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This report was prepared in 2024 by the Editorial Team
Second Congressional Commission Publisher Second Congressional Commission on Education
on Education (EDCOM II), a national
commission tasked to undertake a Address 5th floor, Senate of the Philippines, GSIS Bldg.,
comprehensive national assessment and Financial Center, Diokno Blvd., Pasay City 1307
evaluation of the performance of the
Philippine education sector, by virtue of Email address [email protected]
Republic Act No. 11899.
Consultants
The Commission is composed of Senator Publications Head Ani Rosa Almario, PhD
Sherwin Gatchalian, Senator Alan Peter Art Director R. Jordan P. Santos
Cayetano, Representative Roman Romulo, Lead Editor Diana Moraleda
and Representative Mark Go as Co- Proofreaders Rogene Gonzales
Chairpersons; together with Senator Loren Emylou V. Infante
Legarda, Senator Aquilino “Koko” Pimentel, Monique Sta. Cruz
Senator Joel Villanueva, Representative Graphic Artists Jamie Bauza
Jude Acidre, Representative Khalid Harry Monzon
Dimaporo, and Representative Pablo John Layout Artists Alyssa Babasa
Garcia, as Commissioners. Angela Taguiang
Infographic Artist Eliza Flores
This report is published in January 2025 in Writers Krupskaya M. Añonuevo Nastashja Bianca I. Melevo
accordance with EDCOM II’s mandate to Joshene Bersales Aimee Morales
report to Congress its accomplishments on Paula Francesca A. Birung Oliver Ortega
a periodic basis (RA 11899, Sec. 7(l)). Michael Joseph P. Cabauatan Andrew Stephen L. Pablo
Mikael de Lara Co Carissa Pobre
This report is not to be reproduced or Riz Supreme B. Comia Josephine Gayl Porter-Laurel
reprinted in any form for commercial Ma. Guia M. Del Valle-Ramoso Oliver John Quintana
purposes; but may be quoted or Conchitina D. Enrile Susan Anne A. Quirante
reproduced in part for literary or Emmanuella A. Iellamo Jan Kevin Rivera
educational research, and for information Jan Zenne O. Genandoy
and advocacy, provided that appropriate Photographers Jilson Seckler Tiu
citation is made. George Calvelo

Bibliographic citation: EDCOM II staff

Second Congressional Commission on Communications Officer Luigi C. Conti
Education (2025). Fixing the Foundations: Graphic Artist Bettina Medina-Tapalla
A matter of national survival, EDCOM II year Publications Officer Mavreen Jackie P. Yapchiongco
two report. Congress of the Philippines.
ISSN 3027-9976
First edition copyright © 2025 by Second Congressional Commission on Education

Disclaimer:
This publication has been supported by the Australian Government. The views
expressed in this publication are the publisher’s alone and are not necessarily the
views of the Australian Government.

The artwork on the cover is courtesy of Metrobank Foundation.

Contents
List of Abbreviations 6

List of Figures 11

List of Tables 14

Preface 16

Executive Summary 20

Acknowledgments 40

Introduction 42

Priority Areas 50

Year 2 Findings 55

EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

Introduction 57
Year One Updates 61
Year Two Overview 62
Priority Area 1: Nutrition and Feeding 64
Priority Area 2: Supply-Side Factors 80
Priority Area 3: Demand-Side Factors 86
Priority Area 4: Governance and Financing of ECCD 92

BASIC EDUCATION
Introduction 99
Year One Updates 100
Year Two Overview 111
Priority Area 7: Curriculum and Instruction 111
Priority Area 8: School Infrastructure 126
Priority Area 9: Alternative Learning System 145
Priority Area 10: Home and School Environment 155

HIGHER EDUCATION
Introduction 165
Year One Updates 167
Year Two Overview 174
Priority Area 11: Access to Quality Higher Education 178
Priority Area 12: Quality Assurance 193
Priority Area 13: Digital Transformation 198
Priority Area 14: Graduate Education, Research, and Innovation 198
Priority Area 15: Internationalization 202
 TEACHER EDUCATION
Introduction 213
Year One Updates 215
Year Two Overview 217
Priority Area 16: Alignment of CHED, PRC, and DepEd
(including the TEC) on Teacher Education and Developmentw 218
Priority Area 17: Preservice Education 230
Priority Area 18: In-Service Training and Development,
Including Teacher Welfare 246

TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING & LIFELONG LEARNING

Introduction 269
Year One Updates 270
Year Two Overview 272
Priority Area 19: Needs-Based System Projecting the Demands|
in Workers’ Upskilling 273
Priority Area 20: Industry Involvement and Investment in Upskilling 290
Priority Area 21: Ensuring Quality in the Provision of TVET 304
Priority Area 22: Framework for Equivalency
and Recognition of Nonformal and Informal Learning 314

GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE

Introduction 321
Year One Updates 322
Year Two Overview 322
Priority Area 23: Ensuring Seamless and Integrated
Delivery of Education 323
Priority Area 24: Complementarity Between Public
and Private Education 330
Priority Area 25: Integrated Performance Management
and Accountability System 341
Priority Area 26: Efficiency and Equity in Financing,
Resource Mobilization, and Delivery of Education 349
Priority Area 27: Decentralization and Participatory Governance 366

Conclusion 377

The Second Congressional Commission on Education 384

Commissioners 384
Education, Legislation, and Policy Advisory Council 385
Standing Committees 386
Technical Secretariat 388

References 391
6 EDCOM II Year Two Report

List of Abbreviations

Abbreviation Meaning
4Ps Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program
ADB Asian Development Bank
ADM alternative delivery mode
AERO Australian Education Research Organisation
AFF agricultural, forestry, and fisheries
AI artificial intelligence
ALS Alternative Learning System
AO administrative officer
AQRF ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASP Adopt-a-School Program
BAC Bids and Awards Committee
BAE Bureau of Alternative Education
BARMM Bangsamoro Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao
BECEd Bachelor of Early Childhood Education
BEDP Basic Education Development Plan
BEEd Bachelor of Elementary Education
BHROD Bureau of Human Resources and Organizational Development
BIR Bureau of Internal Revenue
BLE Bureau of Local Employment
BLEPT Board Licensure Examination for Professional Teachers
BLGF Bureau of Local Government Finance
BLP Basic Literacy Program
BOC Bureau of Customs
BOR Board of Regents
CAR Cordillera Administrative Region
CDC child development center
CDT child development teacher
CDW child development worker
CDW/T child development worker/teacher
CELLS Comprehensive Education and Leadership Learning System
CHED Commission on Higher Education
CICA Congress-Initiated Changes/Adjustment
CLC community learning center
CMO CHED Memorandum Order
COA Commission on Audit
COCOPEA Coordinating Councils for Private Education Associations
COD Center of Development
COE Center of Excellence
CPC child protection committee
CPU Child Protection Unit
CREDe Child Rights in Education Desk
CSC Civil Service Commission
CSO civil society organization
DA Department of Agriculture
DBM Department of Budget and Management
DECS Department of Education, Culture, and Sports
DepEd Department of Education
 List of Abbreviations 7

DILG Department of the Interior and Local Government

DO Department Order
DOF Department of Finance
DOH Department of Health
DOLE Department of Labor and Employment
DOST Department of Science and Technology
DOST-FNRI Department of Science and Technology–Food and Nutrition Research
Institute
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
DTS Dual Training System
EBET Enterprise-Based Education and Training
EBT enterprise-based training
ECCD early childhood care and development
ECCDC Early Childhood Care and Development Council
ECE early childhood education
ENNS Expanded National Nutrition Survey
EO Executive Order
EPB Employment Planning Board
EQAAs External Quality Assurance Agencies
ESC Education Service Contracting
eSF7 Electronic School Form 7
FAAP Accrediting Associations of the Philippines
FAPE Fund for Assistance to Private Education
FLEMMS Functional Literacy, Education, and Mass Media Survey
FLO flexible learning options
FY fiscal year
GAA General Appropriations Act
GASTPE Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education
GDP gross domestic product
GIDA geographically isolated and disadvantaged area
GPPB Government Procurement Policy Board
GPPB-TSO Government Procurement Policy Board–Technical Support Office
HAEI higher agricultural education institution
HEDF Higher Education Development Fund
HEEG Health Employment and Economic Growth
HEI higher education institution
HRH human resources for health
HRIS Human Resource Information System
IBACS Industry-Based Assessment and Certification System
IC independent contractor
ICT information and communications technology
ILO International Labour Organization
IMPACT Instructional Management by Parents, Community, and Teachers
INSET In-Service Training for Teachers
IPR intellectual property rights
IRR implementing rules and regulations
ISA Institutional Sustainability Assessment
IT information technology
ITB Industry TVET Board
IU implementing unit
JHS junior high school
KCFI Knowledge Channel Foundation, Inc.
KIST Knowledge, Innovation, Science, and Technology
8 EDCOM II Year Two Report

LAC Learning Action Cell

LCP Learning Continuity Plan
LET Licensure Examination for Teachers
LFS Labor Force Survey
LGSF Local Government Support Fund
LGSF-FA Local Government Support Fund–Financial Assistance
LGU local government unit
LLL lifelong learning
LMI labor market information
LMICs low- and middle-income countries
LMIS Labor Market Information System
LRPO Learner Rights and Protection Office
LSB local school board
LUCs local universities and colleges
M&E monitoring and evaluation
MISOSA Modified In-School Off-School Approach
MOOE maintenance and other operating expenses
MORPHE Manual of Regulations for Private Higher Education
MPSS Minimum Performance Standards and Specifications
MTB-MLE Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education
NAFMIP National Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization and Industrialization
Plan
NAST National Academy of Science and Technology
NAT National Achievement Test
NC National Certificate
NCC National Coordinating Council
NCCE National Coordinating Council for Education
NCR National Capital Region
NEAP National Educators’ Academy of the Philippines
NEDA National Economic and Development Authority
NEP National Expenditure Plan
NGO nongovernmental organization
NHA National Housing Authority
NHRHMP National Human Resources for Health Master Plan
NIC National Innovation Council
NLRP National Learning Recovery Program
NNC National Nutrition Council
NQESH National Qualifying Examination for School Heads
NQF National Qualifications Framework
NTESDP National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OIC officer in charge
PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services
Administration
PB principles-based
PBIS performance-based incentive system
PCNC Philippine Council for NGO Certification
PCR pupil-classroom ratio
PD Presidential Decree
PDIS Professional Development Information System
PDO project development officer
PDP Philippine Development Plan
PEF Punjab Education Foundation
PEIS Public Employment Service Office (PESO) Employment Information
System
 List of Abbreviations 9

PEJA President Edgardo J. Angara

PESO Public Employment Service Office
PHIVOLCS Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
PIDS Philippine Institute for Development Studies
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
PNSL place with no SUCs or LUCs
PPP public-private partnership
PPSSH Philippine Professional Standards for School Heads
PPST Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers
PQF Philippine Qualifications Framework
PRC Professional Regulation Commission
PSA Philippine Statistics Authority
PSF Philippine Skills Framework
PSG policies, standards, and guidelines
PSGC Philippine Standard Geographic Code
PSHS Philippine Science High School
PSIP Public-Private Partnership for School Infrastructure Project
PSOC Philippine Standard Occupational Classification
PTA parent-teacher association
PTR pupil-teacher ratio
QA quality assurance
R&D research and development
R&I research and innovation
RA Republic Act
RB rules-based
RDO Revenue District Office
REI recommended energy intake
RIE research, innovation, and enterprise
ROW right of way
RPMS Results-Based Performance Management System
RR Revenue Regulation
RTD roundtable discussion
s. series
SAPSR Skills Anticipation and Prioritization of Skills Requirements
SBCC Social Behavior Change Communication
SBFP school-based feeding program
SBM school-based management
SCP Special Curricular Programs
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SDS schools district superintendent
SEA-PLM Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics
SEF Special Education Fund
SETG Study on the Employment of TVET Graduates
SFP Supplementary Feeding Program
SG salary grade
SHDP School Head Development Program
SHS senior high school
SLM self-learning module
SNP supervised neighborhood play
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math
SUCs state universities and colleges
SY school year
TEACH Therapy, Education, and Assimilation of Children with Handicap
TEC Teacher Education Council
TEI Teacher Education Institution
10 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TEMIS Tertiary Education Management Information System

TES Tertiary Education Subsidy
TESDA Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
TIC teacher in charge
TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
TPTE Technical Panel for Teacher Education
TR training regulation
TTI TESDA Technology Institution
TVET Technical-Vocational Education and Training
TVI technical-vocational institution
TWG technical working group
UAQTEA Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UniFAST Unified Student Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education
UP University of the Philippines
UP ACTRC UP Assessment, Curriculum and Technology Research Centre
UPCAT UP College Admission Test
UPRI UP Resilience Institute
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USAID ILO-PH United States Agency for International Development Improving Learning
Outcomes for the Philippines
UTPRAS Unified TVET Program Registration and Accreditation System
VAT value-added tax
WASH water, sanitation, and hygiene
WHO World Health Organization
 List of Figures 11

Figures

INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 Total National Government Allocation for Education (2013–2023)
(Nominal vs. Real Values in Constant 2018 Prices) 43
Figure 2 Literacy Performance of Students in Key Stage 1
(Before and After Pandemic) 44
Figure 3 Recomputed Literacy Levels by Age Group and
Educational Attainment (Percentage of Population) 46
Figure 4 Demographic Window Projections for the Philippines 47

EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

Figure 1 Early Years Investments Can Make a Big Difference 60
Figure 2 Nutrition Data for Children Under the Age of 5 64
Figure 3 History of ECCD Legislation in Health, Nutrition,
and Early Learning 66
Figure 4 Scale of Poor Health and Nutrition Stunting prevalence, 68
Figure 5 Share of Children Meeting Energy Intake of Children
Under 5 from the Top 20% and Bottom 20% Wealth Quintiles,
by Age, in 2018–2019 69
Figure 6 Macronutrient Intake Across Wealth Quintiles 70
Figure 7 Brief History of Supplementary Feeding Program 71
Figure 8 Percentage of Children Aged 3–4 Years Old Participating
in the Supplementary Feeding Program, Philippine Regions,
2022–2023 72
Figure 9 Percentage of Children by Age in Months and Wealth
Quintile* Who Frequently Read and Watch Educational Media
with Their Caregivers, 2019 81
Figure 10 LGU ECCD Financing Challenges 95

BASIC EDUCATION
Figure 1 Status of Procurement: Grade 1 Textbooks
and Teacher’s Manuals 102
Figure 2 Status of Procurement: Grades 4 and 7 Textbooks \
and Teacher’s Manuals 103
Figure 3 Comparison of Basic Literacy and Functional Literacy Rate 106
Figure 4 Comparison of Basic and Functional Literacy Rates by Highest
Educational Attainment: Previous vs. Approved Definitions 106
Figure 5 UPCAT Performance 116
Figure 6 PSHS System, SY 2022–2023 to SY 2024–2025 117
Figure 7 Timeline of DepEd Special Curricular Programs (SCPs) 118
Figure 8 Timeline of Special Science Programs in the Philippines 120
Figure 9 Schools with Multiple Shifts, SY 2023–2024 129
Figure 10 School Congestion Analytical Tool 135
Figure 11 School Mapping Case Study: Naic, Cavite 138
Figure 12 Schools Without Electricity Map 140
Figure 13 Impact of Disasters: School Days Lost Out of 80 Days 143
Figure 14 Number of Out-of-School Youth, Covered vs. Not Covered
by ALS 146
Figure 15 Average ALS Enrollment in the Past 5 Years 147
12 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Figure 16 Types of Flexible Learning Options 148

Figure 17 Number of ALS Community Learning Centers per Type 150

HIGHER EDUCATION
Figure 1 2014 vs. 2022: Cited Reasons for Not Attending School 166
Figure 2 TES Grantees Allocation by Eligibility Criteria 168
Figure 3 Share of College-Age Students Enrolled in Higher
Education and Attrition Rates, by Region 175
Figure 4 Higher Education Development Fund Allocation 177
Figure 5 Distribution of Students by Income Decile in Private HEIs 178
Figure 6 Distribution of Students by Income Decile in Public HEIs 179
Figure 7 Population Projection 18–21 Years Old (College-Age)
in Thousands 179
Figure 8 Enrollments, AY 2015–2016 to AY 2022–2023 182
Figure 9 TES Process Flow 183
Figure 10 TES Availment Path for 4Ps TES Grantees 184
Figure 11 TES Availment Path for Listahanan Grantees 185
Figure 12 TES Availment Path for PNSL Grantees 186
Figure 13 Monitored 4Ps SHS Students, TES Grantees, and
4Ps TES Grantees UniFAST (2024), DSWD (received May 2024) 187
Figure 14 Programs Enrolled by TES Grantees, AY 2022–2023 188
Figure 15 Program Offerings of Public HEIs (AY 2022-2023) 191
Figure 16 Distribution of Horizontal Typologies Based on
CMO No. 46, s. 2012 194
Figure 17 Scopus Papers Production of the ASEAN Countries as of
June 2023 199
Figure 18 Statistical Forecasts of the ASEAN Average Research
Production and of the Philippines’s Research Production 200
Figure 19 Total International Student Inflows in Select ASEAN
Member States 203
Figure 20 Number of Inbound Foreign Students in the Philippines 203
Figure 21 Programs Enrolled by Inbound Foreign Students 205
Figure 22 Top Inbound International Students, AY 2022 206
Figure 23 Destinations of Outbound Filipino Students, AY 2016–2017 208

