycles. However, the
deposition, formation of passivation film, crack propaga- degradation occurring at anode was not considered at
tion, and dissolution of active material in the electrode.85 the above work, Kupper and Bessler87 proposed a model
The porosity modification mechanism caused by the framework, allowing the flexible multiphase electro-
growth of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film at chemistry approach to declare reactions of SEI formation
the negative electrode was added to the electro‐thermal at the anode. Besides, it also integrated a 0D model of the
model to develop the theoretical relationship between void volume to describe gas concentration and pressure
the battery capacity and performance attenuation in variation when the aging happened. Ganesan et al88 also
Prada et al.86 The aging model covered the effects of dif- selected a single typical model and scaled it through
ferent battery impedance changes, such as the SEI film special factors to gain the response of battery pack and
resistance and the electrolyte mass transport resistance, discussed the effect of negative electrode changes on the
as shown in the following formula: pack‐level aging.
It can be seen that the microscopic factors affecting
the battery aging are diverse and intricate, and the effect
RT RT δSEI
RSC ¼ Rpct þ Rnct þ RSEI ¼ þ þ ; (2) of various mechanism interactions even more so. From a
Fi0;p Sp Fi0;n Sn κSEI Sn
macro perspective, battery aging can be divided into two
parts: calendar aging and cycle aging. The significance
where Sp = 3εs, pδpA/Rs, p and Sn = 3εs, nδnA/Rs, n are of cycle aging is needless to say. For calendar aging, since
the electro‐active surface areas of the positive and nega- 90% to 95% of the life of vehicles is in parking, it is also an
tive electrodes, respectively, and CLOSS to be expressed important factor in battery aging.89 In general, over-
as a function of the RSC increase as follows: charge, overdischarge, high or low temperature, high
SOC during storage, and high DOD would lead to a
Qz;init − Qz ðtÞ certain degree of capacity or power reduction, and these
CLOSS ðt Þ ¼ 100 ×
Qz;init degradations are also macroscopic representations of
 
2FρSEI κSEI Sn 2 several chemical and mechanical processes at the micro-
¼ 100 × ΔRSC : (3)
M SEI Qs;init scopic level. Therefore, a coupling model constructed by
SHEN AND GAO 11

parameterizing different stress factors in combination electrode and the accumulation of mechanical stress in
with an electro‐thermal coupling model was born. the battery are caused by the continuous extraction and
Wang et al90 collected a large‐span temperature, DOD insertion of lithium‐ions. When stress is accumulated to
and C‐rates cycle test data of 2.2 Ah, 26650 cylindrical a certain extent, the electrode may be broken,
cells and summarized a general battery cycle life model which reduces the durability of batteries. Therefore, it is
as follows: necessary to add mechanical stress analysis for LIB
  modeling.
−31700 þ 370:3 × C − rate The different components of LIB have different
Qloss ¼ B⋅ exp ðAhÞ0:55 ; (4)
RT the mechanical characteristics. For the example of
qualitative analysis, the current collector has anisotropy,
where B is the preexponent factor and Ah is the
strain hardening, ductile fracture, and rate‐dependent
Ah‐throughput. Also lots of efforts have been made to
mechanical behaviors. And the separator is orthotropic,
understand the impact of different stress factors on
elasto‐viscoplastic, and temperature dependent.99 The
battery aging; Table 5 lists some of the research status.
mechanical behavior of a battery cell is not just the sum
of the contributions of each component. Instead, it is
2.3.3 | The coupling of thermo‐electric the result of the mechanical interaction among various
and mechanical characteristics components. Golmon et al100 proposed a multiscale
modeling approach for studying electrochemical and
Except for electrochemical performance, the battery mechanical interaction phenomena at macroscopic and
mechanical properties have gradually attracted people's microscopic scales. The electrochemical porous electrode
attention, especially for manufacturing process. During models presented by Newman et al were extended to
the charging/discharging process, the volume change of the macroscopic elastic deformations. The Butler‐Volmer
equation was used to explain the interface surface condi-
tions and pressures of the composite cathode matrix at
TABLE 5 Key elements of presented battery aging models
microscale. And the mesoscale was introduced into the
Type of aggregate model to relate microscopic and macroscopic
Aging Stress Factors mechanical effects. Sauerteig et al,101 likewise, applied a
Considered Considered Model Output Ref.
coupled 2D electrochemical‐mechanical model of LIB to
Cycle aging C‐rate, Capacity loss Shen et al91 study the volume change caused by intercalation and
Temperature, aging of electrodes. The calculation approach took into
SOC, Ah‐ consider the electrode expansion, stress generation, the
throughput
compression of electrodes and separator, and finally the
Initial capacity, Internal Anseán
lithium‐ion transport. However, these approaches ignore
SOC, resistance et al92
Temperature the effects of thermal fields. Valentin et al102 discussed
C‐rate, Capacity loss Omar et al93 thermal expansion leading to the mechanical stresses. A
Temperature, and internal thermo‐mechanical model was established to predict the
DOD resistance thermal gradient and stress along the cell, especially at
Calendar Temperature, SOC Capacity loss Grolleau the material interfaces. And the stress level at the
aging et al94 anode/copper and cathode/aluminum interfaces is shown
Calendar Temperature, SOC Capacity loss Ecker et al95 to be stronger in LFP/graphite cells. Actually, the charge
and cycle and internal and discharge cycles of the battery contained coupling
aging resistance problems of electrochemical, mechanical, and thermal
C‐rate, Capacity loss Prada et al86 aspect, and whether thermal or stress field, each of them
Temperature, and internal had a great effect on the electrochemical reaction. Duan
SOC, resistance
et al103 developed a similar multiphysical coupled model
Temperature, Capacity loss Schmalstieg
of the battery to describe the electrochemical properties,
DOD, , voltage, and internal et al96
Ah‐throughput resistance thermal and stress status under different operations. In
Ah‐throughput, Remaining Onori97 addition to the conservation of charge, electrochemical
Temperature, capacity kinetics, mass conservation, and energy balance in the
DOD well‐known thermoelectric coupling model, mechanical
Ah‐throughput, Remaining Serrao conservation of the electrodes was also established. It
Temperature, capacity et al98 also considered the effects of a common mechanical
SOC, C‐rate
strain and two other eigenstrains. The stress state of
12 SHEN AND GAO

electrodes was obtained by the solid mechanical estimation, energy equalization, thermal management,
equations as follows: and fault diagnosis.

εij ¼ εme
ij þ εij
ei T
þ εijei c ; (4)
3.1 | State estimation
1

where εme
ij ¼ ð1 þ νÞσ ij − νσ kk δij , εeiT
ij ¼ αΔTδ ij ,
E BMS needs to monitor the key data, such as battery current
1 and voltage, to estimate the state of batteries. This is the
ij ¼ ΔcΩδij .
and εeic
3 premise and basis for the implementation of other man-
Further, for the dynamic behaviors estimation and
agement algorithms. Battery state estimation plays a core
control, Oh et al104 exploited a novel model for LIBs
role in the BMS. It mainly includes battery temperature,
under actual vehicle operations, such as US06 duty cycle.
SOC, SOH, SOP/SOF, and SOE, wherein the temperature
The multiphysics model was mainly consisted of the
estimation can be referred to the thermal modeling chap-
following parts: an electro‐thermal mode for estimation
ter, other parameters are mutually influenced by the tem-
of the temperature and SOC of the battery, a swelling
perature parameters. For the relationship between
model for calculation the value of battery swelling, and
various state estimations, see Figure 6.
a force estimator for figuring out the acting force of the
The role of SOC in electric vehicles is similar to that of
variation of battery volume. In summary, the diagram of
fuel gauges in traditional internal combustion engines.70
the multiphysical coupling model is shown in Figure 5.
SOH characterizes battery's ability to store energy relative
Electrical models are able to predict load voltage in
to a new battery.105 SOP indicates the ability of the
response to the working conditions; thermal models are
battery to withstand the charge and discharge power.
able to forecast real‐time temperature in response to
Some literatures are also called SOF, or peak power.106
battery heat generation; aging models are able to dope
Compared with the above state estimation, there is less
out capacity or power loss in response to the different
concern about SOE. It is a new concept proposed by
stresses; and mechanical models are able to predict
academia in recent years, which represents the ratio of
structure stress in response to the internal and external
the battery current remaining energy to the nominal total
pressure shock. According to what the model is intended
energy.107 These parameters has a direct effect on the bat-
to describe, a battery cell/pack model is composed of one
tery life, the dynamic performance, and mileage range of
or more coupled models.
vehicles. However, the state value cannot be measured
directly; it can only be estimated indirectly using the bat-
3 | MODEL ‐BASED BMS tery model through terminal voltage, current, internal
A PP L I C A T IO N resistance, and other battery parameters.
The content of model‐based SOC estimation method
The first step is to choose appropriate battery model and incorporates of two main parts: application of battery
algorithm for realizing the corresponding function of models and appropriate algorithm. The battery model is
BMS. On the basis of this, this chapter briefly reviews used to calculate the voltage, current and temperature,
the development of BMS from the aspects of state and the estimation algorithm evaluates the SOC.108 At

FIGURE 5 Electro‐thermal‐aging‐
mechanical model coupling [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SHEN AND GAO 13

FIGURE 6 Battery state estimation algorithm framework [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

present, there are two kinds of electrical battery models mechanism model from the nature of LIBs reaction. An
used in SOC estimation, namely, electrochemical model electrochemical model has been developed to estimate
and ECM. Bizeray et al109 used the orthogonal collocation the power fade of LIBs in Ramadass et al.112,113 It uses
method solve the DAEs of the P2D model, and a modified an empirical formula to correct the growing rule of battery
extend Kalman filter (EKF) was used to estimate the
model. It is obvious that the method can rapidly recover
the model states from the wrong initial conditions while
maintaining high precision. In addition, based on the
second‐order ECM, Peng et al110 combined the noise sta-
tistical estimator and the model parameter regulator to
estimate the series‐connected battery pack SOC using
adaptive unscented Kalman filter (AUKF). At the same
time, some mixed techniques, such as simple corrections
and weighting, have also been proposed to avoid the
defects of using a single estimation method. Li et al111
implemented the high‐precision and low‐runtime online
SOC estimation by utilizing the two algorithms according
to the running time. When the initial error was large,
the particle filter algorithm was adopted to decrease the
convergence time. Or else the unscented Kalman filter
algorithm was applied to gain on the actual battery SOC
with low‐computational cost. Figure 7 shows the
SOC estimation errors of EKF, UKF, PF, and the
combined method and the performance comparison of
the four algorithms. The figure shows that the combined
method displayed a good accuracy and trade‐off among
MAE, RMSE, and AET.
The method of SOH estimation based on the battery
model is either from the perspective of internal parameters
such as the aging mechanism, or from the external param-
eters such as the load conditions. Combined with the bat- FIGURE 7 A, Comparison of state of charge (SOC) errors with
tery aging model, it is predicted by two kinds of the most an initial value of 100%. B, Comparison of SOC errors with a 10%
common evaluation indexes: capacity loss and resistance initial value111 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]
increase. One of them is to create a degradation
14 SHEN AND GAO

SEI resistance and then estimates the SOH. It not only By definition, the key to SOE estimation is to deter-
gives the discharge voltage characteristics of batteries but mine the current remaining discharge energy (ERDE).
also reflects the influence of SOH and discharge current The ERDE refers to the energy that the battery can provide
on capacity losses. The estimation method has a high pre- from the current state to the full discharge under certain
diction accuracy, a clear physical meaning, and a wide operating conditions. And the ERDE depends on battery
adaptability. However, the estimation process has a high terminal voltage, future conditions, and many other fac-
complexity and a great dependence on the model, which tors. Liu et al119,120 proposed an energy prediction
makes the monitoring algorithm difficult to implement approach for the dynamic driving condition based on
on low‐cost microcontrollers. Therefore, another SOH esti- the valid control algorithm. On this basis, the variation
mation method based on the circuit model has drawn of the future battery state and model parameters were
attention. The major idea is to use the optimal evaluation coupled and predicted in the ERDE prediction process.
techniques, such as least squares method, and to combine Specifically, the method further predicted the voltage var-
the measurable state signals to identify parameters related iation of the future discharge process, and the cumulative
to battery SOH. A novel approach deduced from ECM was energy was obtained by the first‐order ECM. During the
proposed in Remmlinger et al.114 The method utilized the prediction process, the model parameters was modified
internal resistance change as a judgment and combined according to the current measurement values, and the
the specific signal interval occurring in hybrid vehicle bat- prediction results of the terminal voltage sequence and
tery operation to realize the estimation of SOH. Dong the ERDE was updated. Moreover, as an example research
et al115 used the electrolyte impedance and charge transfer of the embedded BMS, Wang et al121,122 presented the
impedance to establish a capacity degradation model and ERDE prediction method on the basis of the μC/OS‐II real
to estimate the SOH and combined with support vector time operating system. And a model for SOE estimation
machine‐particle filter to identify the model parameters. was presented based on a first‐order ECM and Bayesian
Shui et al116 also proposed the evaluation of battery SOH learning technique. See Table 6 for more information on
based on the principles and the relationship among battery model applications in state estimation.
state parameters and mechanical characteristics like stack Meanwhile, the data‐driven method, that is, neither
stress. considering the battery actual reaction nor requiring the
At present, SOF/SOP estimation generally acquires accurate mode construction but paying more attention
the maximum charge and discharge current according to the relationship between input excitation and target
to the battery model, considering the current, SOC, response, is proposed, promoted, and popularized along
and terminal voltage constraints of the battery, thereby with the development of artificial intelligence. On the
obtaining the maximum charge and discharge power basis of some test data of the battery, the connection with
and the SOF/SOP. Plett117 proposed two methods to the state parameters is established to make prediction. It
estimate discharge and charge power that incorporate mainly includes neuro‐fuzzy approaches, SVM, regres-
voltage, SOC, and current of the battery: one was the sion technique, and other machine learning methods.
hybrid pulse power characteristic (HPPC) method; it Further analysis are as follows, such as artificial neural
used the open circuit voltage and internal resistance in network (AN),134 fuzzy neural network (FNN),135 support
the current state to estimate the instantaneous battery vector machine (SVM),136 relevant vector machine
SOP, and the other method based on SOC was obtained (RVM),137 autoregressive model (AR),138 and Gaussian
the limit current value by the maximum and minimum PROCESS REGRESSION (GPR).139 However, such algo-
SOC limits, thereby calculating the battery power state rithms rely on a large amount of experimental data for
over a period of time. And the method can accurately parameter integration to obtain better accuracy, resulting
predict the pack‐level available power by using an in long training time and low generalization ability. In
appropriate cell model and SOC information. Zhang addition, such research is mostly concentrated on single
et al118 also gave a method for estimating SOP from cell, and the prediction of the battery pack as a whole is
the battery cutoff voltage. It generally used a more accu- less, and correspondingly, the amount of data and algo-
rate dynamic battery model (ECM, combined model, rithm costs will also increase.
etc) to establish the state space equation of the battery
terminal voltage, SOC, current, and other parameters.
Then, the linearization was performed. The following 3.2 | Energy Equalization
solution was similar to the HPPC method. Finally, the
battery peak power in the current state was calculated The electric vehicle power batteries usually obtain high
through the maximum current under limit of cutoff voltage in series and high capacity in parallel. However,
voltage. due to internal reasons (the inconsistency of the physical
SHEN AND GAO 15

TABLE 6 Overview of battery model application in state estimation

Model Estimation Parameters Algorithm Ref.

Equivalent circuit model SOC AEKF Partovibakhsh and Liu123

SOC Sliding mode observer Sun and Chen124
SOC Particle filtering Wei et al125
SOH EKF Bhangu et al126
SOC SOH Fitting on the data Qiao et al127
SOC SOH dual unscented Kalman filter Wang et al128
SOC SOH SOP least squares method Shen et al129
SOC SOE EKF and an H infinity filter Zhang et al130
Electrochemical model SOC SOH EKF Bartlett131
SOC SOH SOP Electrochemical simplification algorithm Han132
SOE AFEKF (adaptive fractional order Li et al133
extended Kalman filter)

volume in manufacturing process) and external causes Compared with the voltage‐based equalization strat-
(temperature difference of the whole package, energy egy, the state of batteries can be better reflected by SOC.
imbalance caused by battery charge/discharge), the Owing to LiFePo4, battery has a relatively flat relation-
long‐term cycle will lead to a decrease in battery capacity ship between SOC and OCV; the SOC can be evaluated
and life without the equalization management. The on the basis of the tracking of OCV. Thus, Zheng
essence of the equalization is the redistribution of energy et al148 used the mean difference method to estimate the
among the cells. It includes the circuit topology and strat- consistency of the battery SOC by the first‐order equiva-
egy and complement each other. Topology is mainly lent circuit model. Besides, Zhang et al149 also used this
divided into dissipative type, such as resistance equaliza- mapping relation as a basis for battery equalization and
tion,140 and nondissipative type, such as capacitive equal- calculated the energy utilization ratio of batteries. Fur-
ization.141 In addition, there are equalization structures ther, the Thevenin ECM and the EKF algorithm were
with inductors and transformers.142,143 An excellent employed for SOC estimation of the battery in Ma
topology can achieve fewer components, more reliable et al.150 The two‐stage bidirectional equalization circuit
structure, and easier control. And the quality of the and the fuzzy logic control (FLC) were designed to
equalization strategy directly affects its efficiency. Equal- achieve the equalization between battery cells in the bat-
ization strategies fall into three aspects: voltage, SOC, tery pack. The diagram of the related method is shown in
and capacity equalization strategies. In the process of Figure 8. The proposed FLC algorithm was compared
R&D and production, the establishment of a battery with the traditional mean difference method to verify
model is fundamental and critical for reducing costs, the superiority of the developed one.
avoiding measurement errors of voltage and realizing Again, researchers have proposed an equalization
online acquisition of SOC and capacity.144 strategy on the basis of the total capacity, rechargeable
The early equalization strategy is mainly proposed for capacity, or releasable capacity, whose goal is to maxi-
lead‐acid battery. Since the voltage characteristic curve of mize the available capacity of the battery. Zheng
the lead‐acid battery has an obvious correspondence with et al151,152 built a first‐order ECM in SIMULINK and ver-
the remaining power,145 the correspondence relationship ified the effectiveness of the dissipative cell equalization
was used to judge the degree of the battery imbalance, (DCE) strategy with remaining charging capacity (RCC)
and the consistency of the final battery voltage was used as the online estimation target. Furthermore, according
as a criterion for equalization. So this method is simply to the battery voltage curve, a fuzzy logic DCE algorithm
referred to as voltage‐based equalization. Previous litera- was used to reduce the battery pack capacity deviation
tures141,146,147 used voltage as the judgment standard. effectively. In contrast, an active equalization approach
The measurable voltage, simple control algorithm, and on the basis of the available capacity of the battery was
low hardware requirements make this method be widely proposed to in Cui et al,153 which was derived from the
used in engineering. However, due to the existence of state space equation established by the second‐order
measurement error and hysteresis characteristics, it is dif- ECM. And a feedback balancing circuit was selected to
ficult to achieve accurate equalization control according modify the topology structure. The results showed that
to the voltage. And when voltage equalization is achieved the proposed equalization strategy had more excellent
in a single aspect, the other parameters of the battery are performance in improving the capacity of battery pack
still biased. than the other balancing benchmark methods. Moreover,
16 SHEN AND GAO

FIGURE 8 Diagram of the two‐stage equalization method based on fuzzy logic control (FLC) for battery packs150 [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Diao et al154 presented a special active battery cell equal- temperature.156 Yang et al157 investigated the effects of
ization technique based on the maximum residual avail- radial spacing between batteries and gas flux on the ther-
able capacity, in which the change of internal resistance mal performance of the axial‐flow air cooling structure.
and capacity of a single cell in the battery pack was inte- Through the numerical simulation based on the P2D
grated by the Thevenin battery model. The DC/DC trans- model, the increase of the radial spacing made a better
former equalization structure was verified by analyzing temperature uniformity and a smaller average tempera-
the experimental results in energy utilization efficiency. ture rise of battery pack, but the space efficiency was
reduced. The liquid cooling is a relatively efficient and
compact, using water, oil, or coolant as the heat transfer
3.3 | Thermal management medium and the jackets or pipes on the bottom or side
of batteries to remove the heat. A two‐dimensional fully
Temperature is an essential parameter affecting battery coupled electrochemical‐thermal model for two different
performance. The methods of changing battery electrolyte cell designs (8 and 20 Ah) was simulated with both air
formulation or developing new positive and negative and liquid surface cooling in Bandhauer et al.158 Despite
materials cannot balance the high‐ or low‐temperature the liquid cooling significantly reduced peak temperature
performance, and the difficulties are serious for battery across the battery, it imposed the difference in tempera-
packs. Therefore, analysis of the heat generation mecha- ture. And as the cell size increased, liquid cooling exhib-
nism and temperature characteristics is of great signifi- ited an increased temperature gradient. Since liquid
cance for improving battery performance and safety. cooling is difficult to ensure the battery uniformity,
The battery model is not only to meet the detection PCM cooling has been proposed to improve the relative
demand of any temperature point but also to avoid the performance. Lazrak et al159 exploited 1D and 3D model-
problem of delay in temperature transfer during actual ling to analyze the effect of PCM thermo‐physical proper-
measurement and to facilitate the efficiency of BTMS. ties and define an improved design with PCM integration
The BTMSs have various structures and types, and the in battery packs, respectively. Although the conventional
common cooling methods are shown in Figure 9. PCM cooling can reduce the rise of temperature, the heat
The air cooling is simple in structure, low in cost, and absorbed by PCM cannot be effectively diffused to the
easy to install, which is widely used in electric vehicles.155 surroundings. Therefore, researchers have proposed a
For example, the Toyota Prius hybrid vehicle used a forced convection system in combination with PCM to
parallel air passage to adjust the battery system eliminate heat accumulation,160 or used composite phase
SHEN AND GAO 17

FIGURE 9 Common battery cooling methods and their pros and cons [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

change materials to increase the PCM thermal conductiv- It is universally acknowledged that the heating mode
ity.161 What is more, the heat pipe BTMS is another com- of battery pack can be divided into external heating and
pact, light, and high‐efficiency alternative.162,163 Because internal heating. The former uses an external electric
the mechanism and process of two phase flow in heat heating devices, such as positive temperature coefficient
pipe are complex to model,164,165 studies are primarily (PTC) heater, to heat the battery pack.173 And the heat
based on experiment. Zou et al166 developed an integrated transfer mode used is the same as the above‐mentioned
thermal management structure that incorporates a heat cooling structure. The heat transfer medium can be air
pipe type BTMS with an air‐conditioning system to fulfill or liquid. Due to the existence of heat exchange with
the comprehensive heat domination for EVs. Notably, the external environment, some of the heat will be lost
some researchers have also proposed new BTMSs, such to the air and also may lead to the uneven temperature
as jet cooling167 and boiling cooling.168 More importantly, of batteries. The latter uses internal resistance heat by
due to insufficient vertical temperature gradient control the pulse current, which the temperature increase is
caused by external cooling strategies at high heat genera- faster and the consistency is better. Zhu et al174 indicated
tion, the internal cooling strategies were investigated to that except for the amplitude and frequency of current,
mitigate battery heat problems.169,170 Bandhauer et al171 the wave shapes also had an effect on the heating effi-
utilized a passive liquid‐vapor phase change heat ciency as well. For example, the sinusoidal current heated
removal inside micro‐channels embedded into the cell the battery from −24°C to 7.79°C, while the rectangular
to demonstrate the possible performance improvement pulse waveform was heated from −24°C to 25.6°C at the
based on a 3D electrochemical‐thermal model. Figure 10 same condition in their investigation. All of these
shows the maximum temperature rise and difference methods consume energy to heat the battery, thereby
for the internal cooling simulations as compared with sacrificing battery capacity.
the traditional air and liquid cooling reports in
Bandhauer et al.158 Based on the three‐dimensional ther-
mal swelling model with coupled thermo‐mechanical, Oh 3.4 | Fault diagnosis
and Epureanu172 indicated the elevated core temperature
and uneven temperature distributions play a vital role in If state estimation is the basis for other functions, then
the performance of the battery pack. This model is security is the common and most basic goal for all. Gen-
beneficial to the design thermal management of battery erally, the evolution mechanism of LIB safety is divided
packs, as well as the development of stress‐strain sensors into two cases. One is the reduction in reliability caused
and the optimal configuration. by self‐aging. As mentioned earlier, this is a slow process
18 SHEN AND GAO