TEACHER EDUCATION
Figure 1 Performance of Teacher Education Institutions 2019 vs. 2022 219
Figure 2 COEs and CODs with Less Than 75% Overall BLEPT Passing
Rates, 2010– 2022 222
Figure 3 Regional Distribution of COEs and CODs 223
Figure 4 Percentage Distribution of Grade 5 Students by Their
Teacher’s Specialization 234
Figure 5 DepEd Key Stages 1 and 2 234
Figure 6 Bachelor of Early Childhood Education Enrollees
vs. Graduates by Academic Year 236
Figure 7 Comparison of 2004 and 2017 Teacher Education PSGs 238
Figure 8 Educational Background vs Subject Taught 240
Figure 9 Percentage Distribution of Grade 5 Students by Their
Teacher’s Training 255
Figure 10 School Heads in the Deped Systems, SY 2023–2024 257

TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING & LIFELONG LEARNING

Figure 1 Share of Trainees Matched, Overskilled, or Underskilled,
2013, 2014, 2017 274
 List of Figures 13

Figure 2 Proposed Organizational Structure and Institutional System for

Philippine Education 278
Figure 3 System Interaction Map for the Labor Market Information
System 280
Figure 4 Results from TESDA’s Workplace Skills and Satisfaction Survey 281
Figure 5 How DepEd Identifies Priority Technical-Vocational-
Livelihood Specializations 284
Figure 6 Skills Anticipation and Prioritization of Skills
Requirements Framework 285
Figure 7 Quality of Employment of TVET Vis-a-Vis Non-TVET
Graduates, April 2023 287
Figure 8 Labor Force Status of TVET Vis-a-Vis Non-TVET Graduates
by Sex, April 2023 288
Figure 9 Wage Levels (Average Daily Basic Pay) of Workers in
Private Establishments by TVET Completion Status Across
Various Demographic Characteristics, April 2023 289
Figure 10 Number of TVET Graduates by Sector, 2015–2023 291
Figure 11 Process for Obtaining a Certificate for Tax Exemption 296
Figure 12 Process Flow and Procedure: Regular Lane (Customs and
Tariff Division & Internal Revenue Division) 298
Figure 13 Accreditation Process 300
Figure14 Adopt-Adapt Framework 303
Figure 15 Distribution of TVET Enrollment and TVI Types, 2017–2023 305
Figure 16 Quality Assured Technical Education and Skills Development
Framework 306
Figure 17 Distribution of TESDA Personnel vs. Number of TVIs, 2024 310

GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE

Figure 1 SDO Analysis on Schools Covered 326
Figure 2 Comparison of SDO Manpower Complement
(Bulacan and Negros Oriental) 326
Figure 3 Proposed Structure of the Cabinet Cluster for Education 328
Figure 4 Results Framework from the Basic Education Plan 2030 332
Figure 5 PISA 2018 Average Score in Mathematics by GDP Per Capita 333
Figure 6 PISA 2022 Average Score in Mathematics by GDP Per Capita 333
Figure 7 Public-Private Partnership Continuum 335
Figure 8 Establishing an Effective Regulatory Environment for PPPs 338
Figure 9 BEDP 2030 Results Framework 343
Figure 10 DepEd Budget Structure 344
Figure 11 Planning, Budgeting, and Performance Management Systems
Underpinning DepEd’s RBPMS 347
Figure 12 Finance-Provision Matrix 349
Figure 13 Government Allocation for Education as a Percentage of
National Budget and GDP 350
Figure 14 Total National Government Allocation and Enrollment for
Basic and Higher Education 351
Figure 15 Total National Government Allocation for Education
(Nominal vs. Real Values in Constant 2018 Prices) 351
Figure 16 National Government Budget per Student, Adjusted for Inflation 352
Figure 17 DepEd Unobligated Allotment per Expenditure Category 354
Figure 18 Mean School MOOE per Student by Student : Classroom Ratio 357
Figure 19 Prevailing Top-Down Workflow in DepEd 368
Figure 20 Simplified Cycle of Steps to Decentralization 370
Figure 21 Percentage of Decisions Taken at Each Level of Government,
OECD Countries and Economies, by Domain of Decisions (2017) 372
14 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Tables

EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

Table 1 Philippines SEA-PLM 2019 Results: Mean Scores in
Reading, Writing, and Math by Preschool Education 58
Table 2 DSWD Supplementary Feeding Program Budget, 2019–2023 74
Table 3 Recommended Energy Intake per Day from the Philippine
Dietary Reference Intakes 75
Table 4 NNC Tutok Kainan Budget, 2020–2023 GAA 78
Table 5 Top Reasons for Nonattendance in Schools for Children
Aged 3-4, by Wealth Quintile, 2019 87
Table 6 Core Delivery Methods/Essential Components of Parenting
Programs, Early Learning Partnership 91
Table 7 Nutrition Outcomes: Philippines vs. Other Low-
and Middle-Income Countries with Similar GDP Per Capita 94

BASIC EDUCATION
Table 1 Updates on the 2024 FLEMMS 105
Table 2 Students in Special Science Programs and Science
High Schools vs. Universe of All Learners 114
Table 3 The PSHS Curriculum 115
Table 4 MOOE Allocations to Special Curricular Program
Learners at the Elementary and Junior High School Levels 122
Table 5 ADM Types and Target Beneficiaries 149
Table 6 Types of ALS Community Learning Centers 151
Table 7 Other DepEd Policies That Cover Bullying 160

HIGHER EDUCATION
Table 1 Quality Assurance by CHED 169
Table 2 Technical Panels to Be Reconstituted as of November 2024 173
Table 3 Type of HEI Distribution from AY 1990–1991 to AY 2023–2024 174
Table 4 Distribution of Enrollments by HEI Type 174
Table 5 Quality Indicators of Higher Education Sector 176
Table 6 Capital Constraints Faced by Public HEIs 181
Table 7 Average Tuition Fee Projections per Semester 189
Table 8 Summary of Changes in PSGs of the Top 10 Programs 193
Table 9 Summary of the Proposed Simplified Empirically Based
Horizontal Typology 197
Table 10 Top 10 Nationalities Issued a Student Visa in 2023 204
Table 11 Types of Visas for Foreign Students 208
Table 12 Foreign Equity Ownership in ASEAN Member States 211

TEACHER EDUCATION
Table 1 Status and Performance of Nonperforming TEIs 215
Table 2 Roles of the TEC, the PRC, CHED, and NEAP Based
on the Excellence in Teacher Education Act of 2022 (RA 11713) 224
Table 3 Higher Education Enrollment by Discipline Group,
Academic Year 2019–2020 230
Table 4 Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education
Curriculum (CMO 30, s. 2004) 237
 List of Tables 15

Table 5 Policies, Standards, and Guidelines for Bachelor of

Elementary Education (BEEd) (CMO 74, s. 2017) 237
Table 6 Inventory of AO II and Project Development Officer I Positions 247
Table 7 Teachers’ Position by Years of Service 251
Table 8 Teachers’ Position by Age 252
Table 9 Positions for Classroom Teaching and School Administration
Career Lines 253
Table 10 Listed Plantilla Position vs. School Head Designation,
All Schools 258
Table 11 Listed Plantilla Position vs. School Head Designation,
Schools with Nine or More Teachers 259
Table12 Undefined School and Type of School 260
Table 13 Historical NQESH Results 262

TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING & LIFELONG LEARNING

Table 1  Labor Force Indicators by Educational Attainment, Philippines,
October 2022 (in Percentage) 275
Table 2 Percentage Employed by Educational Attainment and
Class of Worker, 2021–2022 275
Table 3 Potential Data Sources for Skills Needs Anticipation in the
Philippines 282
Table 4 Labor Force Indicators of Graduates of Senior High School,
Postsecondary Programs, College Programs, With TVET,
Without TVET, in Percentage, 2021–2022 288
Table 5 Top TVET Programs, 2020 and 2023 292
Table 6 Table of EBT-Related Incentives by Agency 301
Table 7 Number of Industry Boards, 2024 307
Table 8 Class of Workers by Selected Levels of Educational Attainment,
2021–2022 316

GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE

Table 1 TESDA and CHED Board Composition 325
Table 2 Changes in Establishment and Enrollment Share of
Private Education 331
Table 3 Components of the STEER Model 339
Table 4 Performance and Accountability System Gaps and
Recommendations 341
Table 5 Comparison of Performance Indicators for Quality of Learning 345
Table 6 PISA Scores and Cumulative Education Spending per Student
of Selected Countries 353
Table 7 FY 2022 Per Capita School MOOE 356
Table 8 Boncodin Formula Coefficients for Fixed and Variable Cost 357
Table 9 Support Through PTA Contributions and SEF Allocation:
Alternative Funding Positive Deviants in Low-Resourced
Settings 358
Table 10 Above Average Performance from Schools in Low-Resourced
Contexts 359
Table 11 Range of Private Sector Support for Public Change Initiatives 362
Table 12 Tax Claims Under the Adopt-a-School Program, FY 2018–2023 363
Table 13 Financial and In-Kind Resources Generated Through Brigada
Eskwela 364
Table 14 Participatory Mechanisms in Basic Education Governance 374
16 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Preface
As we present the Year Two Report of the Second Congressional
Commission on Education (EDCOM), we stand at a pivotal moment in
the journey to transform education in the Philippines—a journey that
demands bold vision, decisive action, and unwavering unity.

The first year of our work was a critical reckoning. We confirmed what
many have long felt and experienced: The Philippine education system
is in crisis. But as we have consistently stated, recognizing the crisis
was not the end; rather, it was the starting point of a determined and
systemic response to dismantle barriers that have long impeded
progress and innovation.

This crisis, marked by decades of missed opportunities for reform,

demanded urgent and transformative action. It called us to move
swiftly, to act decisively, and to dream beyond the constraints of the
past.

In our second year, we engaged even more closely with so many of

you—teachers, parents, schools and universities, nongovernment
organizations, research fellows, and international partners, uniting with
us in our call for urgent change.

In the halls of Congress, we saw and felt the strong support of our
colleagues and the leadership of both houses, helping pass key
legislative measures in education to address the Commission’s
recommendations.
 Preface 17

The first year of our work was a

critical reckoning. We confirmed
what many have long felt and
experienced: The Philippine
education system is in crisis. But
as we have consistently stated,
recognizing the crisis was not the
end; rather, it was the starting
point of a determined and systemic
response to dismantle barriers that
have long impeded progress and
innovation.

In the executive branch, we built robust partnerships with government

agencies, easing our continued consultations, research, and solution-
finding. Particularly in the Department of Education (DepEd) and the
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), we
worked in lockstep with our former colleagues Secretary Sonny Angara
and Secretary Kiko Benitez, who have since taken our collective call for
change to the executive branch. This year, no less than the President
has also expressed his full support, himself acting on measures to
ensure coordination of the education agencies and stressing the need
for greater focus on the first 1,000 days.

This report reflects the lessons, insights, and strategies of the

past year as we focused on the remaining 16 out of 28 priorities of
the Commission. Undoubtedly two years since our convening, our
understanding of the factors that impede learning for our students
has truly deepened, serving as the basis for the refinement of policies,
programs, and systems of government. This is due, in no small part, to
the at least 97 studies contributed by 60 research partners—perhaps
one of the largest assembled to understand Philippine education.
While this body of work is housed under EDCOM II, it is undoubtedly
larger than the Commission. We fervently hope that this initiative
will endure beyond EDCOM II’s lifetime, fostering the continuous
improvement of education policy through the rigorous analysis of data.

Armed with better data and a stronger sense of collective purpose,

we approached these impediments with clarity and conviction. This
year alone, we have put forward 32 policy recommendations and
37 bills, resulting from countless studies, hearings, site visits, and
consultations, while also seeing through the amendments and
recommendations from Year One. We commend the tireless members
of the Advisory Council, the Standing Committees, and the Technical
Secretariat for their unyielding dedication.
18 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Equally, this report is a testament to the countless educators who

contribute to this mission. Amidst all the challenges, we have
witnessed on the ground the unyielding dedication of teachers
making learning possible against all odds, as well as the inspiring
successes of communities driving learning recovery in the face of
adversity.

Undoubtedly, our collective resolve is grounded in an unshakable

belief in the brilliance, resilience, and potential of the Filipino people.
Worldwide, the talent, discipline, and hard work of our people could
not be mistaken—as long as they are supported and given ample
opportunities to succeed. It is this fundamental belief that sustains us
in our work as we enter our third and final year: to act swiftly in fixing the
foundations of our system, assembling the parts that are in disarray, so
that each Filipino is able to learn and to thrive.

As we release our Year Two Report, we renew our call to action. We

urge everyone to read the two EDCOM reports closely to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by our system,
and to do their part in addressing its ills—whether by ensuring that
children below 5 are able to get ample nutrition, supporting learners
who are bullied or have difficulty reading at Grade 3, or raising funds
to help build classrooms, so we could more quickly address our two-
decade backlog. After all, real change does not happen in reports or in
legislative chambers; it happens in every classroom, in every home, and
in the hearts and minds of every learner and educator across the nation.

Together, let us rise to the challenge. Let us unite to ensure no Filipino is

left behind.
 Preface 19

Undoubtedly, our collective resolve is

grounded in an unshakable belief in the
brilliance, resilience, and potential of the
Filipino people. Worldwide, the talent,
discipline, and hard work of our people could
not be mistaken—as long as they are supported
and given ample opportunities to succeed.

Senator Sherwin Gatchalian Representative Roman Romulo

Co-Chairperson Co-Chairperson

Senator Alan Cayetano Representative Mark Go

Co-Chairperson Co-Chairperson

Senator Loren Legarda Representative Jude Acidre

Commissioner Commissioner

Senator Koko Pimentel III Representative Khalid Dimaporo

Commissioner Commissioner

Senator Joel Villanueva Representative Pablo John Garcia

Commissioner Commissioner
20 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Executive Summary
The first year of EDCOM II laid bare the deep fractures in the Philippine education
system—underinvestment, disjointed governance, and inequitable access that
have persisted for decades. It was an act of truth-telling, where data illuminated
systemic failures, from the stunted growth of early learners to foundational deficits
in literacy and numeracy that cascade across lifetimes. These revelations demanded
the acknowledgment of a crisis and the clarity of purpose required to confront such
a crisis. The message is this: Education reform can no longer remain a mere slogan
or aspiration; it is an alternative upon which our nation’s progress—and survival—
depends.

Year Two sharpens our vision, homing in on the structural roots of our challenges.
“Fixing the foundations” is not a tagline but a call to action. First, to realign priorities
toward the foundational stages of learning: on early childhood education and
nutrition, and on primary education during which critical competencies are built.
Second, to strengthen the foundations of our education system, foremost, ensuring
the adequacy of classrooms so that students can properly learn, prioritizing that all
schools have principals and nonteaching personnel, and empowering them with the
resources and support to effect change.

Two years hence, these two EDCOM reports, Miseducation: The Failed System of
Philippine Education and Fixing the Foundations: A Matter of National Survival,
jointly tell the story of our education system and pinpoint the factors that
have impeded the learning of Filipino students for decades. Armed with the
understanding of the ills of our system, we enjoin all to take part in the work of
rebuilding and retrofitting our system to ensure that it is one that befits the potential
of generations of Filipino learners to come.
 Executive Summary 21

Early Childhood Care and Development

Despite the critical role of early childhood care and development (ECCD)
in improving student achievement and reducing dropout rates, it remains
unattended, receiving the lowest attention and support. There is an abundance
of studies from the World Bank, UNICEF, the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA), the Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics (SEA-PLM), and the
Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) that highlight the importance of
ECCD in boosting literacy and math achievement by Grade 3, enhancing academic
success in later grades, as well as increasing earning potential once in the workforce.
Despite this, many Filipino children continue to suffer from severe malnutrition, high
stunting, and low early childhood education participation.

Only 25% of Filipino children meet the recommended energy intake between
ages 6–12 months, with particularly low rates among those from impoverished
households. A landmark PIDS study reveals that Filipino children aged 3–5 had a
diet that relied mainly on carbohydrates while consuming 20% less protein, 40%
less fat, and 35% less carbohydrates than recommended. Notably, children from
the bottom 40% quintile consumed significantly less protein, a nutrient critical for
growth and stunting prevention. Studies show that while 23% of children benefit
from the Department of Social Welfare and Development’s (DSWD) Supplementary
Feeding Program, only 28% of these beneficiaries actually require the intervention.
Worse, there was no difference in the energy intake between those who received the
government intervention and those who did not.

On the demand side, most parents do not yet understand the criticality of ECCD,
with 97% of parents believing that children under 5 were “too young” for school.
Many are also challenged by the distance of child development centers (CDCs)
from their homes, limiting their ability to bring their children to centers. Meanwhile,
few are also able to support education at home, with only only 50% of children aged
3–4 engaged in reading activities. Migration of parents is another issue: Preliminary
findings from the Philippines Socioeconomic Panel Survey1 show that 40% of
parents migrated for work when their children were young (defined as below 18
years of age). This coincides with findings from PIDS that in many households,
ECCD depends on “parent-substitutes,” such as older siblings, grandparents, and
domestic workers.