FIGURE 10 Comparison of internal, air, and liquid cooling strategies at different compactness factors: A, maximum temperature; B,
maximum171 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

of change for the LIB aging mechanism. The other is a from the diagnostic object. Ouyang et al176 used the same
sudden failure of LIBs. With regard to technologies to method to analyze the short‐circuit fault in the battery. A
enhance battery safety, most of the safety techniques in recursive least square algorithm based on the mean
the former are related to the production of battery manu- difference model (MDM) deriving from ECM, which
facture. The latter is created by some unexpected events, consisted of the average and difference of a cell voltage
even a safety accident. The BMS is required to promptly and resistance, was employed. The algorithm first
warn of the failure that has occurred or will occur and estimated the basic parameters of the MDM, and then
give a corresponding response according to the severity calculated the characteristic values, like the voltage
(terminating battery charging or discharging, limiting differential and the fluctuation function of internal resis-
battery power or reporting alarm, etc). The LIB tance, and finally made short‐circuit diagnosis according
safety mutation mechanism mainly caused by external to the magnitude of fluctuation. For the LIBs, current
mechanical trigger (such as vibration, extrusion) and and voltage can only reflect the external characteristics,
environmental trigger (such as high temperature, high and the dynamics characteristics need to be described
humidity), causing short circuit of the battery, forming by internal state variables such as SOC and SOE. The
an electrical trigger (such as internal or external short diagnosis of these parameters can only be represented
circuit), which leads to a thermal trigger (such as by modeling, and see Section 3.1.
overheating) even thermal runway. Gradually, researchers found that the battery internal
According to the signal collected by BMS, the main resistance is sensitive to the battery health state or fault
faults of power system are as follows: voltage fault, cur- state, so some fault diagnosis methods based on resis-
rent fault, temperature fault, SOX fault, insulation fault, tance value have been born. Wang et al177 quantitatively
short‐circuit fault, and the like. These critical functions estimated the insulation resistances at anode and
rely deeply on measurements of embedded current and cathode, and troubleshooting was performed by the
voltage sensors. However, sensors may experience various change of insulation resistance value. Zhang et al178
forms of failures due to production defects, prolonged focused on the parallel‐connected battery group (PCBG)
exposure to wretched conditions, and external shocks. and used the PCBG resistance as a standard to identify
Liu and He175 proposed a valid model‐based fault PCBG faults and their causes. For an online aging incon-
diagnostic scheme to determine if there was current or sistency fault and a loose contact fault, the fault can be
voltage sensor issue. The EKF was applied to calculate detected by distinguishing the difference of the single
battery terminal voltage based on ECM, and the carrying resistance among PCBGs. In terms of the reasons of
fault signals were obtained by comparing the observed the problem, it was implemented by discriminated the
voltage with the evaluated. It also pointed out the con- changes in the PCBG resistance.
ventional method of the model‐based battery fault diag- Apart from the resistance, Feng et al179 extended the
nosis, which was to obtain residual signals and process diagnostic parameters and proposed a novel diagnosis
fault information by the difference between the model's approach for online internal short‐circuit detection. The
prior information and the measurement information method converted the battery voltage and temperature
SHEN AND GAO 19

into the inherent state (SOC) and parameter (ohmic resis- small error compared with the actual. The method did
tance), respectively, reflecting the incompatible capacity not identify state parameters of the battery during the
and heat loss. Kong et al180 also detected the short diag- diagnosis process and can be simply and credibly assem-
nosis according to the RCC variations between batteries. bled into the actual BMS. Unlike the usual fault diagnosis
The RCC of each cell can be obtained by the CC‐VC con- approaches, the fault severity was evaluated based on the
version, then the leakage current was obtained by the size of short‐circuit resistance. From another perspective,
change of RCC after each cycle, and it would be further Zhu et al181 developed a detailed finite element model to
turned into the short‐circuit resistance. The experimental cover the geometry and mechanical properties of almost
devices and results are depicted in Figure 11. We can see all components of a cell. Through the accurate analysis
that the normal and short‐circuit cell were distinguished of mechanical behavior, it found that a short circuit
obviously. The short‐circuit resistances varied little with occurred at a displacement of 4 mm during axial loading.
time, and the estimated average resistances had very In addition, Tsutsui et al182 further refined the failure
mechanism and pointed out that the mechanical defor-
mation alone could not predict battery failure well, and
both SOC and deformation need to be considered. At
low SOC, the electrical performance failure of the battery
was closely related to voltage drop, and it stood alone
against the external deformation stress. However, at high
SOC, a premature voltage drop was born, attributing to
the swelling phenomenon inside the battery and the ten-
dency of the anode and cathode contact.

4 | R &D OF BM S F U NCT I O NA L I T Y
AND I NTEGRATION IN VEHICLES

Faced with the complex conditions of vehicles and the

diverse demand from users, the R&D of multifunction
integrated BMS system is an inevitable requirement for
the electric vehicle battery technology. While ensuring
its various functions are carried out efficiently and
orderly, the cooperation with other controllers is the
guarantee of performance and safety at the vehicle level.
The following is developed from multifunction and
multicontroller integration based on BMS.

4.1 | Multifunction application

If a fixed series‐parallel battery topology is devoid of any

active management systems, the system is unable to
adapt to the dynamic behavior of battery cells thus caus-
ing the following: possibilities of overcharge and
overdischarge, cell unbalance, fluctuation of temperature
across battery pack, and minimized energy conversion
efficiency. Furthermore, LIBs itself degrades over time,
even if the system is left unused. They are very sensitive
systems, and the aforementioned problems may cause
severe safety issues, such as thermal runaway and
overheating caused by explosion. The BMS must be mul-
tifunctional in the actual application, which requires the
FIGURE 11 Diagram of test principle and results180 [Colour cooperation of hardware and software technology. Some
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] OEMs and suppliers have carried out a lot of researches
20 SHEN AND GAO

TABLE 7 Summary of the representative BMS Compared with the above system, the BMS system devel-
Manufacturers BMS Functions
oped by Korea Ajou University and Institute for
Advanced Engineering196 has fully considered the control
Mentzer Electronie GmbH and BADICOACH System and protection of charging/discharged, the calculation
Wemer Retzlatf in ●First vehicle–experiment
and display of SOC, thermal management, communica-
Germany183 ●Voltage, temperature and
current measurement of 20
tion with the PC and the motor controller, etc, as shown
batteries in Figure 12.
●Control of charging current of Based on the existing BMS techniques, there are more
charger and more studies focusing on the smart battery modules
●Single cell equalization (SBMs) to promote the development of a generalized
Tesla Motors184-187 ●Monitoring and Management design method. That is, a microcontroller is installed in
of 7104 Lithium Batteries a battery module and integrated with relevant circuits
●Acquisition and estimation of and then packaged them as a whole. A plurality of
voltage, current, SOC, and SBMs are connected to a main control module, and other
insulation signals
auxiliary devices are added to constitute a SBMs‐based
●Thermal management and
management system. Hong Kong University of Science
safety protection system
●Low cost passive equalization and Technology197 discussed the development of an orig-
inal BMS platform consisting of multiple local manage-
Bosch Rexroth Group188-191 ●Data stratified acquisition
●Radio network remote
ment units for power supply, voltage and current
transmission signal detection, and central management unit as an interface
●Invalid or depleted battery between internal BMS network and external components.
isolation system It can provide a full management to a pack with up to 16
●Startup or initialization batteries. And the military electric vehicle BMS developed
judgment by American Micron Corporation adopts this prototype
Axeon UK Ltd ●Transferring information to and Hnatczuk et al's.198
the host On the basis of the basic functions of BMS above,
●Data recording Chatzakis et al199 provided additional functions, a fault‐
●Diagnosis and prediction
tolerant capability and battery protection, with the same
●Error and alarm functions
structure, and Figure 13 shows a block diagram of this
AeroVironment SmartGuard System typical BMS topology. Zhu200 proposed an intelligent
●Distributed mode of collection
BMS with an updated system that inherited the functions
parameters
●Automatic overcharge
of the traditional BMS. This BMS was capable of storing
monitoring and analyzing the measurement data in order to detect
●Battery history and archiving battery failures and improve the battery safety by shorten-
●Provide information about the ing the measurement and communication time intervals.
worst cell Carkhuff et al201 applied multifrequency impedance mea-
Toyota Motor Corporation192- ●Suppress battery imbalance surement technology (1‐1000 Hz) to the BMS. Except for
194
●Judgment of battery the conventional voltage, temperature, and internal
maintenance and replacement impedance monitors, it can track faults associated with
needs anode, cathode, and electrolyte to identify battery mis-
matches and emerging faults. And real‐time monitoring
of changes in each battery was acted, including
charging/discharging, as well as at rest. Further, through
on the key technologies of on‐board BMS. Table 7 lists a physics‐based battery model, Prada et al202 studied the
some of the more representative R&D results. BMS specifications law that can be generalized to
Then again, some scientific institutions have also different lithium‐ion chemistries batteries. The model
made corresponding explorations. The University of can not only effectively implement the BMS traditional
Toledo195 presented a typical battery system. This partic- functions, including battery limitations in terms of
ular version included an electronic control unit (ECU) potential, current, temperature, and aging mechanism,
that monitored the battery pack real‐time situation and but also indicate the charge and discharge allowable cur-
assured the data collection, processing, and transmission. rent limit at different temperatures under safety and the
And an equalizer (EQU) balanced the charge levels of the SOC estimation for a given pulse duration according to
battery segments and controlled an onboard charger. vehicle operation.
SHEN AND GAO 21

FIGURE 12 Schematic structure of battery management system (BMS)196 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 13 Block diagram of a typical battery management system (BMS) topology199 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
com]

4.2 | Multicontroller interaction the supervision of the power source level. Externally,
BMS provides operating status of power batteries for the
Internally, BMS takes battery modules as the control whole vehicle and works in conjunction with other on‐
object to ensure their order and safety. It only realizes board controllers to ensure the optimization and
22 SHEN AND GAO

improvement of energy control management for vehicles. liquid thermal management system. And the cascade
This is a nonnegligible link in the development of estab- cooling was used to ensure the battery thermal safety.
lishing a complete BMS. For example, when the battery is in an overheated
The most used energy control management method state, the temperature curve of the test battery (18650)
for EVs in engineering is based on the stability of motor, from normal state to superheated state is as shown in
engine (HEVs), and other components, according to the Figure 14. Under adiabatic conditions, the battery initial
driver's acceleration and braking requirements, vehicle temperature was 25°C, and the temperature reached a
and battery status, etc to switch the power system maximum of 125°C at 4000 seconds. The side reaction
working mode. A vehicle power management system starts from 60°C and as it continues, the battery
was provided to minimize the number of components temperature changes from a proportional increase to
for the parallel connection of sub battery packs through an exponential one. When refrigerant was used to spray
integrating a power relay assembly (PRA) with a power the battery pack at 60°C, the temperature rising is effec-
distribution unit (PDU) by HYUNDAI Motor Co, Ltd.203 tively suppressed.
The integrated battery pack included sub‐relays placed Despite the rational construction of vehicle energy
in the sub‐battery packs, a sub‐BMS that controlled the management framework, the control strategy is also
sub relays, and a main BMS for managing the whole important to improve the energy‐saving level of the
power of the sub‐battery packs. The PDU included a electrification vehicles. The above control method for
PRA for selectively connecting voltages inputted from realizing the related functions is widely used in engineer-
the integrated battery pack with an electric load of a vehi- ing practice because it is effective, simple, and easy to
cle. Wang204 also disclosed a parallel charging and power implement. However, they cannot optimize the system
supply system for EVs, composed of multiple power operation and cannot fully utilize the energy‐saving
system and an energy storage system, to increase the trav- potential of EVs and HEVs. Therefore, intelligence
eling mileage of electric vehicles. The BMS was used for automobiles have become another important trend in
monitoring the voltage and the current of battery unit the development of EV industry. In recent years, due to
and realizing hybrid control on battery unit with a con- the great progress in technologies such as machine vision
version module. The interaction mode among MCU, and deep learning, the development of advanced assistant
VCU, and BMS was the same as the traditional form. driving and autonomous, or “self‐driving,” vehicle tech-
Unlike pure electric vehicle energy control management nologies has been promoted. At present, there are many
research, hybrid electric vehicles mostly focus on researches on vehicle environment perception,211,212
selecting and switching control strategies for pure electric intelligent driving, and interaction,213,214 but there are
mode, hybrid mode, engine working mode, and feedback few studies on applying intelligent technology to vehicle
braking mode. Combined with the user's requirements, energy‐saving control. Other than considering the fuel
BYD Company Ltd205 presented a control system based economy of the vehicle, Montazeri‐Gh et al215 also con-
on battery SOC as an automatic conversion standard. As sidered the impact of the control strategy on the vehicle's
for the technique whether the hybrid vehicle should tran-
sition between the EV mode or HEV mode, Kia Motors
Corporation206 checked the driver's requisite torque cal-
culated by monitoring the accelerator position sensor,
the gear position sensor, the determined engine on map
value, and the hypothetical map value.
In addition to the conventional power transmission
control, the battery pre‐charge communication,207 power
up and down of the whole vehicle,208 and so on are insep-
arable from the coordination of various controllers. Up to
present, the team has explored the battery modeling and
its application in battery thermal management, and the
communication and control between the heat pump sys-
tem and BTMS by BMS and VCU.209,210 On the basis of
conventional battery modeling, the SEI decomposition
in superheated state was considered, and the battery
model from normal to overheated under adiabatic condi-
tion was established. The based‐refrigerant cooling and FIGURE 14 Battery temperature curve [Colour figure can be
emergency jet cooling system was added to the common viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
SHEN AND GAO 23

emission performance: According to the engine critical optimization to obtain an optimized EMS. Gong et al219
control line and the battery SOC, the working mode exploited ITS and neural networks to predict the trend
was divided into two steps. Firstly, the fuel consumption, of future vehicle speeds and then used dynamic program-
hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide emis- ming algorithms for energy optimization and power allo-
sions were normalized as the optimization target, then cation. Moreover, learning‐based energy management
genetic algorithm was used for optimization, and the strategies from recorded historical or driving data have
optimized control strategy was improved in fuel economy also been developed.220,221 The internet of vehicles can
and emission performance. Meanwhile, particle swarm transmit the vehicle and traffic information back to the
optimization (PSO),216 DIRECT algorithms,217 etc were cloud platform and then use the technologies such as
also used to optimize or adjust the relevant parameters cloud computing to learn and optimize EMS. Take HEV
of energy management strategy (EMS). Further, intelli- as an instance, Figure 15 discloses the key procedures of
gent information provided by global positioning system EMS in the vehicle control system and gives example of
(GPS)/intelligent transport system (ITS) also plays an future speed prediction. Obviously, whether learning
important role in energy management. Kim et al218 used from historical data or predictive information, these
GPS to predict future driving conditions and then used EMSs still require more precise control models and expert
dynamic programming algorithms for rolling experience. The development of these intelligent

FIGURE 15 A block diagram of energy

management strategy [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
24 SHEN AND GAO

FIGURE 16 Diagram of battery management system (BMS) from multiphysics modeling to multifunction application and integration
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

technologies has certain enlightening significance for the following guidance from the battery model to BMS
research of electric vehicles energy management. function application and integration.
Lithium‐ion power battery and its control technology Battery is a combination of electrochemistry science,
are either the key or the bottleneck of EV progress. Power materials science, thermal science, and mechanical sci-
battery is the core of energy output, and the control tech- ence. Regarding it as a multiphysics field is necessary
nology is integrated in the BMS. A set of vehicle control and an inevitable trend. There are several key issues
development process on BMS from multiphysics model- and challenges in the future construction of coupled
ing to multifunction application and integration is shown models for EVs and HEVs:
in Figure 16.
1. It improves the accuracy of battery lumped thermal
models. By referring to the internal mechanism to
5 | TASKS A ND CHALLENGES IN explain battery thermal phenomenon, the lumped
T H E FU T U R E model is modified and optimized, and the simple
and accurate online algorithm is integrated into the
As a link between power source and vehicle, state‐of‐the‐ BMS to identify and manage the battery internal
art algorithms and control approaches about BMS are and surface temperature.
developed and used in EVs in order to promote the 2. It is the organic combination of the circuit model and
innovation and development of new energy vehicle the mechanism model in battery electrical model.
techniques. Nevertheless, there is still a long way for The relationship between the equivalent components
BMS to go,3 and the user suspicion of the reliability of or fitting parameters and electrochemical parameters
BMS needs to be addressed through future research is established to obtain an electrical model that can
caused by the gap between laboratory tests and actual not only reflect the internal chemical characteristics
demands. In view of the synergistic improvement of but also retain the certain ability of fast and dynamic
BMS under complex conditions, this paper proposes the tracking.
SHEN AND GAO 25

3. It is the development of parameters of battery aging complex energy storage systems is a significant topic
model. By increasing other performance parameters for future research.
(such as overvoltage and heating rate) except for 4. A good trade‐off between BMS versatility and com-
capacity loss or internal resistance increase, the sta- plexity. The increasing requirements of luxury func-
tistics of the effect of complete parameters on aging tions, such as environment control and intelligent
are gradually realized. driving, create more obstacles for factories to develop
4. The mechanical model should be added to the cou- a BMS that enable to make system more appropriate
pling model in the form of mechanical while dealing with additional features.
internal/external stress or internal gas pressure equa- 5. BMS manufacturing standards. With the increasing
tion, so as to facilitate the establishment of a univer- demand of diversification, intelligence, and high‐
sal, modular model to switch the form for different end, a lot of manufacturers provide a BMS with
application conditions and battery material types. diverse specifications that enormously limit the
5. The adaptive model should be developed to update or industrial production and application of products.
modify itself and to realize more accurate on‐line Manufacturing standards are urgent to be established
model parameter identification and vehicle control. to develop a BMS with comprehensive functions,
6. The above problems are not only the situation faced anti‐interference, low‐energy, high integration for
by the single cell but also the battery pack needs to expanding cascade, and generality for promotion.
solve. Meantime, the random variability of the bat- 6. As a complex power machine, the electric vehicles
tery, the electric topology, the battery thermal man- need BMS to interact with VCU, MCU, and other
agement, etc should be taken into consideration. control units in real time. In this process, applying
The system model is combined with the aging propa- intelligent algorithms to the energy management of
gation dynamics to establish a battery system model electric vehicles is also an effective way to improve
on the basis of the performance and state parameter the energy utilization rate.
evaluation of individual cells.
Despite the upgrade of software technology, there is
The growing demand for EVs, user‐friendly functions, also lots of progress room for improving the hardware.
safety‐restricted design, wireless communication and etc The sensor layout is reasonable, the cost is low, and
are enormous innovations that offer a great deal of the overall detection balance is good; the sensor type
growth opportunities in this organic system, while there is complete, and the ultrasonic pulse diagnoses the
are several key issues and challenges in the process: internal electrochemical abnormality. What is more,
when the software algorithm is more difficult to sim-
1. In terms of traditional functions, the state estimation plify and the historical data storage is huge, the sensor
as the basic function should pay more attention to the based on the internet cloud computing is used to realize
accurate estimation under a wide range, multiple the remote data transmission, which greatly improves
temperature condition to meet the demand of full the hardware simplification of BMS. We can not only
operating mode. design EMSs based on intelligent algorithms but also
2. In order to achieve the improvement of charge and use advanced intelligent traffic information such
discharge efficiency, meanwhile, it is necessary to as GPS/ITS to predict road traffic information for a
take into account of minimizing the damage to the period of time in the future, thereby predicting the vehi-
battery itself during the process in equalization tech- cle speed, acceleration and deceleration behavior, and
nology. And the simplification of the equalization so on.
topology, the consideration of multiparameters algo- In recent years, autonomous driving technology is
rithm are necessary to avoid the overcharge and also rapidly developing, and many emerging automobile
overdischarge of batteries. enterprises generally develop autonomous driving sys-
3. Prediction and location of fault diagnosis. In the tems based on the EV platforms. The combination of
early period of the failure of the system, many fea- autonomous driving technology with the electrification
tures are not reflected. If the fault prediction of technology is bound to deal with the issue of coordinated
energy storage system can be realized by the weak control between the autonomous driving system and the
characteristics in the early stage, the fault of the sys- EV system. Determining how to analyze their coupling
tem can be detected as soon as possible. At the same relationship, how to build an integrated model of intelli-
time, battery packs consist of dozens or even hun- gent EVs, and how to carry out multisystem integrated
dreds of cells in series and parallel. Determining control of intelligent EVs, these problems are urgently
how to quickly locate faults and isolate them in needed for intelligent EVs, especially for self‐driving EVs.
26 SHEN AND GAO

Finally, the research and technology mentioned is algorithm. Meanwhile, the model built by the influence
mainly for LIB (traditional LIB). There are still many of aging phenomenon and mechanical stress is a more
efforts on new high‐energy density systems, like solid‐ comprehensive and realistic consideration of batteries
state LIB with high safety, replacing current organic elec- and is also a requirement for the development of the bat-
trolytes and separators,222 high‐temperature NAS battery, tery modeling technology in the future.
ZEBRA battery with low cost and long life, lithium‐sulfur Furthermore, this paper, on this basis, has deepened
battery with friendly environment,223 and price and the application and development of BMS. It involves the
metal‐air battery without charging.224 Among them, the acquisition of unmeasurable state parameters, the
core technology of high‐temperature NAS batteries is expansion of the equalization index except voltage for
ceramic preparation and high‐temperature insulation. It optimal battery status, the avoidance of temperature
is widely used in the infrastructure construction of transfer delay for timely thermal management, and the
large‐scale storage,225 stable power grid, and emergency improvement of diagnostic accuracy for vehicle safety.
energy supply. At present, the NAS battery produced by Among them, the battery state estimation is the basis
Japan NGK Corporation has a relatively complete for the operation of the other functions of BMS, and
management system. It can realize continuous remote the accuracy of prediction results will directly affect
monitoring and 3‐year thorough inspection, reaching the normal implementation of the management system.
unattended and fully automated state.226 ZEBRA battery, Meanwhile, SOC or capacity as an equalization standard
also with a high‐temperature system, is used in automo- for engineering, reasonable coupling of advanced battery
bile. It is a fully enclosed system that includes packaging thermal management system with other systems, such
and essential BMS, providing an interface to VCU.227 The as air‐conditioning and motor thermal management sys-
industrialization of the remaining battery systems has tem, as well as location, isolation or alarm after fault
had some application obstacles at present. The solid‐state determination still need to continue to explore. Besides,
LIB mainly depends on the breakthrough of material the appropriate selection of model and algorithms
technology, ie, the mature preparation technology of solid should be reflected in accordance with the relevant
electrolyte membranes. The key to the development of conditions.
ZEBRA battery is the solution for low conductivity and Last but not the least, this paper has reviewed the
volume change of sulfur, and the “shuttle” of lithium development of the multifunctional integrated battery
sulphide. Most metal‐air battery is the issue of electrode management system, combining with other on‐board
corrosion and self‐discharge. The research of energy controllers and intelligent technology, to form a complete
storage equipment has never been interrupted, and idea from multiphysics modeling simulation to multi-
commercialization and industrialization will be gradually function integrated technology. The higher the sophisti-
realized through continuous in‐depth research and opti- cated functional requirements, the greater the
mization design. computational burden. Consequently, a generalized
development rule or manufacturing standard about BMS
is waiting to be solved. It puts forward several reasonable
6 | CONCLUSION suggestions to realize the synergetic efficiency of the BMS
under the diversified and intricate conditions and to pro-
There are a multitude of researches and technologies in mote the innovation and development of new energy
the field of BMS range from the simplest monitoring to vehicles from electrification to intelligence.
a complex controller. Consequently, a large number of
papers on this topic have been published in the art, and
A C KN O WL ED G EME N T S
some of them are analyzed in this review.
First and foremost, this paper has summarized The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial fund of
techniques of battery modeling from a multiphysics the National Natural Science Foundation of China
perspective. Among them, the thermal model is mostly (NSFC) Key Program (No. U1864213). This research is
coupled with the electrical model for modeling. When also supported by the financial fund of the industry
coupled with the equivalent circuit model, it is mostly innovation from Jilin Province Development & Reform
used in the electric vehicle management system, while Commission (High‐tech Industry Special Project No.
with the electrochemical model, it is common in the 2016C022) and the Science and Technology Key Project
internal characteristics research of the batteries. from Changchun Municipal Administration of Science
Advances in improving and reducing electrochemical &Technology (Double Ten Special Project no. 17SS022).
models will certainly be a strong candidate for further Last but not the least, special thanks to Dr Yan Wang
increasing the accuracy while ensuring a simple and Dr Tianshi Zhang for their careful teaching and help.
SHEN AND GAO 27