Financing of ECCD in the country is inadequate and inequitable. The government’s

allocation of only Php 3,870 per child for health-related ECCD services is
significantly lower than the average Php 8,700 in low- and middle-income countries.
Disparities in funding across local government units (LGUs) also impede effective
ECCD program implementation, limiting the ability of low-income municipalities to
implement ECCD.

1 Preliminary findings from the first round of the Philippines Socioeconomic Panel Survey, 2023-2024
(Note that the survey was conducted across 9,661 households in Aklan, Antique, Capiz, and Iloilo.)
22 EDCOM II Year Two Report

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 1: Nutrition and Feeding
• Strengthen coordination between the National Nutrition Council, the
Department of Health, the DSWD, and DepEd in the implementation of
nutrition interventions.
• Apply program convergence budgeting for nutrition in the early years,
ensuring that the first 1,000 days are prioritized.
• Improve targeting of government programs.
• Conduct monitoring and evaluation to ensure efficacy of interventions.

Priority Area 2: Supply-Side Factors

• Ensure availability of at least one CDC in every barangay, with the ECCD Council
focusing on supporting at least 10% of the total number of municipalities without
CDCs, specifically targeting those classified as fifth-class municipalities.
• For TESDA and the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), develop
(a) education and training pathways, and (b) scholarship programs to
strengthen the pipeline of ECCD professionals.
• Create plantilla positions for child development teachers (CDTs) and CDWs.

Priority Area 3: Demand-Side Factors

• For the ECCD Council, launch community awareness campaigns and invest
in the development of quality ECCD learning resources.
• Leverage existing programs (partner with barangay nutrition scholars
and barangay health workers, and with the DSWD’s Parent Effectiveness
Program) to increase understanding of ECCD needs.

Priority Area 4: Governance and Financing of ECCD

• Include the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) in the
ECCD Council, given their indispensable role in ensuring close coordination
with LGUs as implementers.
• For the national government, provide resources to support low-income
municipalities that do not have the capacity to implement nutrition and
ECCD based on local funds alone.

Basic Education
Most Grade 3 students were 1–2 years behind curriculum expectations during
the foundational years of learning (Kindergarten to Grade 3). This means that
students are progressing to Grade 4 despite being only at Grades 2 or 3 in terms of
actual competencies. This is anticipated to snowball further in later years, with the
Commission finding Grades 8 and 9 students who struggled with basic subtraction
and multiplication in the recent DepEd learning camps.

The MATATAG curriculum reforms are welcome, but its implementation has been
challenged by the late delivery of textbooks and lack of teacher training and
resources. Despite recent reforms, DepEd continues to experience challenges in
learning resources: For the MATATAG Curriculum Grades 4, and 7, only 35 out of 90
textbooks titles have been fully delivered as of January 2025, halfway through school
year (SY) 2024–2025.
 Executive Summary 23

Almost half of all learning days are lost due to class suspensions, with the worst
cases seen in the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) and Regions IV-A, II, and
I. While PIDS found that in 2023–2024 about 53% of 180 teaching days were lost due
to calamities and local holidays across the country, DepEd data as of November 2024
find that for the school year, students have already lost as many as 42 learning days
in CAR, followed by Region IV-A (38 days), Region II (36 days), and Region I (33 days).
Studies have underscored the profound consequence of such losses on learning, with
student achievement at Grade 4 (for math and science) declining by up to 12%–14% of
a standard deviation, or equivalent to half a year of learning.

Learning recovery programs need to be revamped to support the students that

need interventions the most. The policies for the National Reading Program, National
Math Program, and the National Science and Technology Program have been pending
since July 2023. Meanwhile, Catch-Up Fridays and the National Learning Camps need
to be revisited. DepEd data show that the camps reached only 10% of those needing
intervention, on top of an already limited pool, with only 54% of target students able
to take the assessments.

There is limited oversight and support for Special Curricular Programs (SCPs),
restricting inclusivity in education and hampering the country from strategically
nurturing the best and brightest learners. Despite hosting a range of SCPs focusing
on arts, foreign languages, journalism, sports, science, and Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET), intended outcomes for these programs are unclear,
policies are confusing, and resources have been uneven if not sporadic.

In the past 3 years alone, the Philippine Science High School (PSHS) system has
turned away 5,807 of the “brightest students” due to limited slots. Admission in
the PSHS system is extremely competitive. Out of 49,481 applicants for the 16 Pisay
campuses from SYs 2022–2025, only 11,351 (23%) qualified. Of this however, only 5,544
are able to eventually pursue their studies in PSHS, with the remaining 5,807 being
“turned away” due to lack of slots. Notably, private school students outperform public
school students (43% vs. 17%) in the PSHS National Competitive Examination (NCE).

The backlog in classroom construction is at 165,000 classrooms, with many schools

resorting to multiple shifts as well as alternative delivery modes. Regional disparities
exist between urban and rural areas, with the former facing congestion due to high
population density. Likewise, only 30% of school buildings are in good condition.

Progress since the Alternative Learning System (ALS) Act of 2020 remains modest,
with many implementing guidelines still pending. Three years hence, guidelines
to enable LGUs to tap the Special Education Fund (SEF), and revenue regulations to
allow private institutions to receive tax incentives for contributions to ALS remain
unavailable. DepEd has also not yet released guidelines to enable recognition of
private ALS providers.

Out of 4.9 million out-of-school youth, the ALS Program has reached only around
600,000 (12.2%), of which only 50% complete their studies. Funding support has
also been modest and not strategic. The ALS program also continues to suffer from
inadequate funding, with all regions receiving a uniform amount of Php 7 million per
year regardless of the number of ALS learners they need to cater to or the number of
out-of-school youth that could be reached. Meanwhile, 58.1% (13,713 out of 23,603) of
community learning centers are classified as Type 1, or makeshift temporary spaces.

Bullying continues to be a silent and persistent issue in basic education, with the
country ranking as the “bullying capital of the world” due to the high prevalence of
24 EDCOM II Year Two Report

bullying reported by students. PISA 2018 results show that 65% of Grade 10 students
in the country experienced bullying a few times a month—the highest among all
participating countries. Meanwhile, resolution of bullying cases moved at a glacial pace,
with only 38 out of 339 cases resolved (11%) between November 2022 and July 2024.

The implementing rules and regulations (IRR) of the Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 is
outdated and not responsive to school level realities. Teachers have lamented
difficulties due to its outdated definition of bullying, the lack or inconsistency of
localized anti-bullying policies, and the insufficiency of funding and training support
for guidance counselors/designates who take on most of the work in the Child
Protection Committees. This is due and is aggravated by the lack of personnel in
DepEd offices (central, regional, and divisional) that focus on anti-bullying efforts.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 5: Learning Resources
• Develop a comprehensive textbook policy.
• Decentralize processes, streamline budget execution, and build capacity of
field offices for localized procurement.

Priority Area 6: Measurement of Learning Outcomes

• Establish an independent assessment body.
• Rationalize existing assessments by focusing on key stages.
• Implement Learning Progression Assessments and modernize practices
through computer-based assessments.

Priority Area 7: Curriculum and Instruction

• Ensure availability of teacher training and resources for MATATAG rollout.
• Monitor learning days lost due to class disruptions while studying
mechanisms to ensure learning continuity through alternative delivery modes
(with an emphasis on monitoring and evaluation of learning outcomes).
• Revamp the National Learning Recovery Program to ensure proper targeting,
prompt support, and proper assessment of students that require urgent
intervention, with a focus on those lacking foundational competencies
• Release the policies on the National Reading Program, National Math
Program, and the National Science and Technology Program.
• Review relevance of SCPs and rationalize policies and resource allocations
to match intended targets.
• Clarify the relationship between DepEd’s Special Science Programs in
elementary and secondary, vis-a-vis the PSHS system, while ensuring
identification and support of emergent talent in the earlier years.
• Expand capacity of the PSHS system to increase the number of gifted
students supported from only 1% to 3%.

Priority Area 8: School Infrastructure

• Clarify data on actual classroom backlog to enable proper planning.
• Prioritize resolving classroom congestion in areas with multiple shifts as
well as “isolated public schools.”
• Resolve backlog issues and clarify delineation of accountabilities between
the Department of Public Works and Highways and DepEd.
• Improve coordination between DepEd, the Department of Human
Settlements and Urban Development, the National Housing Authority
(NHA), and the DILG relative to the allocation of schools in low-cost,
socialized, and resettlement housing projects, to ensure that later
congestion is prevented at the onset.
 Executive Summary 25

• Amend policies to ensure consideration of education implications:

Batasang Pambansa No. 220, NHA Memorandum Circular 2015-0015, DILG
Memorandum Circular No. 143-08, and DILG Memorandum Circular No.
2023-113.
• Strategically leverage Education Service Contracting and senior high school
(SHS) vouchers to address severe congestion in public schools by amending
DepEd policies to clearly indicate targets.
• Explore public-private partnerships to ramp up construction of classrooms.
• Provide context-responsive designs of school buildings relative to the
known and projected vulnerabilities of different areas in the country.
• Ensure coherence of efforts to address school congestion, disaster risk
reduction, as well as the DepEd Computerization Program to leverage
education technologies strategically.
• Prioritize electrification of 1,500 last-mile schools.

Priority Area 9: Alternative Learning System

• For DepEd and the DILG, collaborate swiftly to update the Joint Guidelines
on the SEF to clearly allow using said fund for ALS.
• For DepEd and the Bureau of Internal Revenue, work closely to issue the
Revenue Regulations to implement Section 21 of Republic Act (RA) No. 11510,
or the ALS Act of 2020.
• Issue guidelines on the recognition of private ALS providers.
• Ensure allocation of slots for SHS vouchers for ALS learners.
• Provide teacher training and ensure career progression of ALS teachers.

Priority Area 10: Home and School Environment

• Amend the IRR of the Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (DepEd Order No. 55, s. 2013).
• Ensure the formulation and implementation of localized anti-bullying
policies in all schools, with sufficient guidance and support from DepEd.
• Delineate roles of guidance counselors/designates and a new position for
discipline officers to focus on implementing localized anti-bullying policies.
• Provide sufficient resources and training to enable implementation of these
policies at the school level.

Higher Education
While higher education participation rate in the country is high at 34.89%, this
remains lower than the ASEAN average of 41.10%. This also varies significantly across
regions, with the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM)
(18.7%), Bicol (24.6%), and Central Luzon (25.1%) having much lower rates. Studies find
that the top deterrents to pursuing higher education today are employment/looking
for work (44.17%), lack of personal interest (24.94%), and financial limitations (20.98%).

Higher education attrition rates are alarmingly high: at 39% nationally but reaching
93.4% in BARMM, followed by Region VII (60.7%), Region IX (59.5%), and CAR
(54.9%). This underscores the need for CHED to closely monitor and understand
factors contributing to severe dropouts, and to initiate programs to address attrition.

RA 10931 has improved access to higher education among the poor through free
higher education in state universities and colleges (SUCs) and local universities
and colleges (LUCs). Between 2014 and 2022, participation of the lowest 3 deciles in
public higher education institutions (HEIs) improved by 10.97 percentage points, with
26 EDCOM II Year Two Report

LUCs showing the strongest correlation in relation to increased participation of the

poorest. Notably, increases in enrollment in SUCs may have already exceeded their
“optimal carrying capacity” (RA 10931 IRR), while the surge in enrollment in LUCs may
have the unintended consequence of limiting students to courses in education and
business administration, which represent the bulk of their offerings.

Recent reforms to the Tertiary Education Subsidy (TES) guidelines have refocused
interventions on the poorest of the poor, increasing the share of the poorest
grantees from zero in 2022–2023 to 27% in 2023–2024. This is in light of EDCOM
findings in Year One that the proportion of the poorest receiving TES declined
markedly from 74.24% in 2018 to just 30.74% by 2022. On the other hand, DSWD data
shows at least 683,822 college-eligible students from Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino
Program (4Ps) families who could benefit from the TES.

Reductions in TES amounts (from Php 60,000 to Php P10,000) may ease out the
poorest, affect student completion rates, and limit program choice. Data show that
current figures may force the poorest from pursuing higher education. Further, it
would only realistically allow the poorest to choose from five courses on average, most
of which are already oversubscribed: (a) Elementary Education, (b) Technology and
Livelihood Education, (c) Criminology, (d) Industrial Technology, and (e) TVET. This will
also disproportionately disadvantage public HEIs.

On average, college courses are only reviewed and updated every 11 years, limiting
the ability of higher education to adapt to socioeconomic developments. A review
of CHED policies, standards, and guidelines for the top 10 courses in terms of student
enrollment find: (a) uneven reductions in required units following the introduction of
K to 12, (b) lack of uniformity in internship requirements, (c) lack of sufficient detail or
guidance in relation to majors and concentrations, and (d) lack of planned monitoring
and review of policies.

Most higher education policies follow a one-size-fits-all approach, limiting the

diversity of higher education institutions in the country. Most CHED policies
implicitly direct HEIs toward a “research-oriented university” track, thereby obliging
institutions to conform with requirements (e.g., faculty with PhDs and research
publications) that may not necessarily align with their character and goals. Empirical
analysis finds that at least half of all HEIs in the country are in fact small, with limited
course offerings and faculty, and zero research and extension activities.

The Philippines has only 172.01 researchers per million inhabitants compared to the
World Bank average of 322.51 for low- and middle-income countries. Data show that
graduate students only comprise 18.02% of student enrollment in the country, with
even top universities primarily offering bachelors programs.

In 2022, the country welcomed 17,337 international students to our universities—a

far cry from the 100,437 students who went to Singapore and the 63,308 who
studied in Malaysia. The bulk of international students in the country are from India
(55.8%), China (27.8%), and Nigeria (4%). Many of the challenges faced, including
complex immigration and visa requirements and stringent government regulations,
remain unaddressed despite the passage of RA 11448 (Transnational Higher Education
Act) in 2018.
 Executive Summary 27

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 11: Access to Quality Higher Education
• For CHED, proactively monitor factors leading to high attrition and to
initiate programs to address dropouts.
• For CHED and the Department of Budget and Management (DBM), (a) work
closely to identify and implement the “optimal carrying capacity” of SUCs
and (b) review the funding formula for SUCs vis-a-vis their respective
charters and horizontal typology.
• For the Unified Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education, continue
prioritizing the poorest of the poor in the implementation of the TES.
• Amend the Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act to improve
targeting of benefits toward low-income households.
• Guarantee support for the poorest (4Ps beneficiaries) as early as high
school, conditional on completing SHS and gaining acceptance in a CHED-
recognized HEI.
• Restore original subsidy amounts (previously at Php 60,000) for TES
grantees to enable successful completion.
• Provide additional incentives for those pursuing government-identified
priority programs.
• For SUCs, allocate a proportion of slots for the poorest of the poor as as
affirmative action
• Amend the LGU cap in Personnel Services expenditures to enable LUCs
to meet CHED requirements and recruit needed faculty in line with their
respective charters and horizontal typology.

Priority Area 12: Quality Assurance

• Review CHED policy on horizontal typology to better match national
goals; after which, policies relating to policies, standards, and guidelines
for courses, standards for excellence, bases for autonomy, as well as
resourcing must be amended accordingly.
• Develop a framework to harmonize quality assurance standards across both
private and public HEIs.
• Institutionalize internal and external quality assurance processes.
• Conduct harmonization workshops to ensure consistency and
standardization across educational quality assurance assessments.

Priority Area 13: Digital Transformation and Educational Technologies

• Invest in infrastructure for digital transformation in HEIs.
• Promote access to educational technologies to enhance teaching and
learning.

Priority Area 14: Graduate Education, Research, and Innovation

• Foster human resource development partnerships between research-
intensive institutions.
• Implement a research capacity incubation program to enhance research
capabilities.
• Address public procurement challenges so that a more robust research
environment may flourish.

Priority Area 15: Internationalization of Higher Education

• Streamline immigration processes for foreign faculty and students to
facilitate internationalization of HEIs.
• Develop incentives to attract reputable foreign HEIs to partner with local
institutions.
28 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Teacher Education
The Teacher Education Council (TEC) has since made progress on key deliverables
following the appointment of its executive director. In the past months, the Council
has swiftly moved to identify Centers of Excellence (COEs) in teacher education,
began the process of updating the preservice teacher education curriculum, initiated
partnerships with key universities and government bodies, and launched its roadmap
for innovative programs. However, challenges persist in clarifying the relationship
between the TEC and CHED’s Technical Panel for Teacher Education, especially
following RA 11713.

A significant gap in the oversight of the teaching profession persists due to

insufficient monitoring and coordination by CHED and the Professional Regulation
Commission (PRC). Despite their shared mandate under the PRC Modernization
Act of 2000 (RA 8981) to monitor school performance and teaching conditions,
underperforming teacher education institutions (TEIs) continue to operate despite
consistently poor licensure examination outcomes.