ORCID 14. Xia GD, Cao L, Bi GL. A review on battery thermal management
in electric vehicle application. J Power Sources. 2017;367:90‐105.
Ming Shen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5198-5968 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.046
15. Li JC, Wang SL, Fernandez C, Wang N, Xie H. The battery
management system construction method study for the power
R EF E RE N C E S
lithium‐ion battery pack. 2017.
1. Hu X, Zou C, Zhang C, Li Y. Technological developments in 16. Ungurean L, Carstoiu G, Micea MV, Groza V. Battery state of
batteries: a survey of principal roles, types, and management health estimation: a structured review of models, methods
needs. IEEE Power Energ Mag. 2017;15(5):20‐31. https://doi. and commercial devices. Int J Energy Res. 2017;41(2):151‐181.
org/10.1109/MPE.2017.2708812 https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3598
2. Wang Q, Jiang B, Li B, Yan Y. A critical review of thermal 17. Al‐Zareer M, Dincer I, Rosen MA. A review of novel thermal
management models and solutions of lithium‐ion batteries for management systems for batteries. Int J Energy Res.
the development of pure electric vehicles. Renew Sustain 2018;42(10):3182‐3205. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4095
Energy Rev. 2016;64:106‐128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
18. Wang Y, Gao Q, Wang G, Lu P, Zhao M, Bao W. A review on
rser.2016.05.033
research status and key technologies of battery thermal man-
3. Xing Y, Ma EWM, Tsui KL, Pecht M. Battery management sys- agement and its enhanced safety. Int J Energy Res.
tems in electric and hybrid vehicles. Energies. 2018;42(13):4008‐4033. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4158
2011;4(11):1840‐1857. https://doi.org/10.3390/en4111840
19. Geetha A, Subramani C. A comprehensive review on energy
4. Lu L, Han X, Li J, et al. A review on the key issues for lithium‐ management strategies of hybrid energy storage system for
ion battery management in electric vehicles. J Power Sources. electric vehicles. Int J Energy Res. 2017;41(13):1817‐1834.
2013;226:272‐288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060 https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3730
5. Effat Mohammed B, Wu C, Ciucci F. Modeling efforts in the 20. Bernardi D, Pawlikowski E, Newman J. A general energy bal-
key areas of thermal management and safety of lithium ion ance for battery systems. J Electrochem Soc. 1985;132(1):5‐12.
battery cells: a mini review. Asia Pac J Chem Eng. 21. Karen E. Thomas, Newman J. Heats of mixing and of entropy
2016;11(3):399‐406. https://doi.org/10.1002/apj.1999 in porous insertion electrodes. J Power Sources.
6. Zhang J, Wu B, Li Z, Huang J. Simultaneous estimation of 2003;119(121):844‐849. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐7753(03)
thermal parameters for large‐format laminated lithium‐ion bat- 00283‐0
teries. J Power Sources. 2014;259:106‐116. https://doi.org/ 22. Pals CR, Newman J. Thermal modeling of the lithiumpolymer
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.02.079 battery. II. Temperature profiles in a cell stack. J Electrochem
7. Yue F, Zhang G, Zhang J, Lin J, Jiao K. Numerical simulation Soc. 1995;142(10):3282‐3288.
of transport characteristics of Li‐ion battery in different 23. Pals CR, Newman J. Thermal modeling of the lithiumpolymer
discharging modes. Appl Therm Eng. 2017;126:70‐80. https:// battery. I. Discharge behavior of a single cell. J Electrochem Soc.
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.07.151 1995;142(10):3274‐3281.
8. Gambhire P, Hariharan KS, Khandelwal A, Kolake SM, Yeo T, 24. Onda K, Ohshima T, Nakayama M, Fukuda K, Araki T. Ther-
Doo S. A physics based reduced order aging model for lithium‐ mal behavior of small lithium‐ion battery during rapid charge
ion cells with phase change. J Power Sources. 2014;270:281‐291. and discharge cycles. J Power Sources. 2006;158(1):535‐542.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.07.127 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.08.049
9. Zuo P, Zhao YP. A phase field model coupling lithium diffu- 25. Kim US, Yi J, Shin CB, Han T, Park S. Modeling the thermal
sion and stress evolution with crack propagation and behaviors of a lithium‐ion battery during constant‐power dis-
application in lithium ion batteries. Phys Chem Chem Phys. charge and charge operations. J Electrochem Soc. 2013;160(6):
2015;17(1):287‐297. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4cp00563e A990‐A995.
10. Banguero E, Correcher A, Pérez‐Navarro Á, Morant F, 26. Du S, Jia M, Cheng Y, et al. Study on the thermal behaviors of
Aristizabal A. A review on battery charging and discharging power lithium iron phosphate (LFP) aluminum‐laminated
control strategies: application to renewable energy systems. battery with different tab configurations. Int J Therm Sci.
Energies. 2018;11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/en11041021 2015;89:327‐336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2014.
11. Balagopal B, Chow MY, Ieee. The state of the art approaches to 11.018
estimate the state of health (SOH) and state of function (SOF) 27. Lin X, Perez HE, Mohan S, et al. A lumped‐parameter electro‐
of lithium ion batteries. Proceedings 2015 Ieee International thermal model for cylindrical batteries. J Power Sources.
Conference on Industrial Informatics, 2015;1302‐1307. 2014;257:1‐11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.097
12. Noh TW, Ahn JH, Lee BK. An advanced SOF estimation algo- 28. Xiao Y. Model‐based virtual thermal sensors for lithium‐ion
rithm for LiFePO4 SLI battery of vehicle with online update of battery in EV applications. IEEE Trans Ind Electron.
cranking resistance. IEEE Energy Convers Congress Exposition. 2015;62(5):3112‐3122. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2014.
2017;2017:5612‐5616. 2386793
13. Uno M, Kukita A. String‐to‐battery voltage equalizer based on 29. Forgez C, Vinh Do D, Friedrich G, Morcrette M, Delacourt C.
half‐bridge converter with multi‐stacked current doublers for Thermal modeling of a cylindrical LiFePO4/graphite lithium‐
series‐connected batteries. IEEE Trans Power Electron. ion battery. J Power Sources. 2010;195(9):2961‐2968. https://
2018;34(2):1‐1298. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2018.2829664 doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.105
28 SHEN AND GAO

30. Guo M, Kim G‐H, White RE. A three‐dimensional multi‐ 45. Smith K, Wang C‐Y. Solid‐state diffusion limitations on pulse
physics model for a Li‐ion battery. J Power Sources. operation of a lithium ion cell for hybrid electric vehicles.
2013;240:80‐94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.03.170 J Power Sources. 2006;161(1):628‐639. https://doi.org/10.1016/
31. Kim GH, Smith K, Lee KJ, Santhanagopalan S, Pesaran A. j.jpowsour.2006.03.050
Multi‐domain modeling of lithium‐ion batteries encompassing 46. Basu S, Hariharan KS, Kolake SM, Song T, Sohn DK, Yeo T.
multi‐physics in varied length scales. J Electrochem Soc. Coupled electrochemical thermal modelling of a novel Li‐ion
2011;158(8):A955‐A969. battery pack thermal management system. Appl Energy.
32. Lee K‐J, Smith K, Pesaran A, Kim GH. Three dimensional 2016;181:1‐13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.08.049
thermal‐, electrical‐, and electrochemical‐coupled model for 47. Basu S, Patil RS, Ramachandran S, et al. Non‐isothermal elec-
cylindrical wound large format lithium‐ion batteries. J Power trochemical model for lithium‐ion cells with composite
Sources. 2013;241:20‐32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour. cathodes. J Power Sources. 2015;283:132‐150. https://doi.org/
2013.03.007 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.02.127
33. Doyle M, Newman J. The use of mathematical modeling in the 48. Shi Y, Prasad G, Shen Z, Rahn CD. Discretization methods for
design of lithium/polymer battery systems. Electrochim Acta. battery systems modeling. 2011: 356‐361
1995;40(13):2191‐2196. 49. Huo Y, Rao Z. Investigation of phase change material based
34. Doyle M, Newman J, Gozdz AS, Schmutz CN, Tarascon JM. battery thermal management at cold temperature using lattice
Comparison of modeling predictions with experimental data Boltzmann method. Energ Conver Manage. 2017;133:204‐215.
from plastic lithium ion cells. J Electrochem Soc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.12.009
1996;143(6):1890‐1903. 50. Jiang ZY, Qu ZG, Zhou L, Tao WQ. A microscopic investiga-
35. Lin R, Newman J. Heat‐generation rate and general energy bal- tion of ion and electron transport in lithium‐ion battery
ance for insertion battery systems. J Electrochem Soc. porous electrodes using the lattice Boltzmann method. Appl
1997;144(8):2697‐2704. Energy. 2017;194:530‐539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.
2016.10.125
36. Tiedemann W. Maximum effective capacity in an ohmically
51. Jokar A, Rajabloo B, Désilets M, Lacroix M. Review of simpli-
limited porous electrode. J Electrochem Soc. 1975;122(11):
fied pseudo‐two‐dimensional models of lithium‐ion batteries.
1482‐1485.
J Power Sources. 2016;327:44‐55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
37. Allu S, Kalnaus S, Simunovic S, Nanda J, Turner JA, Pannala S. jpowsour.2016.07.036
A three‐dimensional meso‐macroscopic model for Li‐ion inter-
52. Tong S, Klein MP, Park JW. Comprehensive battery equivalent
calation batteries ☆. J Power Sources. 2016;325:42‐50.
circuit based model for battery management application.
38. Christensen J, Newman J. A Mathematical model of stress gen- 2013(56123): V001T005A005. https://doi.org/10.1115/DSCC
eration and fracture in lithium manganese oxide. Electrochem 2013‐4087
Soc. 2005;153(6):A1019‐A1030.
53. Pathiyil P, Krishnan KS, Sunitha R, Vishal VN. Battery model
39. Zhu M, Park J, Sastry AM. Fracture analysis of the cathode in for hybrid electric vehicle corrected for self‐discharge and
Li‐ion batteries: a simulation study. J Electrochem Soc. internal resistance. 2016.
2012;159(4):A492. 54. Sibi Krishnan K, Pathiyil P, Sunitha R. Generic battery model
40. Kai A, Barai P, Smith K, Mukherjee PP. Probing the thermal covering self‐discharge and internal resistance variation 2016
implications in mechanical degradation of lithium‐ion battery IEEE 6th International Conference on Power Systems (ICPS),
electrodes. J Electrochem Soc. 2014;161(6):A1058‐A1070. 2016;1‐5.
41. Zhang Q, Guo Q, White RE. Semi‐empirical modeling of 55. Antaloae C, Marco J, Assadian F. A novel method for the
charge and discharge profiles for a LiCoO2 electrode. J Power parameterization of a Li‐ion cell model for EV/HEV control
Sources. 2007;165(1):427‐435. applications. Ieee Transactions on Vehicular Technology.
42. Li J, Cheng Y, Jia M, et al. An electrochemical‐thermal model 2012;61(9):3881‐3892. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvt.2012.2212474
based on dynamic responses for lithium iron phosphate bat- 56. Dambone Sessa S, Tortella A, Andriollo M, Benato R. Li‐ion
tery. J Power Sources. 2014;255:130‐143. https://doi.org/ battery‐flywheel hybrid storage system: countering battery
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.01.007 aging during a grid frequency regulation service. Appl Sci.
43. Yuan S, Jiang L, Yin C, Wu H, Zhang X. A transfer function 2018;8(11):2330. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112330
type of simplified electrochemical model with modified 57. Benato R, Sessa SD, Bevilacqua F, Palone F. Measurement‐
boundary conditions and Padé approximation for Li‐ion based lithium‐manganese oxide battery model 2017 AEIT Inter-
battery: Part 1. lithium concentration estimation. J Power national Annual Conference, 2017;1‐6.
Sources. 2017;352:245‐257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour. 58. Zhang XQ, Zhang WP, Lei GY. A review of Li‐ion battery
2017.03.060 equivalent circuit models. Trans Electr Electron Mater.
44. Yuan S, Jiang L, Yin C, Wu H, Zhang X. A transfer function 2016;17(6):311‐316. https://doi.org/10.4313/teem.2016.17.6.311
type of simplified electrochemical model with modified bound- 59. Saxena S, Raman SR, Saritha B, John V. A novel approach for
ary conditions and Padé approximation for Li‐ion battery: Part electrical circuit modeling of Li‐ion battery for predicting the -
2. Modeling and parameter estimation. J Power Sources. steady‐state and dynamic I‐V characteristics. Sadhana‐
2017;352:258‐271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017. Academy Proc Eng Sci. 2016;41(5):479‐487. https://doi.org/
03.061 10.1007/s12046‐016‐0486‐7
SHEN AND GAO 29