CHED has since adopted stricter policies to address underperforming TEIs in line
with EDCOM II recommendations. Through CHED Memorandum Order No. 10, s. 2024,
CHED has promulgated guidelines, criteria, and sanctions for TEIs that consistently
fail to meet standards. Evaluations focus on the Board Licensure Examination for
Professional Teachers (BLEPT) performance, school leadership, faculty qualifications,
curriculum, and resources. TEIs with potential for improvement will receive technical
assistance to address gaps and enhance program quality.

A steady enrollment in COEs and Centers of Development (CODs) contrasts with a

concerning decline in their share of graduating education students, raising doubts
about their capacity to produce top-performing graduates consistently (Sinsay-
Villanueva et al., 2024). The limited effectiveness of the COE and COD initiatives in
assisting underperforming TEIs, along with regional disparities, compound this issue.
Most COEs and CODs are located in Luzon, particularly in the National Capital Region,
leaving Visayas and Mindanao (and especially Region XII and BARMM) underserved.

Sixty-two percent of high school teachers teach subjects outside their college
major. This misalignment between preservice training and school-level needs
undermines the quality of instructional expertise in the basic education system.
Compounding this issue, 62% of high school teachers who are expected to specialize
teach subjects outside their college major. The problem is particularly pronounced
in the sciences, with a 98% mismatch in the physical sciences and an 80% mismatch
in the biological sciences, highlighting a critical gap in subject-specific expertise.
This lack of knowledge extends to Key Stages 1 and 2, where 13% and 16% of science
teachers, respectively, teach science outside their specialization.

The teacher education curriculum requires only a minimum of six units each for
field studies and practice teaching, which is among the shortest practice teaching
requirements in the world. Evidently, this impacts teacher preparation quality and
necessitates stronger specialized training by DepEd, through the National Educators’
Academy of the Philippines (NEAP).

However, the absence of a strategic framework for continuing professional

development within the NEAP has limited further opportunities for professional
growth. The lack of a strategic framework, clear priorities, and monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms has stalled NEAP’s transformation into an effective
professional development institution.
 Executive Summary 29

It takes teachers 15 years to move from Teacher 1 (Salary Grade 11 at Php 27,000) to
Teacher 3 (Salary Grade 13 at Php 31,320). Teachers face limited career advancement
opportunities, often transitioning into administrative roles for higher pay, reducing the
presence of experienced educators in classrooms. Transitioning into nonteaching roles
is often seen as the only available option for career growth, as Master Teacher roles are
limited in number. Notably, DepEd must be commended for finally issuing the IRR for the
Career Progression System (Executive Order No. 174, s. 2022) following 2 years of delay.

While administrative officers (AOs) have provided some relief, two out of three
teachers still report working more than 40 hours per week, mostly due to ancillary
tasks. Since 2020, DepEd has allocated AO II personnel in tranches, totaling 24,519 as of
2024. This means that enough items have been created for a 1:1 ratio of AOs to schools.
Research by IDinsight has shown however that this remains generally insufficient,
especially for large schools with more than 500 students. Teachers have also expressed
the need for project development officers for program coordination responsibilities.

Fifty-five percent of public schools have operated without fully designated school
principals. School leadership offers a corrective, if temporary, measure to the problems
plaguing teachers. However, the quantity, quality, and qualifications of school leaders are
in a dismal state. Data reveal that only 45% of public schools have a designated school
principal, with 12,057 schools with incorrect school head items, contrary to DepEd’s own
policies. School leaders have also received limited professional development support
from DepED or NEAP since 2018. Notably, this is a binding constraint that critically limits
the ability of DepEd to realistically pursue decentralization.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 16: Alignment of CHED, the PRC, and DepEd on Teacher Education
and Development
• Clarify the functions of the TEC and CHED’s Technical Panel for Teacher
Education to avoid duplication and enhance governance.
• Amend RA 8981 to strengthen oversight of the teaching profession.
• Amend the Teacher Professionalization Act of 1994 to update it based on
the current needs of the education system and the learnings in the past 30
years.
• Encourage TEIs to pursue COE and COD designations with incentives
and a streamlined application process. (Measures such as scholarships
for students, international incentive models for faculty, and targeted
exemptions can help elevate learning quality while reducing barriers.)
• Strengthen partnerships and mentoring programs between COEs, CODs,
and underperforming TEIs.
• Address regional disparities in the distribution of COEs and CODS since
this is critical for improving teacher education nationwide.
• For CHED and the TEC, focus on long-term outcomes and impact indicators
in monitoring and evaluation of COEs and CODs.

Priority Area 17: Preservice Education

• Extend and structure the practicum for teacher trainees to include
meaningful teaching experiences.
• Shift to specialization in preservice education, particularly for Key Stages 1
and 2, to improve content mastery and pedagogical skills.
• Address critical supply-side constraints among teachers specializing
in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics; Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao; and Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health through
alternative pathways to the BLEPT.
30 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• For TEC, work closely with DepEd and CHED in mapping out and projecting
the supply and demand of teachers.
• For DepEd, revisit its hiring guidelines to specify actual vacancies (in terms
of grade level and subject specialization) and/or preferred educational
qualification (in terms of course completed in college, e.g., Bachelor of Early
Childhood Education for vacancies in Key Stage 1).
Priority Area 18: In-Service Training and Development
• For DepEd, develop a centralized Human Resource Information System that
integrates a Professional Development Information System for tracking
teachers’ continuing education needs and incorporates Electronic School
Form 7 data for real-time monitoring and analysis.
• For DepEd and the DBM, review and update the 1997 DBM Organization
and Staffing Standards, and other guidelines related to the allocation and
deployment of nonteaching positions to address the growing complexity of
school operations at all levels.
• For NEAP, create relevant and impactful professional development
programs aligned with career progression.
• Institutionalize teacher career progression through legislation.
• Ensure every school has a dedicated principal by revising allocation policies.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training

While TVET graduates are highly employable (95.5%), Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA) data show that many of them end up underemployed (15.2% as of October 2022).
Bersales also finds that a large proportion of TVET completers end up in the informal sector
(30.3%). Notably, since 2020, TESDA data show that the highest number of completers are
in two areas: Bread and Pastry Production NC II (20.33%) and Driving NC II (17.76%).

In general, TVET graduates earn slightly lower in daily basic pay than non-TVET
graduates (Php 519 vs. Php 556), and they are likely to be employed in elementary
occupations and service and sales work. Further analysis by PIDS shows that, consistent
with EDCOM findings in Year One, there is a significant and positive improvement in
mean hourly wage of TVET graduates for those with only secondary education and lower.
Meanwhile, the effect on wage is negative for those with postsecondary education.

Critically, wages of TVET graduates are higher in the following sectors: automotive;
construction; electrical and electronics; information and communications
technology; tourism; and social, community development, and other services.
Graduates in these areas are likely to earn beyond the minimum wages set per region,
and higher compared to graduates of agriculture-related training programs.

Enterprise-based training was held back due to outdated guidelines as well as

inadequate oversight and support since the 1990s. EDCOM analysis found that many
of the implementing guidelines to operationalize provisions under the Dual Training
System law were outdated and unaddressed by the concerned agencies (among them,
TESDA, NEDA, the Department of Trade and Industry, the Department of Finance
[DOF] Revenue Operations Group, the Bureau of Internal Revenue, and the Bureau of
Customs), with the complex processes leading to a series of dead ends.

Notably, many of these constraints have been addressed in RA 12063, or the

Enterprise-Based Education and Training (EBET) Framework Act of 2024.
Championed by EDCOM Commissioners, the new law resolves the multiple
 Executive Summary 31

bottlenecks found during the consultations. It likewise streamlines the processes

and incentives, clarifies responsibilities of agencies, and includes additional
support and incentives to companies to encourage them to participate in EBET.

Lack of coordination and fragmentation impede the country from providing useful
Labor Market Information to guide policies and decision-making. Despite many
efforts to gather information and to project training and labor demands across the
PSA, the Department of Labor and Employment, and TESDA, agencies operate in silos,
insights are not complementary, and analysis is too generic to actually inform the
decision-making of educational institutions and learners on the ground.

Many sectors still do not have industry boards, limiting their capacity to engage
critically with TESDA and ultimately to formulate relevant training. Since the
EDCOM Year One Report, only one national industry board for the creative sector has
been established, with critical sectors such as energy and transportation remaining
unrepresented.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 19: Needs-Based System Projecting the Demands in Workers’
Upskilling
• Establish a unified Labor Market Information System (LMIS) to consolidate
fragmented labor market data from various government agencies,
enhancing the alignment of training programs with industry needs.
• Promote skills needs anticipation as a key component of the LMIS to
improve the matching of labor market demands with training.

Priority Area 20: Industry Involvement and Investment in Upskilling

• Issue the IRR for the EBET Act of 2024 and ensure adequacy of staffing/
personnel within TESDA and resources to implement its provisions.
• Simplify and streamline processes associated with tax benefits and EBT-
related incentives to encourage broader industry participation.
• Implement the Adopt-Adapt Strategies to expedite the development of
training regulations.

Priority Area 21: Ensuring Quality in the Provision of TVET

• Support the establishment of more industry boards to enable industry to
take a proactive/leadership role in developing training, especially in priority
industries identified as key employment and economic generators.
• Ensure the quadripartite composition of Industry TVET Boards (ITBs),
including representation from government, industry, academia, and labor.
• Establish a clear and sustainable framework for ITBs to define roles,
functions, and relationships tailored to local contexts.

Priority Area 22: Framework for Equivalency and Recognition of Nonformal and
Informal Learning
• Fast-track the work of the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF)
National Coordinating Council to ensure the fulfilment of its mandate, in
line with RA 10968.
• Urgently establish the PQF Permanent Secretariat to accelerate the full
implementation of the PQF and the operationalization of the Ladderized
Education Act (RA 10647, s. 2014).
• Review the PQF level descriptors to ensure alignment with changing
contexts and needs of industries and Filipino learners.
• Integrate the Philippine Skills Framework within the PQF.
32 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Governance and Finance

While trifocalization has improved subsectoral attention, it has not improved
learning outcomes. Despite the increased attention given to respective sectors,
completion rates and student achievement rates remained the same as in the 1990s.
The separation of education governance into three agencies, while intended to
provide focused oversight, has instead created silos, with DepEd, CHED, and TESDA
operating in isolation rather than working toward cohesive policy development. The
absence of a formal coordination mechanism has led these agencies to craft policies
independently, consequently hampering sectorwide planning and prioritization.

Private school enrollment drops by 20% as public-private complementarity remains

unclear. The lack of clear operationalization of the Constitutional provision on
“complementarity” between public and private education has led to inefficiencies and
confusion within the education system. This situation is underscored by a concerning
decline in private enrollment, which dropped from 68% in 2000 to 48% in 2015.

Too many targets have been set for basic education, while there has been too little
emphasis on learning outcomes. Despite the high number of targets, only 8 out
of the 88 targets in the BEDP are about learning outcomes, which is indicative that
learning outcomes are not given sufficient attention in the system. Targets are also
inconsistent when reviewed against those articulated in the National Expenditure Plan,
the General Appropriations Act, and the Philippine Development Plan. There is also
no clear mechanism through which targets set at the school, division, and regional
level connect to overall targets set centrally. Finally, targets are set relative to available
resources and without any system through which accountability in meeting said
targets could be monitored, encouraged, or enforced.

The Philippines’s education budget growth still fails to keep pace with global standards,
and basic education receives the lowest share in the budget despite its foundational
role. Our education system suffers from underinvestment. Currently, the Philippines
allocates an average of 3.2% of its gross domestic product to education, below the
recommended 4%–6%. Further, though the education budget has doubled in real terms
from 2013 to 2024, once inflation is accounted for, the growth has actually been flat.

Most increases in budget have been for SHS and higher education, with primary
education being the least resourced despite its importance in ensuring strong
foundations for learning. In 2013, the government spent about Php 10,459 per student
in primary education and Php 28,122 per student in higher education. By 2022, this
improved to only Php 18,066 for primary while reaching a high of Php 48,688 per
student in tertiary. This contradicts the strategy of many countries, such as Vietnam
and Peru, that successfully turned around their education system by first and foremost
focusing on the basics at Key Stage 1 (Kindergarten to Grade 3).

Schools receive limited funding for maintenance and other operating expenses
(MOOE), accounting for only 5% of the DepEd budget in 2024. An Asian Development
Bank study finds that the Boncodin Formula used to compute per school budget is
biased against congested schools, leaving them with little resources to address their
needs. On average, for elementary, this equates to just Php 1,127 per student per year
while amounting to Php 1,500 for secondary. Many schools report that these funds are
typically depleted by electricity costs and/or the cost of teaching or office supplies,
which are used to reproduce additional learning resources. This forces schools to
depend on the SEF and allocations of Parents-Teachers Associations to complement
meager funds. Notably, DepEd has since implemented the revised school MOOE
formula, which shall result in an average of 30% increase in the budget of schools.
 Executive Summary 33

RA 9155’s intent to decentralize education governance has resulted in more

centralized control and reduced innovation. Despite its intent, RA 9155’s resulting
structure has instead led to greater centralization and compliance with most decision-
making and resource allocation powers lodged at the central office. “Memocracy”
has thus undermined the potential for local innovation and responsiveness. Worse,
the culture of “compliance” and “obedience” has limited the ability of local players to
contextualize, as they end up being penalized or publicly criticized.

While there are at least 30 mechanisms for people’s participation in DepEd’s

education governance based on policies, most of them are true only on paper. In
reality, many stakeholders, including parents, volunteers, and organizations, cite dead
ends in civil society participation due to lack of timely and open data and of dedicated
personnel to engage with partners, among others.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Priority Area 23: Ensuring Seamless and Integrated Delivery of Education
• Establish a Cabinet Cluster for Education to enable system-wide planning
and coordination, specifically to formulate and implement a National
Education and Workforce Development Strategy for the country.

Priority Area 24: Complementarity Between Public and Private Education

• Explore policy tools and best practices that would enable the government
to strategically engage private education while ensuring access to quality
education and supporting student choice.

Priority Area 25: Integrated Performance Management and Accountability System

• For DepEd, focus on a smaller number of headline targets that are outcomes
oriented and which put an emphasis on ensuring learning.
• For DepEd, establish a lean, cross-functional, and high-performing internal
delivery unit to support these aims.

Priority Area 26: Efficiency and Equity in Financing, Resource Mobilization, and
Delivery of Education
• Increase investments in education, particularly in addressing urgent gaps in
early childhood and primary education.
• Develop a robust framework for monitoring and reporting educational
expenditures, ensuring transparency and allowing stakeholders to track
how funds are being utilized at various governance levels.
• Formulate financing strategies that address the specific needs of vulnerable
sectors and localities with less resources.
• Conduct an annual system-wide planning and prioritization of resources
between DepEd, CHED, and TESDA in partnership with the DBM and NEDA.
• Amend RA 8525 (Adopt-A-School Act of 1998) to encourage philanthropy
in education.
On the revised school MOOE formula of DepEd:
• Adjust budget amounts based on context-dependent expenditures
such as electricity.
• Review policies on SCPs as well as assumptions made in relation to
resourcing.
• Review program support funds across the department to ensure
nonduplication of resourcing.
• Amend and update DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2019.
On the SEF:
• Amend the joint memorandum circular to include ALS.
34 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• Clarify the relationship between provincial and municipal school

boards, especially in supporting low-income LGUs with low SEFs.
• Institutionalize equity mechanisms that will allow the national
government to provide resources to support low-income LGUs.
• Strengthen/harmonize reporting and monitoring mechanisms through
enhanced collaboration between DepEd, the DOF Bureau of Local
Government Finance, and the DILG.

Priority Area 27: Decentralization and Participatory Governance

• For DepEd, adopt a phased, selective, and iterative decentralization process
based on a clear framework of reform readiness.
• Ensure adequacy of resources to enable local actors to implement reform.
• Integrate monitoring and evaluation in the reform process.
• For DepEd, CHED, and TESDA, adopt an open education data policy.
• Establish clearer communication pathways and feedback mechanisms
within and between different levels of educational governance.
• Foster an inclusive governance framework that encourages active
participation from all stakeholders, including parents, students,
nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector.

Accomplishments in Year Two

The year has also been productive in terms of EDCOM’s advocacy of legislative
measures, as well as its collaboration with relevant government agencies on key
reforms and interventions:

Priority Area Policy Updates

Priority Area 1: • Recommendation of the NEDA Social Development

Nutrition and Committee to include nutrition in the early years in the
Feeding Legislative Executive Development Advisory Council
(LEDAC) Agenda.
• Inclusion of the First 1,000 Days and nutrition-related
funding in the early years under DBM’s Program
Convergence Budgeting for FY 2026.
• Increase in cost per capita of DSWD’s Supplementary
Feeding Program in the 2025 National Expenditure Plan from
Php 15 per hot meal to Php 27 per hot meal.
• Quadruple increase of DOH’s nutrition budget in the 2025
GAA from Php 235 million to Php 977 million.

Priority Area 2: • Allocation of funding for the CDWs and for CDCs in the 2025
Supply-side Factors GAA
• Php 80 million for TESDA scholarships so that child
development workers (CDWs) with only a high school
diploma may be upskilled toward gaining a National
Certificate (NC) III in ECCD.
• Php 24 million was allocated to establish CDCs in at least
eight fifth-class municipalities without.
• TESDA Board approval for the prioritization of Child
Development Workers Training Regulations (TR) development
to create an NC III in ECCD on November 13, 2024.
 Executive Summary 35

Priority Area Policy Updates

Priority Area 4: • House Bill No. 10142 - An Act Strengthening the

Governance and Early Childhood Care and Development System, and
Financing of ECCD Appropriating Funds Therefor
• House Bill No. 8393 filed by former Rep. Kiko Benitez on
May 29, 2023
• House Bill No. 10142 filed in substitution of House Bill No.
8393 by Rep. Roman Romulo, former Rep. Kiko Benitez, et.
al. on March 13, 2024
• Approved on third reading on March 18, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2575 - An Act Further Strengthening the Early
Childhood Care and Development System, Repealing For The
Purpose Republic Act No. 10410, Otherwise Known as the “Early
Years Act (EYA) of 2013”, and Appropriating Funds Therefor
• Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian on February 27, 2024
• Approved on third reading on December 16, 2024

Priority Area 5: • Issuance of DepEd Memorandum No. 049 s.2024 that mandates
Learning Resources Early Procurement Activities to expedite processes and budget
utilization for DepEd projects, including the procurement of
textbooks, modules, activity sheets, and teacher’s manuals.
• Senate Bill No. 2712 - An Act Strengthening the National Book
Development Board, Amending For The Purpose Republic Act
No. 8047 or the Book Publishing Industry Development Act
• Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on June 13, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Basic Education; Ways
and Means and Finance

Priority Area 7: • Republic Act No. 12028 - An Act Establishing an Academic

Curriculum and Recovery and Accessible Learning (ARAL) Program and
Instruction Appropriating Funds Therefor signed into law on October 16, 2024
• Implementing Rules and Regulations signed on December
16, 2024
• Republic Act No. 12027 - An Act Discontinuing the Use of the
Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction from Kindergarten
to Grade 3, Providing For Its Optional Implementation
In Monolingual Classes, and Amending For The Purpose
Sections 4 And 5 of Republic Act No. 10533, Otherwise Known
As The “Enhanced Basic Education Act Of 2013”
• Lapsed into law on October 10, 2024
• Republic Act No. 11984 - An Act Mandating Public and
Private Educational Institutions to Allow Disadvantaged
Students with Unpaid Tuition and Other School Fees to Take
the Periodic and Final Examinations and For Other Purposes
• Signed into law on March 11, 2024
• House Bill No. 9936 - An Act Allowing The Department Of
Education The Flexibility To Determine The Pedagogical
Approaches To Be Implemented In The Basic Education
Curriculum, Amending For The Purpose Section 5 Of
Republic Act No. 10533, Otherwise Known As The “Enhanced
Basic Education Act Of 2013”
• Filed by Rep. Roman Romulo on February 14, 2024
• Approved on third reading on March 19, 2024
36 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area Policy Updates

• House Resolution No. 260 - Resolution Urging The

Department Of Education To Suspend, After A Comprehensive
Preparation, The Regular Academic Program For Eight
To Twelve Weeks And Implement An Effective Learning
Intervention Recovery Program For K To 12 Learners To Ensure
That They Shall Attain Functional Literacy And Numeracy
• Filed by Rep. Roman on September 18, 2024
• Adopted on November 6, 2024

Priority Area 8: • House Bill No. 11214 - Private Basic Education Vouchers
School Assistance Act
Infrastructure • Filed by Rep. Roman Romulo, Rep. Mark Go, et. al.
• Pending with the Committee on Rules (Included in the
Order of Business on December 17, 2024)
• House Bill No. 10823 - An Act Establishing Public Basic
Education Schools In Geographically Isolated And
Disadvantaged And Conflict-Affected Areas, Providing
Access Roads Leading To Last Mile Schools, And
Appropriating Funds Therefor
• Filed by Rep. Roman Romulo on August 27, 2024
• Approved on third reading on September 19, 2024

Priority Area 10: • Institutionalization and approval of plantilla positions for

Home and School the Learner Rights Protection Office (LRPO) - 9 plantilla
Environment items were created at the Central Office level, and 16 items
at the regional level (1 item per Regional Office).
• Republic Act No. 12080 or the “Basic Education Mental
Health and Well-Being Promotion Act” signed into law on
December 06, 2024

Priority Area 11: • GAA 2024 special provision on TES prioritization of the
Access to Quality poorest, and the subsequent increase in the share of the
Higher Education 4Ps/Poorest grantees
• Senate Bill No. 2905 - An Act Amending Section 7 Of
Republic Act No. 10931, Otherwise Known As The Universal
Access To Quality Tertiary Education Act, To Enhance
The Efficiency, Equity, And Accountability Of The Tertiary
Education Subsidy Program
• Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on December 17, 2024
• Referred to the Committee on Higher, Technical and
Vocational Education on December 18, 2024
• CHED has fast-tracked the reconstitution of Technical
Panels, from only 15 in 2023 to an additional 72 in 2024,
leaving only 19 more panels to be reconstituted.

Priority Area 12: • Senate Bill No. 2829 - An Act Strengthening the
Quality Assurance Establishment and Operation of All Public and Private Higher
Education Institutions
• Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on on September 18, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Higher, Technical and
Vocational Education and Ways and Means on September
23, 2024
• House Bill No. 9982 - An Act Strengthening the
Establishment and Operation of All Public and Private Higher
Education Institutions
• Filed by Rep. Mark Go on February 26, 2024
• Approved on third reading on March 19, 2024
 Executive Summary 37

Priority Area Policy Updates

Priority Area 14: • Republic Act 12009 or the New Government Procurement
Graduate Education, Act
Research, and • now includes provisions to support the science
Innovation community through the streamlining of procurement
processes and reduction in excessive bureaucracy
that has previously limited productivity in research,
development, and innovation
• signed into law on July 20, 2024

Priority Area 15: • Senate Bill No. 2733 - An Act Amending Section 5 (3) Of
Internationalization Republic Act No. 9225, Otherwise Known As The Citizenship
of Higher Education Retention And Re-Acquisition Act Of 2003
• Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian and Sen. Joel Villanueva on
July 17, 2024
• Referred to the Committee on Justice and Human Rights
on July 31, 2024
• Conducted a Technical Working Group on October 9,
2024
• House Bill No. 10251 - An Act Allowing For The Appointment
Of Faculty, Researchers, And Administrators With Dual
Citizenship In Public Higher Education Institutions
Amending For The Purpose Section 5 (3) Of Republic Act
9225, Otherwise Known As The Citizenship Retention And
Re-Acquisition Act Of 2003
• Filed by Rep. Mark Go on April 11, 2024
• Approved on third reading on August 13, 2024

Priority Area 16: • The Teacher Education Council has begun its full
Alignment of CHED, operationalization consistent with RA 11713, beginning with the
PRC, and DepEd on appointment of its Executive Director last September 6, 2024.
Teacher Education • Issuance of CHED Memorandum Order 10 s. 2024, which
and Development empowers CHED to impose sanctions, such as program
termination and institutional closure, based on a TEI’s
performance
• House Bill No. 9979 - An Act Further Amending R.A. No.
7836, Otherwise Known as the “Teachers Professionalization
Act of 1994” as Amended by R.A. No. 9293
• Filed by Representatives Mark Go, Roman Romulo, Khalid
Dimaporo, Pablo John Garcia, and former Rep. Kiko
Benitez on February 26, 2024
• Approved on third reading on March 19, 2024
• Senate Bill Nos. 2830, 2840, and 2913 - SBN 2830: An Act
Further Amending R.A. No. 7836, Otherwise Known as the
“Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994” as Amended by R.A.
No. 9293, SBN 2840: An Act Further Amending R.A. No. 7836,
Otherwise Known as the “Teachers Professionalization Act of
1994” as Amended by R.A. No. 9293, and SBN 2913: An Act Further
Amending R.A. No. 7836, Otherwise Known as the “Teachers
Professionalization Act of 1994” as Amended by R.A. No. 9293
• SBN 2830 Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on September 18,
2024
• SBN 2840 Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian on September 25,
2024
• SBN 2913 Filed by Sen. Joel Villanueva on January 14, 2025
• Referred to the Committee on Civil Service, Government
Reorganization and Professional Regulation;
Subcommittee created and chaired by Sen. Win
38 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area Policy Updates

Priority Area 18: • The Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) for
In-Service Training Executive Order No. 174 s. 2022 on Career Progression of
and Development Teachers signed on July 26, 2024
• House Bill No. 10270 - An Act Institutionalizing The Career
Progression System For Public School Teachers And
Appropriating Funds Therefor
• Filed by Rep. Roman Romulo April 19, 2024
• Approved on third reading on September 4, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2827 - An Act Institutionalizing The Career
Progression System For Public School Teachers And
Appropriating Funds Therefor
• Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian on September 17, 2024
• Referred To The Committees On Civil Service,
Government Reorganization And Professional Regulation;
Basic Education And Finance On September 23, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2831 - An Act Institutionalizing The Career
Progression System For Public School Teachers And
Appropriating Funds Therefor
• Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on September 18, 2024
• Referred To The Committees On Civil Service,
Government Reorganization And Professional Regulation;
Basic Education And Finance On September 23, 2024

Priority Area 19: • Funding of Php 10 million for the development of a

Needs-based generative Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered labor
system projecting market researcher in the GAA of 2025.
the demands in
workers upskilling

Priority Area 20: • Republic Act No. 12063 - An Act Instituting the
Industry involvement Enterprise-Based Education and Training Framework and
and investment in Appropriating Funds Therefor
upskilling • Signed into law on November 7, 2024

Priority Area 21: • Funding of Php 40 million for the acquisition/development

Ensuring quality in of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered TVET course builder
the provision of TVET for Philippine TVET in the GAA of 2025.

Priority Area 22: • Establishment of the PQF NCC Permanent Secretariat

Framework for and Opening of Nominations for Economic/Industry
equivalency and Representatives last January 2025
recognition of
nonformal and
informal learning

Priority Area 23: • House Concurrent Resolution No. 31 - Concurrent Resolution

Ensuring Seamless Urging the President to Create a Cabinet Cluster for Education
and Integrated Adopted on August 30, 2024
Delivery of • Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 21 - Concurrent
Education Resolution Urging the President to Create a Cabinet
Cluster for Education
• Filed by Senators Win Gatchalian, Alan Peter S. Cayetano,
Koko Pimentel, and Joel Villanueva on July 30, 2024
 Executive Summary 39

Priority Area Policy Updates

Priority Area 26: • Bills on the Adopt-A-School Act of 1998

Efficiency and • Senate Bill No. 2731 - An Act Further Strengthening
Equity in Financing, The Incentives For Private Sector Participation In Public
Resource Educational Institutions By Amending Certain Provisions
Mobilization, In Republic Act No. 8525 Otherwise Known As The
and Delivery of “Adopt-A-School Act Of 1998”
Education • Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian and former Sen. Sonny
Angara on July 15, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Basic Education;
Higher, Technical And Vocational Education and
Ways And Means on July 30, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2809 - An Act Further Strengthening
The Incentives For Private Sector Participation In Public
Educational Institutions By Amending Certain Provisions
In Republic Act No. 8525 Otherwise Known As The
“Adopt-A-School Act Of 1998”
• Filed by Sen. Loren Legarda on September 3, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Basic Education;
Higher, Technical And Vocational Education and
Ways And Means on September 4, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2852 - An Act Further Strengthening
The Incentives For Private Sector Participation In Public
Educational Institutions, Amending For The Purpose
Republic Act No. 8525, Otherwise Known As The “Adopt-
A-School Act Of 1998”
• Filed by Sen. Joel Villanueva on October 17, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Basic Education;
Higher, Technical And Vocational Education and
Ways And Means on November 4, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 2845 - An Act Expanding The Purpose And
Application Of The Special Education Fund, Amending
For The Purpose Section 272 Of Republic Act No. 7160,
Otherwise Known As The “Local Government Code Of 1991
And For Other Purposes”
• Filed by Sen. Joel Villanueva on October 3, 2024
• Referred to the Committees on Local Government and
Basic Education on November 4, 2024
• Senate Bill No. 155 - An Act Furthering Local Leadership And
Accountability In Basic Education Governance To Achieve
Quality Inclusive Education Through The 21st Century School
Boards And School Governing Councils, And For Other
Purpose
• Filed by Sen. Win Gatchalian on July 7, 2022
• Referred to the Committees on Local Government and
Basic Education and Finance on August 1, 2022
• Conducted a Technical Working Group on March 7, 2024

Priority Area 27: • DepEd signed a MOA with Delivery Unit on piloting
Decentralization decentralization
and Participatory
Governance
40 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Acknowledgments
This report would not have been possible without the untiring dedication and
support of the Commission’s Legislation and Policy Advisory Council, as well
as of the members of the Standing Committees. The Commission would also
like to thank the members of the Technical Secretariat for their hard work and
commitment in the past two years of EDCOM II’s lifespan.

We appreciate the support and cooperation of our education agencies:

DepEd, CHED, and TESDA in sharing data, participating in and facilitating our
consultations, and providing comments on this report.

We also thank the BARMM Ministry, Civil Service Commission, DBM, DOF, DOH,
DOLE, DSWD, DTI - Center for AI Research, ECCD Council, National Museum,
National Nutrition Council, NEDA, Office of the President, PRC, PSA

The research and findings of the Commission would not have been possible
without the support of the Philippine Institute for Development Studies, our
research arm. We also commend the University of the Philippines for reviving
the UP President Edgardo J. Angara Fellowship, as well as De La Salle University
for mobilizing their scholars to support the work of the Commission. We would
also like to commend our partners from the academe: the Asian Institute of
Management, Ateneo de Manila University, Ateneo de Naga University, De La Salle–
College of Saint Benilde, De La Salle University, De La Salle University–Dasmariñas,
Far Eastern University, Jose Rizal University, Philippine Normal University–Research
Institute for Teacher Quality, St. Paul College of Makati, St. Paul University Manila,
University of the Philippines–Bonifacio Global City, University of the Philippines
Diliman, University of the Philippines Los Baños, UP Resilience Institute, University
of the Philippines System, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Philippine
Science High School, and Quezon City Science High School.
 Acknowledgements 41

We are likewise grateful to our partners who have supported and enriched our
work: the Asian Development Bank; Education Development Center; the GSMA
Mobile for Development; IDInsight; Innovations for Poverty Action; Philippine
Business for Education; Teach for the Philippines; The Asia Foundation; the
World Bank; the United Nations Population Fund; UNICEF Philippines; WeSolve
Foundation; Analytics & Artificial Intelligence Association of the Philippines; and
the IT & Business Process Association of the Philippines.

We would also like to thank the Australian Government’s Department of Foreign

Affairs and Trade, the British Council, the British Embassy Manila, the Fulbright
Commission in the Philippines, the United States Agency for International
Development, (USAID) and its programs namely ABC+, US-Philippines Partnership
for Skills, Innovation and Lifelong Learning (UPSKILL), Improving Learning
Outcomes-Philippines (ILO - Ph), Opportunity 2.0, and YouthLed PH.

Our work is also supported by partner organizations committed to education

reform: Ayala Foundation, BDO Foundation, Gokongwei Brothers Foundation,
Insular Foundation, Jollibee Group Foundation, Knowledge Channel Foundation,
Metrobank Foundation, One Meralco Foundation, Private Education Assistance
Committee, San Miguel Foundation, Young Presidents’ Organization, Zuellig Family
Foundation, Arthaland Corporation, Ramon Aboitiz Foundation, and AboitizPower.

Finally, we wish to express particular appreciation to the editorial team of this

report, headed by its publications head, Ms. Ani Rosa Almario, as well as R. Jordan
P. Santos, its art director; Adelaide Elpidama; Mavreen Jackie P. Yapchiongco;
Bettina Medina-Tapalla; and Luigi C. Conti. Photographs were contributed by
Jilson Tiu and George Calvelo, and the office of Senator Win Gatchalian. The cover
artwork is by Ronald L. Jeresano.
42 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Introduction
When we began our work in January 2023, the Second
Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM II) held firm
to a fundamental truth: No solution would be possible without a
thorough diagnosis. The path forward required confronting the full
depth and often uncomfortable complexity of the problem. With
this as our guiding principle, EDCOM embarked on a journey—
conducting rigorous research with an army of partners, and diving
deep into consultations with teachers, principals, students,
and parents. The Year One Report left many stunned with its
revelations: a fractured foundation, decades of neglect, and the
accelerating downward spiral of the country’s education system.

As we complete EDCOM’s second year, the main impediments

to achieving learning at scale have crystallized even further:
(1) We have spread ourselves too thinly; (2) We did not
consistently track learning outcomes of students, and at times
were distracted by less important indicators; and (3) We have
lacked the ability to enforce accountability and enable prompt
intervention in our “system”. These impediments echo through
the 16 of 28 priorities pursued in 2024, revealing a stark reality:
Many reforms—even those conceived decades ago—remain
aspirations rather than achievements.
 Introduction 43

(1) we have spread ourselves too thinly;

(2) we did not consistently track learning
outcomes of students, and at times were
distracted by less important indicators;
and (3) we have lacked the ability to
enforce accountability and enable prompt
intervention in our “system”.