60. Serrao L, Chehab Z, Guezennee Y, Rizzoni G. An aging model J Power Sources. 2017;360:618‐633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
of Ni‐MH batteries for hybrid electric vehicles 2005 IEEE Vehi- jpowsour.2017.06.031
cle Power and Propulsion Conference, 2005;8 pp. 76. Ye Y, Saw LH, Shi Y, Somasundaram K, Tay AAO. Effect of
61. Min C, Rincon‐Mora GA. Accurate electrical battery model thermal contact resistances on fast charging of large format
capable of predicting runtime and I‐V performance. IEEE lithium ion batteries. Electrochim Acta. 2014;134:327‐337.
Trans Energy Convers. 2006;21(2):504‐511. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.04.134
10.1109/TEC.2006.874229 77. Xiao M, Choe S‐Y. Dynamic modeling and analysis of a
62. Luo WL, Lv C, Wang LX, Liu C. Study on impedance model of pouch type LiMn2O4/Carbon high power Li‐polymer
Li‐ion battery 2011 6th Ieee Conference on Industrial Electronics battery based on electrochemical‐thermal principles. J Power
and Applications, 2011;1943‐1947. Sources. 2012;218:357‐367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
63. Dai HF, Jiang B, Wei XZ. Impedance characterization and 2012.05.103
modeling of lithium‐ion batteries considering the internal tem- 78. Xu M, Zhang Z, Wang X, Jia L, Yang L. A pseudo three‐
perature gradient. Energies. 2018;11(1):220. https://doi.org/ dimensional electrochemical‐thermal model of a prismatic
10.3390/en11010220 LiFePO4 battery during discharge process. Energy.
64. Greenleaf M, Li H, Zheng JP. Application of physical electric 2015;80:303‐317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.11.073
circuit modeling to characterize Li‐ion battery electrochemical 79. Li J, Cheng Y, Ai L, et al. 3D simulation on the internal distrib-
processes. J Power Sources. 2014;270:113‐120. https://doi.org/ uted properties of lithium‐ion battery with planar tabbed
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.07.083 configuration. J Power Sources. 2015;293:993‐1005. https://doi.
65. Johnson VH. Battery performance models in ADVISOR. J org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.06.034
Power Sources. 2002;110(2):321‐329. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 80. Ghalkhani M, Bahiraei F, Nazri G‐A, Saif M. Electrochemical‐
S0378‐7753(02)00194‐5 thermal model of pouch‐type lithium‐ion batteries. Electrochim
66. Tremblay O, Dessaint LA, Dekkiche AI. A generic battery Acta. 2017;247:569‐587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
model for the dynamic simulation of hybrid electric vehicles electacta.2017.06.164
2007 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, 81. Miranda AG, Hong CW. Integrated modeling for the cyclic
2007;284‐289. behavior of high power Li‐ion batteries under extended operat-
67. PNGV battery test manual. Office of Scientific & Technical ing conditions. Appl Energy. 2013;111:681‐689. https://doi.org/
Information Technical Reports 1997 10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.05.047
68. Liaw BY, Jungst RG, Nagasubramanian G, Case HL, Doughty 82. Jiang JC, Ruan HJ, Sun BX, et al. A reduced low‐temperature
DH. Modeling capacity fade in lithium‐ion cells. J Power electro‐thermal coupled model for lithium‐ion batteries. Appl
Sources. 2005;140(1):157‐161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Energy. 2016;177:804‐816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jpowsour.2004.08.017 apenergy.2016.05.153
69. Roscher MA, Sauer DU. Dynamic electric behavior and open‐ 83. Ping P, Wang QS, Chung YM, Wen J. Modelling electro‐
circuit‐voltage modeling of LiFePO4‐based lithium ion second- thermal response of lithium‐ion batteries from normal to abuse
ary batteries. J Power Sources. 2011;196(1):331‐336. https://doi. conditions. Appl Energy. 2017;205:1327‐1344. https://doi.org/
org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.06.098 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.073
70. USABC electric vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual. Revi- 84. Sun HG, Wang XH, Tossan B, Dixon R. Three‐dimensional
sion 2. Office of Scientific & Technical Information Technical thermal modeling of a lithium‐ion battery pack. J Power
Reports 1996 Sources. 2012;206:349‐356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
71. Dambone Sessa S, Crugnola G, Todeschini M, Zin S, Benato R. 2012.01.081
Sodium nickel chloride battery steady‐state regime model for 85. Pelletier S, Jabali O, Laporte G, Veneroni M. Battery
stationary electrical energy storage. J Energy Storage. degradation and behaviour for electric vehicles: review and
2016;6:105‐115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2016.03.005 numerical analyses of several models. Transp Res B Methodol.
72. Dambone Sessa S, Palone F, Necci A, Benato R. Sodium‐nickel 2017;103:158‐187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2017.01.020
chloride battery experimental transient modelling for energy 86. Prada E, Domenico DD, Creff Y, Bernard J, Sauvant‐Moynot V,
stationary storage. J Energy Storage. 2017;9:40‐46. https://doi. Huet F. Physics‐based modelling of LiFePO4‐graphite Li‐ion
org/10.1016/j.est.2016.11.008 batteries for power and capacity fade predictions: application
73. Jossen A. Fundamentals of battery dynamics. J Power Sources. to calendar aging of PHEV and EV 2012 IEEE Vehicle Power
2006;154(2):530‐538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005. and Propulsion Conference, 2012;301‐308.
10.041 87. Kupper C, Bessler WG. Multi‐scale thermo‐electrochemical
74. Gao X, Zhang J, Ning N. Transient behavior modeling and modeling of performance and aging of a LiFePO4/graphite
physical meaning analysis for battery 2010 International Con- lithium‐ion cell. J Electrochem Soc. 2017;164(2):A304‐A320.
ference on Computer Application and System Modeling https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0761702jes
(ICCASM 2010), 2010;V2‐383‐V382‐386. 88. Ganesan N, Basu S, Hariharan KS, et al. Physics based model-
75. Farag M, Sweity H, Fleckenstein M, Habibi S. Combined elec- ing of a series parallel battery pack for asymmetry analysis,
trochemical, heat generation, and thermal model for large predictive control and life extension. J Power Sources.
prismatic lithium‐ion batteries in real‐time applications. 2016;322:57‐67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.05.005
30 SHEN AND GAO

89. Barré A, Deguilhem B, Grolleau S, Gérard M, Suard F, Riu D. 103. Duan XT, Jiang WJ, Zou YL, Lei W, Ma Z. A coupled
A review on lithium‐ion battery ageing mechanisms and esti- electrochemical‐thermal‐mechanical model for spiral‐wound
mations for automotive applications. J Power Sources. Li‐ion batteries. J Mater Sci. 2018;53(15):10987‐11001. https://
2013;241:680‐689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013. doi.org/10.1007/s10853‐018‐2365‐6
05.040 104. Oh K‐Y, Samad NA, Kim Y, Siegel JB, Stefanopoulou AG,
90. Wang J, Liu P, Hicks‐Garner J, et al. Cycle‐life model for Epureanu BI. A novel phenomenological multi‐physics model
graphite‐LiFePO4 cells. J Power Sources. 2011;196(8):3942‐3948. of Li‐ion battery cells. J Power Sources. 2016;326:447‐458.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.019
91. Shen J, Dusmez S, Khaligh A. An advanced electro‐thermal 105. Waag W, Sauer DU. Secondary Batteries—Lead—Acid Sys-
cycle‐lifetime estimation model for LiFePO4 batteries 2013 tems|State‐of‐Charge/Health. Encyclopedia of Electrochemical
IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo Power Sources. 2009;793‐804. http://doi.org/10.1016/b978‐
(ITEC), 2013;1‐6. 044452745‐5.00149‐0
92. Anseán D, García VM, González M, Viera JC, Blanco C, 106. Juang LW, Kollmeyer PJ, Jahns TM, Lorenz RD. Implementa-
Antuña JL. DC internal resistance during charge: Analysis tion of online battery state‐of‐power and state‐of‐function
and study on LiFePO4 batteries 2013 World Electric Vehicle estimation in electric vehicle applications 2012 IEEE Energy
Symposium and Exhibition (EVS27), 2013;1‐11. Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2012;1819‐1826.
93. Omar N, Monem MA, Firouz Y, et al. Lithium iron phosphate 107. Mamadou K, Lemaire E, Delaille A, Riu D, Hing SE, Bultel Y.
based battery—assessment of the aging parameters and devel- Definition of a state‐of‐energy indicator (SoE) for electrochem-
opment of cycle life model. Appl Energy. 2014;113:1575‐1585. ical storage devices: application for energetic availability
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.09.003 forecasting. J Electrochem Soc. 2012;159(8):A1298‐A1307.
94. Grolleau S, Delaille A, Gualous H, et al. Calendar aging of https://doi.org/10.1149/2.075208jes
commercial graphite/LiFePO4 cell—predicting capacity fade 108. Meng J, Luo G, Ricco M, Swierczynski M, Stroe DI, Teodorescu
under time dependent storage conditions. J Power Sources. R. Overview of lithium‐ion battery modeling methods for state‐
2014;255:450‐458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013. of‐charge estimation in electrical vehicles. Appl Sci (Switzer-
11.098 land). 2018;8(5):659. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8050659
95. Ecker M, Gerschler JB, Vogel J, et al. Development of a lifetime 109. Bizeray AM, Zhao S, Duncan SR, Howey DA. Lithium‐ion bat-
prediction model for lithium‐ion batteries based on extended tery thermal‐electrochemical model‐based state estimation
accelerated aging test data. J Power Sources. 2012;215:248‐257. using orthogonal collocation and a modified extended Kalman
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.05.012 filter. J Power Sources. 2015;296:400‐412. https://doi.org/
96. Schmalstieg J, Käbitz S, Ecker M, Sauer DU. A holistic aging 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.019
model for Li(NiMnCo)O2 based 18650 lithium‐ion batteries. J 110. Peng S, Zhu X, Xing Y, Shi H, Cai X, Pecht M. An adaptive
Power Sources. 2014;257:325‐334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. state of charge estimation approach for lithium‐ion series‐
jpowsour.2014.02.012 connected battery system. J Power Sources. 2018;392:48‐59.
97. Onori S. A new life estimation method for lithium‐ion batteries https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.04.101
in plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles applications. Int J Power 111. Guidan L, Kai P, Bin L. State‐of‐charge estimation for lithium‐
Electron. 2012;4(3):302‐319. ion battery using a combined method. J Power Electron.
98. Serrao L, Onori S, Rizzoni G, Guezennec Y. A novel model‐ 2018;18(1):129‐136. https://doi.org/10.6113/JPE.2018.18.1.129
based algorithm for battery prognosis. IFAC Proc Vol. 112. Ramadass P, Haran B, Gomadam PM, White R, Popov BN.
2009;42(8):923‐928. https://doi.org/10.3182/20090630‐4‐ES‐ Development of first principles capacity fade model for Li‐ion
2003.00152 cells. J Electrochem Soc. 2004;151(2):A196‐A203. https://doi.
99. Zhu J, Wierzbicki T, Li W. A review of safety‐focused mechan- org/10.1149/1.1634273
ical modeling of commercial lithium‐ion batteries. J Power 113. Ramadass P, Haran B, White R, Popov BN. Mathematical
Sources. 2018;378:153‐168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour. modeling of the capacity fade of Li‐ion cells. J Power Sources.
2017.12.034 2003;123(2):230‐240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐7753(03)
100. Golmon S, Maute K, Dunn ML. Numerical modeling of 00531‐7
electrochemical‐mechanical interactions in lithium polymer 114. Remmlinger J, Buchholz M, Meiler M, Bernreuter P,
batteries. Comput Struct. 2009;87(23):1567‐1579. https://doi. Dietmayer K. State‐of‐health monitoring of lithium‐ion batte-
org/10.1016/j.compstruc.2009.08.005 ries in electric vehicles by on‐board internal resistance
101. Sauerteig D, Hanselmann N, Arzberger A, Reinshagen H, estimation. J Power Sources. 2011;196(12):5357‐5363. https://
Ivanov S, Bund A. Electrochemical‐mechanical coupled model- doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.08.035
ing and parameterization of swelling and ionic transport in 115. Dong H, Jin X, Lou Y, Wang C. Lithium‐ion battery state of
lithium‐ion batteries. J Power Sources. 2018;378:235‐247. health monitoring and remaining useful life prediction based
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.12.044 on support vector regression‐particle filter. J Power Sources.
102. Valentin O, Thivel P‐X, Kareemulla T, Cadiou F, Bultel Y. 2014;271:114‐123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.
Modeling of thermo‐mechanical stresses in Li‐ion battery. 07.176
J Energy Storage. 2017;13:184‐192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 116. Shui L, Peng X, Zhang J, Garg A, Nguyen HD, Phung le ML. A
est.2017.07.018 coupled mechanical‐electrochemical study of li‐ion battery
SHEN AND GAO 31