Policies well intentioned and hopeful—among them the Dual Training System Act of
1994 and the Adopt-a-School Act of 1998—were crafted following the first EDCOM
in the 1990s; they remain aspirational to this date. Likewise, the Anti-Bullying Act of
2013, the First 1,000 Days Law of 2018, and the Alternative Learning System Act of
2020 falter under the weight of scarce resources, weak accountability frameworks,
and untrodden steps, in the case of implementing guidelines that never emerged from
the crucible of policymaking bodies. The story is clear: Without addressing these
foundational gaps, meaningful and sustained change will remain elusive.

Resources Have Been Spread Too Thinly While Facing Many Critical Gaps in
Basic Education
Despite well-meaning policies and programs, the reality is that our budget has not
kept pace with the growth in student numbers and the ever growing aspirations of our
education system. A casual observer might note some bold increases in the budget.
A deeper look, however, will reveal that these were brought about mainly by the
introduction of senior high school in 2016 and the passage of the free tuition law (RA
10931) in 2017–2018. In actuality, accounting for inflation, allocations have stagnated.

FIGURE 1
Total National Government Allocation for Education (2013–2023)
(Nominal vs. Real Values in Constant 2018 Prices)

900.0

800.0
671.7
700.0

600.0
679.7
500.0
Billions

400.0 308.8

300.0
RA 10533 SHS RA 10931
200.0 (K to 12) (UAQTE)

100.0

0.0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Abbreviations:
K = Kindergarten, SHS = Senior High School, Nominal
UAQTE = Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Real
44 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The contrast with countries that have decisively turned around poor education
performance—such as Vietnam and Peru—is stark: They prioritized foundational
learning in the early years, addressed learning gaps at the onset of education, and
refused to allow the system’s base to erode.

Compare this with the situation in many barangays where child development centers
remain a promise unfulfilled
NON CONFLICT-AFFECTED since 1978. Participation in early childhood education
LEARNERS
is abysmal at 18%, and stunting rates have hovered stubbornly at 20% since 2000.
Literacy Performance
Backlogs in classrooms have forced schools to implement multiple shifts; public
schools remain understaffed, with teachers bearing the brunt of nonteaching
responsibilities; half of all our public schools do not have principals; and promotions
for teachers
Grade 4
have come at a glacial pace, with most having to wait 12 years to move
from Teacher 1 to Teacher 3.
Grade 3

We Need to Focus on the Foundational Years

GRADE LEVEL

2 to 3 years below
Grade 2 curriculum
While the many competing priorities remain, the central revelation is that attempting
expectations
to address all addresses none. The task before us precludes a relentless and razor-
Grade 1
sharp focus on path-dependent, long-horizoned interventions; Resources must flow
One year below
toward the early years—addressing stunting in the first 1,000 days,
Kinder L-2
improving
pre-COVID scores access
to early childhood education, and ensuring that every learner achieves foundational
literacy byL-1the end of Grade 3.
Kinder

Emerging
ACTUALdata only underscores
Kinder Grade 1 this imperative.
Grade 2 Grade 3A forthcoming
Grade 4 UNICEF study (see
Grade Level 2019-2020 2020-2021 2021-2022 2022-2023 2023-2024
Figure 2) finds that prior to the pandemic, Filipino students exiting Grade 3 lagged a
full year behind curriculum expectations in terms of literacy. The pandemic widened
the gap to up to three years. Unchecked, these deficits compound into lifelong
handicaps.

Mathemathics Performance
FIGURE 2
NON CONFLICT-AFFECTED LEARNERS
Literacy Performance of Students in Key Stage 1
Literacy Performance
(Before
Gradeand
4 After Pandemic)
One year below
curriculum
Grade 3 expectations
Grade 4
GRADE LEVEL

One year below

Grade 2 pre-COVID scores

Grade 3
Grade 1
GRADE LEVEL

2 to 3 years below
Grade 2 curriculum
expectations
Kinder L-2

Grade 1
Kinder L-1
One year below
Kinder L-2 pre-COVID scores
ACTUAL Kinder Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Grade Level 2019-2020 2020-2021 2021-2022 2022-2023 2023-2024
Kinder L-1

ACTUAL Kinder Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4

Grade Level 2019-2020 2020-2021 2021-2022 2022-2023 2023-2024

Grade Level ACHIEVED Normal (pre COVID-19) conditions With COVID-19 effect applied

Mathemathics Performance

Grade 4
One year below
Introduction 45
46 EDCOM II Year Two Report

In school visits this year, we found some Grades 8 and 9 students struggling to meet
competencies that they should have learned as early as Grade 4. The Philippine
Statistics Authority’s recomputation of the Functional Literacy, Education, and Mass
Media Survey revealed a sobering truth: Even among college graduates, only as little
as 31% had the basic literacy skills of reading and writing. Notably, this was worse for
LITERACY
those LEVELS
aged 50 to 70 years old (see Figure 3), suggesting that our learning crisis has in
By educationalalso
fact gone on, perhaps attainment
unchecked, for much longer than we have noticed.

Functional Basic Illiterate / Undetermined

FIGURELiteracy
3 Literacy Low Literacy
Recomputed Literacy Levels by Age Group and Educational Attainment
(Percentage of Population)

HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

AGE High School TVET College

10-17 67 27 4% 67 33

18-20 68 27 3% 70 24 3% 75 22 2%

21-30 64 31 3% 71 27 2% 76 22 1%

31-40 62 33 3% 69 28 2% 76 22 1%

41-50 58 35 4% 66 30 2% 71 26 1%

51-60 55 36 6% 57 38 3% 67 29 3%

61-70 53 37 6% 58 37 4% 68 27 3%
LITERACY
LITERACY LEVELS
LITERACYLEVELS
LEVELS
LEVELS
By
By educational
Byeducational attainment
educationalattainment
educational attainment
attainment PERCENTAGE

Functional
Functional
Functional
Functional Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic Illiterate// /
Illiterate
Illiterate Undetermined
Undetermined
Undetermined
Undetermined
Literacy
Literacy
Literacy
Literacy Literacy
Literacy
Literacy
Literacy LowLiteracy
Low
Low Literacy
Literacy

Abbreviation: TVET = Technical and Vocational Education and Training

HIGHEST
HIGHESTEDUCATIONAL
HIGHEST
HIGHEST EDUCATIONALATTAINMENT
EDUCATIONAL
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
ATTAINMENT
ATTAINMENT

AGE
AGE
AGE High
HighSchool
High
High School
School
School TVET
TVET
TVET College
College
College
College

10-17
10-17
10-17 67
6767
67 27
27
27
27 4%
4%
4%
4% 67
67
67
67 33
33
33
33
 Introduction 47

Even among college graduates, only as little

as 31% had the basic literacy skills of reading
and writing. Notably, this was worse for
those aged 50 to 70 years old

The Demographic Window Will Close Within a Generation

Economic growth like that achieved by our neighboring East Asian tigers hinges on a
workforce that is not only large, but also one that can produce and innovate; therefore,
one that is educated. We are at the cusp of a demographic sweet spot: Various
studies (including those from the United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, the Philippine Statistics Office, the World Bank, and the United States
Census Bureau) project that between 2045 and 2055, the Philippines’s working-age
population will peak at 66% to 69% before beginning to decline (see Figure 4). The
Philippines therefore has less than a generation to harness the opportunity that this
demographic window provides.

As Senator Pia Cayetano warns, we face a choice between “the pain of discipline and
hardship, or the pain of regret”. The urgency is clear: Addressing learning gaps for our
students, and even for our working-age adults, is both a social development and an
economic imperative.

FIGURE 4
Demographic Window Projections for the Philippines

70%
Share of Working Age Population

69% 68.7% UN DESA

Low Variant
68% 67.6% PSA

67%
66.2% UN DESA
Medium Variant

66%
66.2% 65.9% US
World Bank Census
65%

64%
2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055

Abbreviations: UN DESA = United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, US = United States
Source: The Philippines Human Capital Review: Investing in the Early Years to Boost Human Potential, World
Bank Group, 2024
48 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 Introduction 49

We approach our third and final year ever mindful

of the larger picture. We remain fully committed
to our mandate: To deliver “a roadmap with
clear key performance indicators and results
framework to address the learning crisis”, with
“shortterm and long-term policy and program
recommendations” (Sec. 7 of RA 11899).

We Can Fix Our Education System, But We Need to Prioritize

Much has changed since the release of the EDCOM Year One Report in January
2023. As we presented the report to Congress and to the general public,“Thank you
for telling the truth” and “Thank you for your bravery” were comments frequently
received from international organizations, civil society groups, and most importantly,
teachers and school principals. This gratitude has sparked action and even deeper
commitment from our many partners and champions. We have seen swift action
from government partners, particularly DepEd and TESDA , where the appointments
of former EDCOM Commissioners have driven policy coherence. Many agencies
have also fully supported our efforts and recommendations, including the National
Economic Development Authority, the Department of Budget and Management, the
Department of Finance, the Department of Health, the Civil Service Commission, and
the Professional Regulation Commission.

The Year Two Report presents EDCOM’s findings on the remaining 16 out of 28
priorities, alongside explorations of issues typically overlooked, such as the ALS, our
science high schools, and education in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (BARMM). Through this, we hope to tell the story of the education system as a
whole. And as with last year, we are guided by the best available data and methods, while
welcoming feedback.

We approach our third and final year ever mindful of the larger picture. We remain fully
committed to our mandate: to deliver “a roadmap with clear key performance indicators
and results framework to address the learning crisis”, with “short-term and long-term
policy and program recommendations” (Sec. 7 of RA 11899).

The path forward demands that we build a system that is capable not only of success
but also of self-correction. And as with any system, as with any effort to build
anything of significance, we must return to the foundations.

The education crisis we face has been decades in the making. It has festered for many
years and will not be undone in a single stroke. Our task now is to excavate the bedrock,
to uproot the dead vines that choke the dynamism out of our system, and to lay a new
foundation. Only then can we build an education system that fulfills the promise of our
people and the demands of this period of our history and the next. Our task is nothing
less than nation building one level at a time, beginning with the foundations—both of
our education system and of learning itself. Join us in rebuilding from the ground up
and shaping an education system that the Filipino people truly deserve.

Karol Mark R. Yee, PhD

Executive Director
EDCOM II
50 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Areas
Building on the 28 Priority Areas established in January 2023, based
on the Standing Committees and their Sub-Committees, EDCOM II
continued to address these priority areas and related issues throughout
Year Two, as highlighted.

Priority Areas Issues

Early Childhood Care and Development

1. Nutrition and feeding • Challenges in governance,

implementation, and resourcing of health
and nutrition programs
• Aligning incentives to address challenges
/ look into quality

2. Supply-side factors • Lack of child development centers to

attain universal coverage of ECCD
• Producing high quality child development
workers/teachers
• Materials and resources for ECE

3. Demand-side factors • Understanding barriers that relate to

parental perceptions and engagement in
ECCD

4. Governance and financing of ECCD • Mechanism of finance

• Addressing governance challenges
 Priority Areas 51

Priority Areas Issues

Basic Education

5. Learning resources • Textbook development, production,

and distribution
• Using media to enhance learning

6. Measurement of learning outcomes • Adequacy of the assessment system

to track learners’ progress and inform
system reforms
• Reporting and utilization of assessment
results for improving learning outcomes

7. Curriculum and instruction • Medium/language of instruction

• Validation of the K to 10 (and eventually
11–12) curriculum towards decongestion,
encouraging flexibility and innovation,
and reviewing the spiral curriculum

8. School infrastructure • Inventory of facilities (public and private)

• Strategies to address the gaps

9. Alternative Learning System (ALS) • Access and delivery

• Curriculum content, quality, and
assessment, towards preparing learners
for employment

10. Home and school environment • Safe, secure, conducive, and supportive
learning environment
• Improved mechanisms for partnerships
and shared accountability between
families, schools, and communities

Higher Education

11. Access to quality higher education • Develop CHED’s regulatory framework to

enhance its developmental and regulatory
functions
• Ensure closer coordination between
industry and academe
• Improving access to quality higher
education
• Enhancing the quality of higher education
• Improving the quality of higher education
programs (quality in terms of enhancing
learning outcomes and program
relevance)

12. Quality Assurance • Map the current Philippine quality assurance

(QA) system in general and higher education.
In particular, delineate the functions of
government and voluntary QA bodies and
study the creation of a separate QA agency.
• Contextualize the current Philippine QA
system within the QA models/systems of
other countries.
• Institutionalization of internal and external
QA/QA of academic programs and
administrative processes
• Typology- and outcomes-based QA and the
grant of autonomous and deregulated status
• Institutionalization of PQF in higher education
• Governance of Philippine QA
52 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Areas Issues

13. Digital transformation and educational • Infrastructure for digital transformation,

technologies (cross cutting) research clouds, and educational
technologies
• Access to educational technologies and
sharing of resources
• Establishment of smart campuses in SUCs

14. Graduate education, research, and innovation • Poor quality and uptake of graduate
education in the country
• Lack of capacity to produce quality research
in universities
• Lack of capacity for research translation into
innovations and technologies

15. Internationalization of higher education (cross • Constraints to internationalization of

cutting) students and faculty
• Transnational education per RA 11448
• Issues of global rankings

Teacher Education and Development

16. Alignment of CHED, PRC, DepEd (including • Alignment of CHED, PRC, DepEd on teacher
TEC) on teacher education and development education and development

17. Pre-service education • Gaps in preservice training

• Quality of TEIs
• Encouraging more students to enter the
teaching profession
• Board Licensure Examination for Professional
Teachers (BLEPT)/ licensing of teachers

18. In-service training and development • Teacher welfare

• Training and development of teachers and
school heads

Technical-Vocational Education & Training (TVET) and Lifelong Learning

19. Needs-based system projecting the demands • Understanding current and future “middle-
in workers’ upskilling skill” needs of the country
• Understanding the future generation of the
Filipino workforce

20. Industry involvement and investment in • Understanding the labor market outcomes of
upskilling TVET graduates
• Encouraging companies to invest in upskilling
of workers and offer enterprise-based
training and apprenticeship programs
• Reconsidering rural industry development

21. Ensuring quality in the provision • Ensuring quality assurance in TVET

of TVET • Rationalizing TVET provision and support (by
TESDA, LGUs, and private TVIs)

22. Framework for equivalency and recognition of • Lifelong learning framework

non-formal and informal learning
 Priority Areas 53

Priority Areas Issues

Governance and Finance

23. Ensuring seamless and integrated delivery of • Lack of a coherent plan/roadmap/vision for
education the education sector
• Lack of effective coordination among
education agencies towards agreed upon
goals
• Using measures of quality to ensure
attainment of agreed upon goals

24. Complementarity between public and private • Lack of clarity on the government’s primary
education roles
• Education delivery strategy informed by
public and private absorptive capacity across
all levels of education
• Expanding Government Assistance to
Students and Teachers in Private Education
(GASTPE)

25. Integrated performance management and • Lack of integrated ecosystem performance

accountability system management system where funding is tied to
performance versus student outcomes

26. Efficiency and equity in financing, resource • Efficiency in education finance and resource
mobilization, and delivery of education mobilization
• Equity in the delivery of education and the
extent that the needs of vulnerable sectors
are addressed

27. Decentralization and participatory governance • Highly centralized governance structure

which limits the participation of local
governments and stakeholders in education
governance and hinders agility and
innovation within the system
• Participation of education stakeholders
(students, parents, community, NGOs, CSOs,
business sector and industries, LGUs, NGAs,
and development partners) in education
governance

Cross-cutting

28. Connectedness of learner pathways

throughout the system
54 EDCOM II Year Two Report Priority Areas 55

Year 2 Findings
56 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 57

EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT

Safeguarding the
Vital Window:
Creating Solutions
for ECCD

Introduction
The EDCOM II Year One Report emphasized how early childhood care and
development (ECCD) is a critical window of opportunity to shape the holistic
development of children aged 0–8. This window is pivotal for laying a robust
foundation that enables children to reach their full potential. Consistent with global
perspectives and practices, the Philippine Early Years Act of 2013 designates the
ECCD Council as responsible for children aged 0–4, underscoring the importance of
comprehensive care and education in these formative years.

ECCD in the Philippines encompasses a broad spectrum of programs focused on

health, nutrition, early education, and social development—all designed to nurture
children’s physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Global evidence
demonstrates that well-designed and well-implemented ECCD programs have
substantial positive impacts on child outcomes across multiple domains, and these
extend to future academic success and higher earning potential later in life (UNICEF,
2023; WHO, 2018; World Bank, 2019).

A 2022 UNICEF longitudinal study revealed that preschool attendance remained

positively associated with higher achievement in literacy and math at Grade 3.
Students who attended preschool or day care consistently outperformed peers
without early childhood education across all rounds of assessment in literacy, math,
and social and emotional skills. Longer preschool attendance was associated with
higher achievement. However, the gap between those who attended preschool and
those who did not narrows over time. This suggests the benefits of preschool persist
but may diminish without sustained support (UNICEF, 2022).
58 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Similarly, Orbeta et al. (2020) showed the correlation between early schooling and
higher test scores at age 15. This was consistent with findings from the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Southeast Asia Primary Learning
Metrics (SEA-PLM). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) (2023) reported that 94% of students in its member countries attended at
least 1 year of pre-primary education, leading to better math outcomes in PISA 2022.
In contrast, only 84% of Filipino students had similar access, highlighting the need to
expand primary education in the Philippines.

The results of the 2019 SEA-PLM illustrate a compelling comparison of academic

performance between Filipino fifth-graders with and without preschool experience.
The data reveals a clear advantage for students who participated in early education
programs (see Table 1).

TABLE 1
Philippines SEA-PLM 2019 Results:
Mean Scores in Reading, Writing, and Math by Preschool Education

Average of Six
Philippines
Countries
Attended Preschool (%)
94.8% 74%

Average Attended preschool 289 302

reading
performance Did not attend preschool 279 294
by preschool
Score difference
attendance 10 8.3
(attended − did not attend)

Average Attended preschool 289 302

writing
performance Did not attend preschool 277 293
by preschool
Score difference
attendance 12.4 8.7
(attended − did not attend)

Average Attended preschool 289 302

mathematics
performance Did not attend preschool 279 294
by preschool
Score difference
attendance 9.8 7.8
(attended − did not attend)

Abbreviation: SEA-PLM = Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics

“In the Philippines, 84% reported that they had

attended pre-primary education for one year or
more (OECD average: 94%). On average across OECD
countries, students who had attended pre-primary
education for one year or more scored higher in
mathematics at the age of 15 than students who never
attended or who had attended for less than one year,
even after accounting for socio-economic factors.”
—Excerpt from the PISA 2022 Results: Country Notes: Philippines
 Early Childhood Care and Development 59

“Raising quality of education and protecting

health, especially in the early years,
will equip the next generation with the
skills they need to meet the demands of
higher productivity and higher paying
jobs. Investing in the skills of this young
population is essential to fuel future growth
and increase household incomes.”
—Excerpt from the PISA 2022 Results: Country Notes: Philippines

Across three critical areas—reading, writing, and math—children who attended

preschool consistently achieved higher average scores in the 2019 SEA-PLM. This
pattern was not just noticeable but also statistically significant (ranging from 9.8 to
12.4 score differences) and underscores the profound impact of early educational
experiences. These findings offer strong support for the value of preschool education
in the Philippines and show that early learning opportunities can play a crucial role in
shaping a child’s academic journey, thus potentially influencing their performance well
into their primary school years. This evidence highlights the importance of making
quality preschool education widely available as it appears to set a strong foundation
for future academic success (SEA-PLM, 2021).

Furthermore, ECCD plays a crucial role in addressing the learning poverty in the
Philippines. Nine out of 10 Filipino children cannot read proficiently, reflecting the
depth of the country’s educational challenges (World Bank, 2022). Filipino students lag
by 6 years compared to learners in other countries in achieving academic milestones
(Bautista & Aranas, 2023). These disparities emphasize the urgent need for sustained
and holistic ECCD interventions to close the learning gap and improve educational
outcomes.

As its first priority area, the Commission underscores the role of nutrition and feeding
as the foundation of quality education. Positive learning outcomes require addressing
the root causes of problems. Promoting good nutrition from the womb through early
childhood would secure and enhance the well-being and future potential of millions
of Filipino children. The first 2 years of life, often referred to as the “golden window,”
are particularly critical for providing infants and toddlers with nutritious, varied, and
adequate food.

The Commission actively works to establish evidence-based policy targets in

addressing chronic malnutrition and stunting. It also collaborates with stakeholders
from various sectors to invest in and implement strategic ECCD approaches.

Although the Philippines has made strides in improving the well-being of Filipino
children in recent years, millions of Filipino children remain chronically malnourished,
facing challenges such as poor health, inadequate nutrition, and limited learning
capacity. One in four Filipino children under 5 years old still experiences stunting.
Furthermore, the country’s annual decline in child mortality—2.5% on average—lags
behind the 4% reduction seen among regional peers (World Bank, 2024).
60 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Research shows that early childhood

investments particularly during sensitive
periods of development can lead to
optimum outcomes that far surpass what
can be achieved through later interventions
or recovery efforts (Walker et al., 2011).

Socioeconomic disparities further exacerbate these challenges, limiting many

children’s access to essential ECCD services. These inequities hinder their ability
to achieve optimal health, learning, and productivity outcomes. Addressing these
disparities demands a comprehensive approach that integrates quality early
childhood education, health, and nutrition programs.

With multiplier and latent effects, investing in ECCD programs on child health and
early childhood education not only enhances individual outcomes; it is also becoming
widely recognized as one of the best indicators for a country’s human development
(Ulep et al., 2024).

FIGURE 1
Early Years Investments Can Make a Big Difference
Optimum Recovery Below potential
Behavioral
competence Reduction in risk factors, increase in
trajectories protective factors, or intervention during
sensitive period

Protective factors > risk factors

Risk factors > protective factors

Brain Prenatal Infancy Early childhood Adolescence Adulthood

function

Source: World Bank Group, Philippines Economic Updates Development Dialogues, December 12, 2024, Cubao, Philippines

The timing of developmental interventions plays a crucial role in maximizing their

impact on human potential as illustrated by the dramatic differences in behavioral
competence trajectories from prenatal stages through adulthood (see Figure 1).
Research shows that early childhood investments particularly during sensitive periods
of development can lead to optimum outcomes that far surpass what can be achieved
through later interventions or recovery efforts (Walker et al., 2011). This scientific
understanding underscores why focusing resources and support during these critical
early windows—from prenatal care through early childhood—yields the greatest
returns for both individuals and society (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Hoddindott
et al., 2008; Martorell et al., 2010; Stein et al., 2008).
 Early Childhood Care and Development 61

Year One Updates

Priority Area 1: Nutrition and Feeding
A 2024 study by the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) led by Dr.
Valerie Gilbert T. Ulep, Behind the Slow Start: An Assessment of Early Childhood Care
and Development in the Philippines, found that severe underinvestment in ECCD,
weak institutions, and fragmented governance also hinder the implementation of
ECCD programs.

EDCOM II partnered with IDinsight to publish a policy brief on undernutrition in early

childhood. The brief provided a detailed analysis of the policy landscape and existing
programs on health and nutrition in the country. To maximize its impact, it was
shared with national government agencies and relevant stakeholders, leading to the
Commission’s coordination efforts with the National Nutrition Council (NNC) and the
Department of Health (DOH).

Priority Area 2: Supply-Side Factors

Progress was made in addressing supply-side challenges. The ECCD Council secured
a bigger budget in the General Appropriations Act (GAA), enabling the establishment
of more child development centers (CDCs). Additionally, the DOH received a Php 300
million allocation in 2024 for a comprehensive nutrition intervention program targeting
nutritionally-at-risk pregnant mothers and children below 5 years old in fifth- and sixth-
class municipalities with stunting rates ≥15% in non-Food Stamps sites to complement
the Philippine Multisectoral Nutrition Project.

The Year One findings showed the need to improve the pipeline of child development
workers/teachers (CDW/Ts) and enhance the qualifications of the existing workforce.
EDCOM II has been working with the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) and the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) to create support mechanisms
for workforce professionalization to improve ECCD learning delivery. Key initiatives include

• Developing a course under TESDA and exploring how CDW/Ts can be best trained
to address the gap in professionalization;
• Developing training regulations for a National Certificate (NC) III in ECCD with
TESDA; and
• Exploring the establishment of an associate degree in ECE for CDTs in
collaboration with the CHED Technical Panel for Teacher Education.

These developments identify the challenges and opportunities in ECE, presenting

and validating the skills map of the workers in this field, and setting the training
requirements for effective program delivery.

Priority Area 3: Demand-Side Factors

To better understand the demand-side factors to ECCD, particularly the widespread
parental perception that children under 5 are too young for early education, EDCOM II
commissioned a study undertaken by PIDS, and conducted a focus group discussion
with parents in Tacloban City on August 13, 2024. Dialogues were also held with the City
Social Welfare and Development Office to discuss good governance practices in ECCD,
62 EDCOM II Year Two Report

along with challenges related to public awareness and information dissemination. These
provided valuable ground-level insights on effectively addressing parental hesitation,
and strengthening local government involvement in ECCD implementation.

Priority Area 4: Governance and Financing of ECCD

Amendments to the Early Years Act of 2013 are underway. Two priority bills were
introduced through the legislative work of the EDCOM II:

1. House Bill No. 10142: An Act Strengthening the Early Childhood Care and
Development System and Appropriating Funds Therefor (approved on Third
Reading on March 18, 2024)
2. Senate Bill No. 2575: An Act Further Strengthening the Early Childhood Care
and Development System, Repealing for the Purpose Republic Act No. 10410,
Otherwise Known as the Early Years Act (EYA) of 2013, and Appropriating Funds
Therefor (approved on Third Reading on December 16, 2024)

These bills propose provisions to

• Professionalize CDWs and CDTs;

• Assess and enhance competencies by reskilling, upskilling, awarding
certifications, and providing scholarships for continuing education;
• Develop equivalency mechanisms to recognize the work experience of
incumbent CDWs and CDTs, enabling credit transfers across programs; and
• Institutionalize scholarships for CDWs pursuing technical and vocational
training or associate degrees, with a requirement of returning service to CDCs.

The Commission’s key recommendations for governance and financing include

• Expanding the ECCD Council Governing Board to include the Department of

Agriculture (DA), the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG),
TESDA, and CHED;
• Strengthening local ECCD governance by establishing ECCD offices in each
local government unit (LGU);
• Institutionalizing plantilla items and standardized salary grades for CDTs and
CDWs; and
• Proposing equitable financing mechanisms through program convergence
budgeting and allocations from the Local Government Support Fund (LGSF).

Significant strides were made for ECCD in Year Two in allocating funds for nutrition
interventions targeting the poorest municipalities. EDCOM II’s advocacy to
increase the per capita cost of hot meals in the DSWD’s Supplementary Feeding
Program resulted in a budget adjustment from Php 15 to Php 22 in the 2025 National
Expenditure Program. The Commission also successfully advocated for a substantial
increase in the DOH’s nutrition budget, from Php 234.5 million to Php 977 million,
particularly for critical interventions during the first 1,000 days of life, as reflected in
the approved 2025 GAA. However, the Commission emphasizes that malnutrition is
caused by multiple factors requiring multisectoral solutions and cannot be solved
by the health sector alone. Current funding from the national government and LGUs
remains inadequate, failing to reach enough children to create significant impact.

LGU service packages and grants are shaped by local demands and needs. This
underscores the need to strengthen the capacity and accountability of the local
nutrition councils in prioritizing health and nutrition for the first 1,000 days of life.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 63

EDCOM II identified persistent issues of fragmentation, lack of coordination, and

shortsightedness in planning and implementing nutrition and feeding programs. Lack
of data, insufficient and slow utilization of public funds, and dependency on a faulty
commodity supply chain further hindered progress, particularly in micronutrient
supplementation and management of wasting.

To address these gaps, EDCOM II facilitated multistakeholder consultations with

national government agencies concerned, LGUs, and civil society organizations,
aiming to improve data collection, coordination, and program delivery.

Year Two Overview

In the second year, EDCOM II continued its work on ECCD in the following areas:

• Under Priority Area 1, furthering efforts in early childhood nutrition by

developing nutrition and maternal health models;
• Under Priority Area 2, examining issues relating to the materials and resources
for early childhood education;
• Under Priority Area 3, understanding demand-side factors influencing ECCD;
• Under Priority Area 4, exploring further opportunities with the DILG in
embedding ECCD indicators in local government policies and programs; and
• Under Priority Area 4, understanding LGU best practices, incentives and
disincentives, and resource constraints.
64 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 1:
Nutrition and Feeding
Millions of Filipino children remain chronically malnourished, facing the challenges of
poor health, inadequate nutrition, and limited learning capacity. Although the country
has made significant strides in improving the well-being of children in recent years,
one in four Filipino children under 5 years old are stunted, a condition that profoundly
affects their potential and the nation’s future.

FIGURE 2
Nutrition Data for Children Under the Age of 5

Children under 5 years old

14.5
Low birth weight infants
(2017, NDHS)

26.7
Stunted children under 5 years old
(2021, ENNS)

5.5
Wasted children under 5 years old
(2021, ENNS)

3.9
Overweight children under 5 years old
(2021, ENNS)

15.5
Vitamin A-deficient children 6 months to 5 years old
(2018–2019, NNS)

Subgroup on infants and young children

60.1
Exclusively breastfed infants less than 6 months
(2021, ENNS)

13.3
Children 6–23 months with minimum acceptable diet
(2021, ENNS)

13.8
Children 6–23 months with minimum diet diversity
(2021, ENNS)

Normal Height for Age

(WHO Growth Standards)

Normal Wasted Stunted Wasted & stunted

Normal weight Thinner Shorter Thinner and Shorter
and height than normal than normal than normal

Abbreviations: ENNS = Expanded National Nutrition Survey, NDHS = National Demographic and Health Survey
Source: Adapted from the Philippine Plan of Action for Nutrtion 2023-2028, National Nutrition Council;
Adapted from the Malnutrition Chart, Trust for Malnutrition and Stunted Growth, 2023
 Early Childhood Care and Development 65

ECCD represents more than a program—it’s a commitment to shaping the future of

society by investing in its youngest members. Providing children aged 0–4 with high-
quality nutrition, health care, and education, especially during the first 1,000 days of
life, not only ensures physical growth but also fosters cognitive development. This
critical period lays the foundation for an individual’s ability to thrive in society and
achieve lifelong success. Equipping parents and caregivers with skills in nurturing care
and positive parenting is equally important (UNICEF, 2017).

The Philippines’s commitment to improving health and nutrition began in 1974 with
Presidential Decree (PD) No. 491. This decree acknowledged the impact of malnutrition
on children’s mental and physical development and highlighted the strong link between
education and nutrition, leading to the establishment of the NNC (see Figure 3). This
was followed 2 years later by PD No. 996, which encourages timely vaccination against
vaccine-preventable diseases. A decade later, in 1986, Executive Order (EO) No. 51, or
the Philippine Milk Code, championed breastfeeding as a cornerstone of early nutrition.
The passage of the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012
(RA 10354) was a pivotal moment, ensuring people’s access to reproductive health
information, facilities, and services. This was followed in 2018 by RA 11148, or the First
1,000 Days Law, which ensures comprehensive health and nutrition support for mothers
and children during pregnancy through the child’s first 2 years of life; and RA 11037,
known as the Masustansyang Pagkain Para sa Batang Pilipino Act, which institutionalized
a national feeding program in public day care centers, kindergartens, and elementary
schools. Most recently, the Universal Health Care Act of 2019 (RA 11223) broadened
health care access by making it affordable for all Filipinos.
66 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 3
History of ECCD Legislation in Health, Nutrition, and Early Learning

PD 491
creates
the NNC
RA 6972
PD 603
establishes
establishes
a day care
a nursery
center in every
for children
barangay
aged 6 and
below

PD 996 EO 51 offers guidance on RA 7160

encourages timely optimal breastfeeding devolution of
vaccination against common practices during the first functions and
vaccine-preventable 6 months of life responsibilities
diseases to LGUs
74

76

86

90

91
19
19

19

19

19
= Health and nutrition-related legislation, = Early learning-related legislation

Nurseries for children aged 6 and below were established in 1974 with PD 603, or
the Child and Youth Welfare Code, recognizing the importance of early learning. A
significant development occurred in 1990 with RA 6972, or the Barangay-Level Total
Development and Protection of Children Act, which mandated a day care center in
every barangay, while the Local Government Code of 1991 (RA 7160) devolved key
responsibilities to LGUs. The turn of the millennium saw RA 8980, or the ECCD Act
of 2000, which led to the implementation of a national ECCD system. This was later
bolstered by the Kindergarten Education Act of 2012 (RA 10157) that made pre-primary
education at age 5 as a prerequisite for Grade 1—a groundbreaking move. The Early Years
Act of 2013 (RA 10410) reorganized and strengthened the ECCD system to ensure that
every child’s developmental needs are met.

While these developments have progressed in parallel, there appears to be

limited intersection between health and nutrition programs and early childhood
education initiatives (see Figure 3). Policies crafted in silos have led to fragmented
implementation, limiting their full potential. EDCOM II’s key findings underscore the
need for an integrated approach combining education, health, and nutrition to deliver
more impactful outcomes for young Filipino children. Bridging this disconnect is a
policy imperative, to ensure that every child has an equal shot at success.