based on genetic programming and experimental validation. 130. Zhang YZ, Xiong R, He HW, Shen W. Lithium‐ion battery
J Electrochem Energy Convers Storage. 2018;16(1):011008. ‐ pack state of charge and state of energy estimation algorithms
011008‐011007. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4040824 using a hardware‐in‐the‐loop validation. IEEE Trans Power
117. Plett GL. High‐performance battery‐pack power estimation Electron. 2017;32(6):4421‐4431. https://doi.org/10.1109/
using a dynamic cell model. Ieee Transactions on Vehicular tpel.2016.2603229
Technology. 2004;53(5):1586‐1593. https://doi.org/10.1109/ 131. Bartlett AP. Electrochemical model‐based state of charge and
tvt.2004.832408 state of health estimation of lithium‐ion batteries Mechanical
118. Zhang C, Zhang C, Sharkh SM. Estimation of real‐time peak Engineering. Columbus, USA: The Ohio State University; 2015.
power capability of a traction battery pack used in an HEV 132. Han X. Study on Li‐ion battery mechanism model and state esti-
2010 Asia‐Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference, mation for electric vehicles. Beijing, China: Tsinghua University;
2010;1‐6. 2014.
119. Liu G, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Han X. Online estimation of 133. Li X, Pan K, Fan G, et al. A physics‐based fractional order
lithium‐ion battery remaining discharge capacity through dif- model and state of energy estimation for lithium ion batteries.
ferential voltage analysis. J Power Sources. 2015;274:971‐989. Part II: parameter identification and state of energy estimation
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.132 for LiFePO4 battery. J Power Sources. 2017;367:202‐213. https://
120. Liu G, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Hua J. A highly accurate doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.048
predictive‐adaptive method for lithium‐ion battery remaining 134. Ismail M, Dlyma R, Elrakaybi A, Ahmed R, Habibi S. Battery
discharge energy prediction in electric vehicle applications. state of charge estimation using an artificial neural network
Appl Energy. 2015;149:297‐314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2017 Ieee Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo,
apenergy.2015.03.110 2017;342‐349.
121. Wang Y, Chen Z, Zhang C. On‐line remaining energy predic- 135. Li IH, Wang WY, Su SF, Lee YS. A merged fuzzy neural net-
tion: a case study in embedded battery management system. work and its applications in battery state‐of‐charge
Appl Energy. 2017;194:688‐695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. estimation. IEEE Trans Energy Convers. 2007;22(3):697‐708.
apenergy.2016.05.081 https://doi.org/10.1109/tec.2007.895457
122. Wang Y, Zhang C, Chen Z. An adaptive remaining energy pre- 136. Deng Z, Yang L, Cai Y, Deng H. Maximum available capacity
diction approach for lithium‐ion batteries in electric vehicles. and energy estimation based on support vector machine regres-
J Power Sources. 2016;305:80‐88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sion for lithium‐ion battery. Energy Procedia. 2017;107:68‐75.
jpowsour.2015.11.087 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.12.131
123. Partovibakhsh M, Liu G. An adaptive unscented Kalman filter- 137. Zhao G, Zhang G, Liu Y, Zhang B, Hu C. Lithium‐ion battery
ing approach for online estimation of model parameters and remaining useful life prediction with deep belief network and
state‐of‐charge of lithium‐ion batteries for autonomous mobile relevance vector machine 2017 IEEE International Conference
robots. IEEE Trans Control Syst Technol. 2015;23(1):357‐363. on Prognostics and Health Management (ICPHM), 2017;7‐13.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TCST.2014.2317781 138. Liu D, Luo Y, Liu J, Peng Y, Guo L, Pecht M. Lithium‐ion bat-
124. Sun D, Chen X. Charge state estimation of Li‐ion batteries tery remaining useful life estimation based on fusion nonlinear
based on discrete‐time sliding mode observers. Proc CSEE. degradation AR model and RPF algorithm. Neural Comput &
2015;2015(1):185‐191. https://doi.org/10.13334/j.0258‐8013. Applic. 2014;25(3):557‐572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521‐
pcsee.2015.01.023 013‐1520‐x
125. Wei D, Huang Z, Kong H. Battery SOC research and prediction 139. Sahinoglu GO, Pajovic M, Sahinoglu Z, Wang Y, Orlik PV,
methods. Chin J Power Sources. 2016;6:1321‐1323. https://doi. Wada T. Battery state‐of‐charge estimation based on
org/10.3969/j.issn.1002‐087X.2016.06.055 regular/recurrent Gaussian process regression. IEEE Trans
126. Bhangu BS, Bentley P, Stone DA, Bingham CM. Nonlinear Ind Electron. 2018;65(5):4311‐4321. https://doi.org/10.1109/
observers for predicting state‐of‐charge and state‐of‐health of TIE.2017.2764869
lead‐acid batteries for hybrid‐electric vehicles. IEEE Trans 140. Kutkut NH, Divan DM. Dynamic equalization techniques for
Veh Technol. 2005;54(3):783‐794. https://doi.org/10.1109/ series battery stacks Telecommunications Energy Conference,
TVT.2004.842461 1996. Intelec '96., International, 1996;514‐521.
127. Qiao R, Zhang M, Liu Y. A novel real‐time state‐of‐health and 141. Pascual C, Krein PT. Switched capacitor system for automatic
state‐of‐charge co‐estimation method for LiFePO4 battery. Chin series battery equalization Applied Power Electronics Confer-
Phys Lett. 2016;33(7):182‐185. ence and Exposition, 1997. Apec '97 Conference Proceedings,
128. Wang Q, Kang J, Tan Z, Luo M. An online method to simulta- 1997;848‐854 vol.842.
neously identify the parameters and estimate states for lithium 142. Gallardo‐Lozano J, Romero‐Cadaval E, Milanes‐Montero MI,
ion batteries. Electrochim Acta. 2018;289:376‐388. https://doi. Guerrero‐Martinez MA. Battery equalization active methods.
org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.08.076 J Power Sources. 2014;246:934‐949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
129. Shen P, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Feng X. The co‐estimation of jpowsour.2013.08.026
state of charge, state of health, and state of function for 143. Hoque MM, Hannan MA, Mohamed A, Ayob A. Battery charge
lithium‐ion batteries in electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh equalization controller in electric vehicle applications: a
Technol. 2018;67(1):92‐103. https://doi.org/10.1109/ review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2017;75:1363‐1385. https://
TVT.2017.2751613 doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.126
32 SHEN AND GAO

144. Qi J, Lu DD‐C. Review of battery cell balancing techniques 158. Bandhauer T, Garimella S, Fuller TF. Electrochemical‐thermal
2014 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference modeling to evaluate battery thermal management strategies: I.
(AUPEC), 2014;1‐6. Side cooling. J Electrochem Soc. 2015;162(1):A125‐A136.
145. Uno M, Tanaka K. A single‐switch equalization charger using https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0571501jes
multiple stacked buck‐boost converters for series‐connected 159. Lazrak A, Fourmigué J‐F, Robin J‐F. An innovative practical
energy‐storage modules. Electr Eng Jpn. 2012;182(3):57‐67. battery thermal management system based on phase change
https://doi.org/10.1002/eej.22332 materials: numerical and experimental investigations. Appl
146. Stuart TA, Zhu W. Fast equalization for large lithium ion bat- Therm Eng. 2018;128:20‐32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
teries. IEEE Aerosp Electron Syst Mag. 2009;24(7):27‐31. applthermaleng.2017.08.172
https://doi.org/10.1109/MAES.2009.5208557
160. Rao Z, Wang Q, Huang C. Investigation of the thermal perfor-
147. Yuang‐Shung L, Ming‐Wang C. Intelligent control battery mance of phase change material/mini‐channel coupled battery
equalization for series connected lithium‐ion battery strings. thermal management system. Appl Energy. 2016;164:659‐669.
IEEE Trans Ind Electron. 2005;52(5):1297‐1307. https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.12.021
org/10.1109/TIE.2005.855673
161. Ling Z, Wen X, Zhang Z, Fang X, Gao X. Thermal management
148. Zheng YJ, Ouyang MG, Lu LG, et al. Cell state‐of‐charge incon-
performance of phase change materials with different thermal
sistency estimation for LiFePO4 battery pack in hybrid electric
conductivities for Li‐ion battery packs operated at low temper-
vehicles using mean‐difference model. Appl Energy.
atures. Energy. 2018;144:977‐983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
2013;111:571‐580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.
energy.2017.12.098
05.048
149. Zhang CP, Jiang Y, Jiang JC, Cheng G, Diao W, Zhang W. 162. Tran T‐H, Harmand S, Desmet B, Filangi S. Experimental
Study on battery pack consistency evolutions and equilibrium investigation on the feasibility of heat pipe cooling for
diagnosis for serial‐connected lithium‐ion batteries. Appl HEV/EV lithium‐ion battery. Appl Therm Eng.
Energy. 2017;207:510‐519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2014;63(2):551‐558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.
apenergy.2017.05.176 2013.11.048

150. Ma Y, Duan P, Sun Y, Chen H. Equalization of lithium‐ion bat- 163. Zhao R, Gu J, Liu J. An experimental study of heat pipe ther-
tery pack based on fuzzy logic control in electric vehicle. IEEE mal management system with wet cooling method for
Trans Ind Electron. 2018;65(8):6762‐6771. https://doi.org/ lithium ion batteries. J Power Sources. 2015;273:1089‐1097.
10.1109/TIE.2018.2795578 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.007
151. Zheng Y, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Han X, Xu L. On‐line equali- 164. Greco A, Cao D, Jiang X, Yang H. A theoretical and computa-
zation for lithium‐ion battery packs based on charging cell tional study of lithium‐ion battery thermal management for
voltages: Part 2. Fuzzy logic equalization. J Power Sources. electric vehicles using heat pipes. J Power Sources.
2014;247:460‐466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013. 2014;257:344‐355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.
09.012 02.004
152. Zheng Y, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Han X, Xu L. On‐line equali- 165. Ye Y, Saw LH, Shi Y, Tay AAO. Numerical analyses on
zation for lithium‐ion battery packs based on charging cell optimizing a heat pipe thermal management system for
voltages: Part 1. Equalization based on remaining charging lithium‐ion batteries during fast charging. Appl
capacity estimation. J Power Sources. 2014;247:676‐686. Therm Eng. 2015;86:281‐291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.09.030 applthermaleng.2015.04.066
153. Cui XD, Shen WX, Zhang YL, Hu C, Zheng J. Novel active
166. Zou H, Wang W, Zhang G, Qin F, Tian C, Yan Y. Experimental
LiFePO4 battery balancing method based on chargeable and
investigation on an integrated thermal management system
dischargeable capacity. Comput Chem Eng. 2017;97:27‐35.
with heat pipe heat exchanger for electric vehicle. Energ Conver
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2016.11.014
Manage. 2016;118:88‐95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
154. Diao WP, Xue N, Bhattacharjee V, Jiang J, Karabasoglu O, Pecht 2016.03.066
M. Active battery cell equalization based on residual available
energy maximization. Appl Energy. 2018;210:690‐698. https:// 167. Saw LH, Poon HM, Thiam HS, et al. Novel thermal manage-
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.07.137 ment system using mist cooling for lithium‐ion battery packs.
Appl Energy. 2018;223:146‐158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
155. Nelson P, Dees D, Amine K, Henriksen G. Modeling thermal
apenergy.2018.04.042
management of lithium‐ion PNGV batteries. J Power Sources.
2002;110(2):349‐356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐7753(02) 168. Al‐Zareer M, Dincer I, Rosen MA. Novel thermal
00197‐0 management system using boiling cooling for high‐powered
156. Wu M‐S, Liu KH, Wang Y‐Y, Wan CC. Heat dissipation design lithium‐ion battery packs for hybrid electric vehicles.
for lithium‐ion batteries. J Power Sources. 2002;109(1):160‐166. J Power Sources. 2017;363:291‐303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐7753(02)00048‐4 jpowsour.2017.07.067
157. Yang T, Yang N, Zhang X, Li G. Investigation of the thermal 169. Shah K, McKee C, Chalise D, Jain A. Experimental and numer-
performance of axial‐flow air cooling for the lithium‐ion bat- ical investigation of core cooling of Li‐ion cells using heat
tery pack. Int J Therm Sci. 2016;108:132‐144. https://doi.org/ pipes. Energy. 2016;113:852‐860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2016.05.009 energy.2016.07.076
SHEN AND GAO 33

170. Sievers M, Sievers U, Mao SS. Thermal modelling of new Li‐ion 185. Kishiyama C, Mehta V, Gadda C, et al. State of charge range.
cell design modifications. Forsch Ingenieurwes. 2010;74(4): US12950089 America 2013.
215‐231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10010‐010‐0127‐y 186. Kelty KR, Kohn SI. Charge disruption monitoring and notifica-
171. Bandhauer T, Garimella S, Fuller TF. Electrochemical‐thermal tion system. US13182359: America 2012.
modeling to evaluate battery thermal management strategies: 187. Paryani A, Kishiyama CH, Kohn SI, et al. Fast charging of bat-
II. Edge and internal cooling. J Electrochem Soc. 2015;162(1): tery using adjustable voltage control. US9419450: America,
A137‐A148. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0581501jes 2015.
172. Oh K‐Y, Epureanu BI. Characterization and modeling of the 188. Butzmann S. Battery management system, battery, motor vehi-
thermal mechanics of lithium‐ion battery cells. Appl Energy. cle having a battery management system, and method for
2016;178:633‐646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016. monitoring a battery. US10024921: America 2012.
06.069
189. Zhang M. Wireless network based battery management system.
173. Yi J, Kim US, Shin CB, Han T, Park S. Modeling the US15529702: America, 2014.
temperature dependence of the discharge behavior of a
190. Benz S, Schneider J, Haug K, et al. Battery management system
lithium‐ion battery in low environmental temperature. J Power
for monitoring and regulating the operation of a battery and
Sources. 2013;244:143‐148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
battery system having such a battery management system.
2013.02.085
US2016336770: America 2014.
174. Zhu J, Sun Z, Wei X, Dai H. An alternating current heating
191. Boehm A, Wickert S. Method for estimating an accurate state
method for lithium‐ion batteries from subzero temperatures.
of charge for initializing a battery management system.
Int J Energy Res. 2016;40(13):1869‐1883. https://doi.org/
US9643508: America 2010.
10.1002/er.3576
192. Obata H. Management device for secondary battery.
175. Liu ZT, He HW. Model‐based sensor fault diagnosis of a
JP2017091602: Japan 2015.
lithium‐ion battery in electric vehicles. Energies.
193. Kanada R. Battery management terminal and battery manage-
2015;8(7):6509‐6527. https://doi.org/10.3390/en8076509
ment system. KR20170018873: Japan 2017.
176. Ouyang MG, Zhang MX, Feng XN, et al. Internal short circuit
194. Kuraishi M, Hirose S, Nishigaki K, et al. Battery and charging
detection for battery pack using equivalent parameter and con-
device management system, method, and charging device.
sistency method. J Power Sources. 2015;294:272‐283. https://
EP3007309: Japan 2014.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.06.087
195. Wang X. A modular battery management system. Toledo, USA:
177. Wang Y, Tian J, Chen Z, Liu X. Model based insulation fault
The University of Toledo; 2001.
diagnosis for lithium‐ion battery pack in electric vehicles. Mea-
surement. 2019;131:443‐451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 196. Jung DY, Lee BH, Kim SW. Development of battery manage-
measurement.2018.09.007 ment system for nickel‐metal hydride batteries in electric
vehicle applications. J Power Sources. 2002;109(1):1‐10.
178. Zhang H, Pei L, Sun JL, et al. Online diagnosis for the capacity
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378‐7753(02)00020‐4
fade fault of a parallel‐connected lithium ion battery group.
Energies. 2016;9(5):387. https://doi.org/10.3390/en9050387 197. Zhou T. Design and development of a modular battery manage-
ment system for battery electric vehicles. Hong Kong, China:
179. Feng X, Pan Y, He X, Wang L, Ouyang M. Detecting the inter-
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology; 2014.
nal short circuit in large‐format lithium‐ion battery using
model‐based fault‐diagnosis algorithm. J Energy Storage. 198. Hnatczuk W, Nowak DK, Solies PU. A smart, integrated battery
2018;18:26‐39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2018.04.020 analysis and control system with wireless communication.
Detroit, USA: SAE International; 2003.
180. Kong X, Zheng Y, Ouyang M, Lu L, Li J, Zhang Z. Fault diagnosis
and quantitative analysis of micro‐short circuits for lithium‐ion 199. Chatzakis J, Kalaitzakis K, Voulgaris NC, Manias SN. Design-
batteries in battery packs. J Power Sources. 2018;395:358‐368. ing a new generalized battery management system. IEEE
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.097 Trans Ind Electron. 2003;50(5):990‐999. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TIE.2003.817706
181. Zhu J, Zhang X, Sahraei E, Wierzbicki T. Deformation and fail-
ure mechanisms of 18650 battery cells under axial 200. Zhu W. A smart battery management system for large format
compression. J Power Sources. 2016;336:332‐340. https://doi. lithium ion cells. Toledo, USA: The University of Toledo; 2011.
org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.10.064 201. Carkhuff BG, Demirev PA, Srinivasan R. Impedance‐based bat-
182. Tsutsui W, Siegmund T, Parab ND, Liao H, Nguyen TN, Chen tery management system for safety monitoring of lithium‐ion
W. State‐of‐charge and deformation‐rate dependent mechani- batteries. IEEE Trans Ind Electron. 2018;65(8):6497‐6504.
cal behavior of electrochemical cells. Exp Mech. https://doi.org/10.1109/tie.2017.2786199
2018;58(4):627‐632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340‐017‐0282‐2 202. Prada E, Domenico DD, Creff Y, et al. Towards advanced BMS
183. Ramadesigan V, Northrop PWC, De S, Santhanagopalan S, algorithms development for (P)HEV and EV by use of a
Braatz RD, Subramanian VR. Modeling and simulation of physics‐based model of Li‐ion battery systems 2013 World Elec-
lithium‐ion batteries from a systems engineering perspective. tric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS27), 2013;1‐12.
J Electrochem Soc. 2012;159(3):R31‐R45. https://doi.org/ 203. Woo HB. Power management system for vehicle.
10.1149/2.018203jes KR101251812: Korea, 2011.
184. Faass A, Clough E. Battery module with integrated thermal 204. Xu W. Parallel charging and power supply system for pure
management system. US8906541: America 2012. electric vehicle. US10000127: China, 2015.
34 SHEN AND GAO

205. Jinlong W, Hao C, Ou R. Control system and control method of 2009;3(1):589‐596. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.
hybrid electric vehicle. US2017001624: China 2014. uri?eid=2‐s2.0‐79953045265&partnerID=40&md5=9eb72f3de9
206. Eun KJ. Technique for controlling transition between EV mode 9510d702303bd29256840d
and HEV mode in hybrid vehicle. US8781659: Korea 2012. 219. Gong Q, Li Y, Peng Z. Trip‐based optimal power management of
207. Kogatam S, Norppa NH, Elberson MD. Pre‐charging vehicle plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol.
bus using parallel battery packs. US2013175857: America 2013. 2008;57(6):3393‐3401. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2008.921622
208. Ouyang T, Ma Q, Huang G. Electric vehicle high voltage 220. Tian H, Li SE, Wang X, Huang Y, Tian G. Data‐driven hierar-
power‐on control method. CN108215801A: Chian 2017. chical control for online energy management of plug‐in hybrid
209. Zhang T, Gao C, Gao Q, et al. Status and development of elec- electric city bus. Energy. 2018;142:55‐67. https://doi.org/
tric vehicle integrated thermal management from BTM to 10.1016/j.energy.2017.09.061
HVAC. Appl Therm Eng. 2015;88:398‐409. https://doi.org/ 221. Zhou D, Al‐Durra A, Gao F, Ravey A, Matraji I, Simões MG.
10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.02.001 Online energy management strategy of fuel cell hybrid electric
210. Wang Y, Gao Q, Zhang T, Wang G, Jiang Z, Li Y. Advances in vehicles based on data fusion approach. J Power Sources.
integrated vehicle thermal management and numerical simula- 2017;366:278‐291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.
tion. Energies. 2017;10(10):1636. https://doi.org/10.3390/ 08.107
en10101636 222. Hou W, Guo X, Shen X, Amine K, Yu H, Lu J. Solid electrolytes
211. Pascoal R, Santos V, Premebida C, Nunes U. Simultaneous seg- and interfaces in all‐solid‐state sodium batteries: progress and
mentation and superquadrics fitting in laser‐range data. Ieee perspective. Nano Energy. 2018;52:279‐291. https://doi.org/
Transactions on Vehicular Technology. 2015;64(2):441‐452. 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.07.036
https://doi.org/10.1109/tvt.2014.2321899 223. Fotouhi A, Auger DJ, Propp K, Longo S, Wild M. A review on
212. Li QQ, Chen L, Li M, Shaw SL, Nuchter A. A sensor‐fusion electric vehicle battery modelling: from lithium‐ion toward
drivable‐region and lane‐detection system for autonomous lithium–sulphur. Renew Sustain Energy Rev.
vehicle navigation in challenging road scenarios. Ieee Transac- 2016;56:1008‐1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.009
tions on Vehicular Technology. 2014;63(2):540‐555. https://doi. 224. Li Y, Lu J. Metal‐air batteries: will they be the future electro-
org/10.1109/tvt.2013.2281199 chemical energy storage device of choice? ACS Energy Lett.
213. Mazzola M, Schaaf G, Stamm A, Kurner T. Safety‐critical 2017;2(6):1370‐1377. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.
driver assistance over LTE: toward centralized ACC. IEEE 7b00119
Trans Veh Technol. 2016;65(12):9471‐9478. https://doi.org/ 225. Iijima Y, Sakanaka Y, Kawakami N, Fukuhara M, Ogawa K,
10.1109/TVT.2016.2617320 Bando M, Matsuda T. Development and field experiences of
214. Nilsson P, Hussien O, Balkan A, et al. Correct‐by‐construction NAS battery inverter for power stabilization of a 51 MW wind
adaptive cruise control: two approaches. IEEE Trans Control farm The 2010 International Power Electronics Conference ‐
Syst Technol. 2016;24(4):1294‐1307. https://doi.org/10.1109/ ECCE ASIA ‐, 2010;1837‐1841.
TCST.2015.2501351 226. Bito A. Overview of the sodium‐sulfur battery for the IEEE Sta-
215. Montazeri‐Gh M, Poursamad A, Ghalichi B. Application of tionary Battery Committee. IEEE Power Eng Soc Gen Meeting,
genetic algorithm for optimization of control strategy in paral- 2005. 2005;1232:1232‐1235.
lel hybrid electric vehicles. J Franklin Inst. 2006;343(4):420‐435. 227. Sudworth JL. The sodium/nickel chloride (ZEBRA) battery. J
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfranklin.2006.02.015 Power Sources. 2001;100(1):149‐163. https://doi.org/10.1016/
216. Chen Z, Li L, Yan B, Yang C, Marina Martinez C, Cao D. Multi- S0378‐7753(01)00891‐6
mode energy management for plug‐in hybrid electric buses
based on driving cycles prediction. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst.
2016;17(10):2811‐2821. https://doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2016.
How to cite this article: Shen M, Gao Q. A
2527244
review on battery management system from the
217. Yaming Z, Fengchun S, Hongwen H. Control strategy optimi-
zation for hybrid electric vehicle based on DIRECT algorithm modeling efforts to its multiapplication and
2008 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, 2008;1‐5. integration. Int J Energy Res. 2019;1–34. https://doi.
218. Kim B, Kim YG, Kim T, Park YI, Cha SW. HEV cruise control org/10.1002/er.4433
strategy on GPS (navigation) information. World Electr Veh J.