In 2024, EDCOM II commissioned PIDS to conduct a comprehensive study to assess

the ECCD system toward an integrated and evidence-based policy approach. The
PIDS study by Ulep et al. (2024) highlighted three key principles for optimizing ECCD
returns: (1) timely provision of crucial interventions during critical life stages; (2)
comprehensive access to essential services; and (3) upholding quality standards for
lasting impacts on health, nutrition, and education outcomes. The study identified
these pillars as the bedrock of meaningful reform, promising a brighter future for the
nation’s youngest citizens.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 67

RA 11148
safeguards mother-
child health in the
RA 10354 first 1,000 days
ensures access to
reproductive health RA 11037
information, facilities, institutionalizes a
and services National Feeding
Program in public
RA 10157 day care centers,
institutionalizes pre- kindergartens, and
RA 8980 primary education at elementary schools
creates a age 5 as a prerequisite
to entry to Grade 1 RA 11223
comprehensive
provides
policy and a
accessible,
National ECCD
affordable, and
System
RA 10410 comprehensive
reorganizes and health care
strengthens the services to all
ECCD system Filipinos
00

12

13

18

19
20

20

20

20
20

Abbreviations: EO = Executive Order, PD = Presidential Decree, RA = Republic Act

Source: Authors’ illustration of the policies based on various legislations

Child survival has improved in the Philippines over the past 50 years through nutrition-
sensitive interventions, but high chronic malnutrition continues to hound the
overall development of young children in the Philippines despite various nutrition-
specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions1 being implemented in the country
(Ulep et al., 2024). Meanwhile, improvements in health outcomes of children are
also thwarted by undernutrition and issues relating to maternal health, where 14% of
women of reproductive age are underweight, a figure that increases to 20% among
poor adolescents (Ulep et al., 2024). These challenges ripple across generations,
underscoring the need for decisive action.

The prevalence of stunting in the Philippines remained persistently high from 2000
to 2020, with 26.7% of children under 5 affected as of 2021. This despite significant
improvements in countries like Peru, Bangladesh, and Vietnam (Ulep et al., 2024).

The prevalence of stunting in the Philippines remained

persistently high from 2000 to 2020, with 26.7% of
children under 5 affected as of 2021. This despite
significant improvements in countries like Peru,
Bangladesh, and Vietnam (Ulep et al., 2024).

1 Nutrition-specific programs are those that were planned and designed to produce nutritional outcomes. Comple-
menting these nutrition-specific interventions are nutrition-sensitive programs, which are development programs
and projects that will be tweaked to produce nutritional outcomes based on the National Nutrition Council (NNC)
definition.
68 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 4
Scale of Poor Health and Nutrition

Stunting prevalence, Philippines with comparator countries (2000–2020)

Philippines Peru Bangladesh Vietnam
60

50
Stunting prevalence (%)

40

30

20

10
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

Source: Ulep et al., 2024 analysis and visualization of the World Development Indicators (World Bank, 2024)

Annual growth of stunting rates and annual growth of GDP per capita, Philippines
and comparator countries (2000–2015)

6
Annual growth of stunting rates

3
Thailand
Malaysia
-0
Philippines Lao PDR
Indonesia
-3 Cambodia
Vietnam

-6 China

-9

-12

-5 0 5 10

Annual growth of GDP per capita (constant)

Source: Raw data from the World Development Indicators (World Bank, 2018) and the Philippine
Statistics Authority (PSA, 2018)
 Early Childhood Care and Development 69

The PIDS study notes that this high prevalence carries an economic cost of Php 174.4
billion annually. Despite decades of economic growth, progress in reducing stunting has
been alarmingly slow, with only a 1% annual decline compared to 5%–6% in neighboring
countries. Socioeconomic disparities paint a starker picture: Forty-two percent of
children from the lowest wealth quintile are stunted. This contrasts sharply with 11%
in the highest quintile. This disparity becomes pronounced after 5 months of age and
accelerates until 24 months. This finding highlights the urgent need for interventions
that target the most vulnerable during the first 1,000 days of life.

However, regional variations further complicate the picture, with some areas showing
increased stunting rates despite overall economic advancement. This paradoxical
relationship between economic growth and persistent malnutrition underscores
the need for targeted and multifaceted interventions that address socioeconomic
inequalities and focus on the crucial early years of child development to effectively
combat stunting in the Philippines (Ulep et al., 2024).

Issue 1: Only 25% of Filipino children meet the recommended

energy intake (REI), indicating challenges in meeting
nutritional needs, particularly for 6- to 12-month-old infants
from poor households.

The nutritional status of Filipino children presents a pressing concern, with only a
quarter meeting the REI. Ulep et al. (2024) reveal that this challenge is particularly
acute among children aged 6–12 months in low-income households, where merely
24.8% achieve the recommended intake. The minimum acceptable diet, an alternative
metric that considers both food quality and quantity, paints an equally concerning
picture: Only 12% of children aged 6–23 months met this criteria in 2019. These
findings underscore the urgent need for targeted nutritional interventions, especially
for vulnerable populations, to address the persistent challenge of malnutrition and its
long-term implications for child development and national progress.

FIGURE 5
Share of Children Meeting Energy Intake of Children Under 5 from the Top 20%
and Bottom 20% Wealth Quintiles, by Age, in 2018–2019
Bottom 20% Top 20%
100

90
% Meeting Recommended Energy Intake

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60

Age in months

Source: Ulep et al., 2024 analysis and visualization of pooled 2018–2019 Expanded National Nutrition Survey (DOST-FNRI, 2019)
70 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Calculations using the Philippine Dietary

Reference Intakes reveal that underweight
Filipino children aged 3 to 5 consume around
20% less protein, 40% less total fat, and 35%
less carbohydrates than the recommended
intake levels for both males and females.

While children under 5 from wealthy households tend to have a higher energy and
macronutrient intake compared to the bottom 20% wealth quintile, only around 30% of
those aged 6–12 meet the recommended levels (see Figure 6). This highlights how cost
is not the only impediment to early childhood nutrition.

Calculations using the Philippine Dietary Reference Intakes reveal that underweight
Filipino children aged 3 to 5 consume around 20% less protein, 40% less total fat,
and 35% less carbohydrates than the recommended intake levels for both males and
females. The results of the study by Ulep et al. (2024) also reveal that macronutrient
distribution indicates a diet heavily reliant on carbohydrates, with an average intake of
230 grams, followed by protein (45 grams) and fat (25 grams) (see Figure 6).

Stark socioeconomic disparities are evident in protein consumption, with children

from the bottom 40% quintile consuming significantly less protein—a critical nutrient
for growth and stunting prevention—compared to their affluent peers. These findings
underscore the urgent need for family and community awareness of macronutrients
required in order to stimulate the optimal growth and development of children in the
early years of life.

FIGURE 6
Macronutrient Intake Across Wealth Quintiles
200

150
Mean intake in grams

100

50

0
Bottom 40% Lower middle Upper middle Top 20%

Protein Fat Carbohydrate

Source: Ulep et al., 2024

 Early Childhood Care and Development 71

There have been efforts to increase the nutritional intake of Filipino children through
government feeding programs. The Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD) Supplementary Feeding Program (SFP) has evolved significantly since its
inception in 2009 with the Healthy Start Feeding Program (see Figure 7). Initially
targeting the poorest provinces, the program gained momentum in 2011 through
funding in the GAA. It was further institutionalized in 2018 through RA 11037.

The program has since expanded to include milk feeding for identified undernourished
children in its attempt to demonstrate a more targeted approach to addressing
malnutrition. DSWD plans to further raise the per capita budget for both hot meals and
milk by 2025 in its continued commitment to enhance the program’s effectiveness.

FIGURE 7
Brief History of Supplementary Feeding Program

2023
Additional budget
through CICA
Additional budget of
2018
Php 6.00 for hot meals
RA 11037 (Masustansyang
and Php 2.00 for milk
Pagkain Para sa Batang
Pilipino Act)
Institutionalization of
2009 Supplementary Feeding 2025
Healthy Start Feeding Program Program 2025 NEP with increase
Implemented in all provinces of cost per capita
Mindanao and 14 provinces under Php 15.00 cost per capita Php 25.00 for hot meals
poorest and food poorest provinces for hot meals and Php 22.00 for milk

2020 2024
2011 Milk Feeding Restored to original
Official start of for identified capita cost
Supplementary Feeding undernourished Cost per capita
Program with budget in Pilot implementation restored to Php 15.00
the GAA of Milk Feeding with for hot meals and
(funds were being NDA and PCC Php 19.00 for milk
transferred to LGUs)
Php 19.00 per capita
Php 15.00 cost per capita for milk
for hot meals

Abbreviations: CICA = Congress-Initiated Changes/Adjustments, DSWD = Department of Social Welfare

and Development, GAA = General Appropriations Act, LGUs = local government units, NDA = National
Dairy Authority, NEP = National Expenditure Program, PCC = Philippine Carabao Center

Despite these advancements, participation remains low: Data from the 2022 Annual
Poverty Indicators Survey revealed that only 23% of children benefited from any
government feeding program. From an equity perspective, only 28% of poor children
in need of feeding support have received assistance, while a considerable proportion
of beneficiaries were found to belong to the wealthiest quintile (Ulep et al., 2024).
This low percentage of poor children benefiting from the SFP, also reflected in
the administrative data of the DSWD (which is lower than estimates from national
surveys), signals gaps in program targeting and outreach.

The PIDS study on ECCD found that the national SFP implemented by the DSWD falls
short of addressing malnutrition effectively, with limited impact on meeting the REI of
Filipino children (Ulep et al., 2024). Data show that the DSWD struggles to meet its legal
mandate of providing at least one fortified meal to undernourished children aged 3–4
in day care centers for 120 days in a year. Participation rates remain alarmingly low, from
less than 10% to less than 30% across regions (see Figure 8).
72 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 8
Percentage of Children Aged 3–4 Years Old Participating in the Supplementary
Feeding Program, Philippine Regions, 2022–2023
100%
90%
80%
Percentage of children

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
- C al R s
AB ion

I - cos on

SO tral ion

SA s
EN

ni l
IM ula

PA

II - III - vao

ga

Vi y
or tive yas

M ion

o
o
-A pit aya

SK aya

lle

na
ZO

ic

VI aga ara
z

O
RG

s
AL eg

er Reg
sa
Va
Lu

da
AR

n
-B
s

CC Vis

AR
Re

-D
AR
Vi

in
I - tral

n
B

Pe
V

- W ya
na ern

in ern
XI
en

M
ga

n
X
t

dm est
Ilo

- N ra
at Eas

-C

Ce

an
lC

ist
C

th
bo
III
II -

am
VI
io

I-
VI

IV

XI

-Z

aA

X
N

IX

er
ill
rd
Co

Source: Ulep et al. (2024) compilation and visualization of 2023 DSWD program data

Recommendations
The government must (a) strengthen targeting mechanisms for high-risk children,
(b) ensure integrated delivery of services across agencies, and (c) conduct rigorous
monitoring and evaluation to assess outcomes. Numerous assessments through
EDCOM II’s commissioned research continue to show that supplemental feeding
programs, a common nutrition-specific intervention among national government
agencies, are insufficient and fall short of providing universal access for children
aged 3–4 to ECCD services (Ulep et al., 2024). The situation is particularly critical for
children aged 6–12 months from poor households, where only a quarter meet the
REI. To address chronic malnutrition effectively, feeding programs require better
targeting, rigorous monitoring, and a revised set of performance indicators to improve
their impact. These should measure both immediate impact (such as nutritional status
improvements) and long-term outcomes (such as reduced stunting rates) to ensure
sustainable program effectiveness. Relevant agencies must identify and prioritize
high-risk children, ensure consistent program delivery and quality standards, track
nutrition outcomes beyond attendance and participation metrics, and establish clear
mechanisms for program adjustment based on measured results.

As advocated by EDCOM II in the 2024 and 2025 DOH and DSWD budget
deliberations, agencies should strengthen the complementary feeding program
with age-appropriate fortified food supplements; enhance nutrition counseling for
parents and caregivers on proper infant feeding practices; provide sustained food
assistance to poor households with infants; and ensure regular growth monitoring
to identify and address nutritional deficiencies early and significantly improve
the REI among vulnerable infants. These interventions should be integrated into
existing health and social protection programs to ensure sustainability and maximize
resource utilization.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 73

EDCOM II has found that the allocated DSWD

budget is sometimes insufficient to cover
all enrolled children in CDCs and supervised
neighborhood play (SNP) areas of the LGU.
The DSWD’s budget has also not kept pace
with inflation and rising cost of nutrition.

Issue 2: Government feeding programs have limited impact

and need rigorous monitoring and evaluation to ensure
efficacy.

Budgeting and liquidation challenges impede the efficacy of the DSWD SFP.
Insufficient funding and outdated per capita allocations hinder the ability of the
agency to provide nutritionally balanced meals. EDCOM II has found that the allocated
DSWD budget is sometimes insufficient to cover all enrolled children in CDCs and
supervised neighborhood play (SNP) areas of the LGU. The DSWD’s budget has
also not kept pace with inflation and rising cost of nutrition. Consequently, based
on consultations done by EDCOM II, a number of these CDCs and SNP areas forgo
implementing the SFP altogether. Further, per capita funding has not increased since
2011, limiting the ability of the agency to provide nutritionally balanced meals. The
Commission also found that several LGUs failed to utilize allocated funds due to the
tedious liquidation process. This created a backlog of unliquidated funds, and left
some CDCs and SNPs unable to implement the SFP.

In a meeting with EDCOM II held on May 13, 2024, DSWD secretary Rex Gatchalian
disclosed that the current budget cost per hot meal was only Php 15—a rate
unchanged since 2011. The DSWD SFP team lamented that this budget could support
subsidizing hot meals for only 60 days annually, far short of the requirement to combat
malnutrition in the country. In this meeting, the DSWD proposed increasing the
budget per hot meal to Php 27 based on the Department of Science and Technology-
Food and Nutrition Research Institute (DOST-FNRI) computation, and expanding the
number of feeding days to 180 days annually.

RA 11037 mandates milk consumption in feeding programs. However, the DSWD

reported to EDCOM II that there is only limited fresh milk availability from the National
Dairy Authority and the Philippine Carabao Center, especially in geographically
isolated and disadvantaged areas. There is also a lack of cold storage facilities for fresh
milk during transport and in LGUs and CDCs. This leads to unnecessary spoilage and
wastage.
74 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 2
DSWD Supplementary Feeding Program Budget, 2019–2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Budget 3,341,245,000 3,350,722,289 3,380,416,000 4,161,542,000 4,980,161,000

Utilization 84.85% 95.45% 97.96% 96.27% 98.04%

Beneficiaries 1,881,979 1,881,979 1,937,378 1,936,868 1,754,637

(Children Enrolled in
the CDCs and SNP
Areas)

Per Capita Cost Php 15 for one Php 15 for one Php 15 for one Php 15 for one Php 15 for one hot
hot meal hot meal; hot meal; hot meal; meal; Php 19 for fresh
Php 19 for fresh Php 19 for fresh Php 19 for milk
milk milk fresh milk
Additional Php 6 for
hot meal and Php 2 for
fresh milk through
Congressional
insertion

Abbreviations: CDCs = child development centers, SNP = supervised neighborhood play

Limited access to feeding programs stems largely from gaps in distribution networks
and insufficient community infrastructure. The scarcity of day care centers and
neighborhood play spaces significantly reduces the reach of DSWD’s nutrition
initiatives, as these facilities typically serve as crucial hubs for implementing feeding
programs. Without these established gathering points, many vulnerable children miss
out on vital nutritional support that could enhance their health and development

School-based feeding programs are beset by implementation challenges and

poor monitoring and evaluation of outcomes. The School-Based Feeding Program
currently provides one meal daily to over 2.1 million undernourished Kindergarten
up to Grade 6 students, helping alleviate their hunger and enabling them to better
participate in their classes. While the feeding program may offer immediate benefits
such as temporary alleviation of hunger, delays in food delivery particularly for milk
(according to DepEd’s response), quality issues, and inadequate caloric content
undermine effectiveness.

Even if the program’s obligation rates are high, the Commission on Audit has flagged
the Department of Education (DepEd) “over its feeding program in 2023 after it
discovered delays in the delivery, or at times, the nondelivery, of nutribun and milk
intended for students in three regions” (Philippine Daily Inquirer, September 3, 2024).
According to the DepEd, this was the case for 26 out of 218 School Division Offices
only, but that the agency responses have since been accepted by the COA.

As a result, school-based feeding programs fail to tackle the underlying nutritional issue
of stunting. Further research is needed to understand the program’s effects on nutrition
and education outcomes. While RA 11037 mandates DepEd to serve one fortified meal
for at least 120 school days, current implementation falls short: DepEd has set the
minimum average caloric content for food commodities at only 350 calories per week.
Although the implementing rules and regulations of RA 11037 requires each fortified
meal to provide at least one-third of the daily requirement based on the Philippine
Dietary Reference Intakes (see Table 3), the current DepEd policy is only meeting
approximately 10%-16% of the recommended weekly caloric intake that schools should
be providing for K–6 learners aged 5–12.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 75

According to DepEd, the quality of meals provided will be improved to be appropriate

to the needs of school-age children given the increase in the budget for food costs:
previously the program was only provided Php 16 per meal in 2019. This was increased
to Php 18 per meal from 2020 to 2023, and is now at Php 22.

TABLE 3
Recommended Energy Intake per Day from the Philippine Dietary Reference Intakes

Weight (kg) Energy (kcal)

Age Group
M F M F

3-5 17.5 17.0 1,350 1,260

6-9 23.0 22.5 1,600 1,470

10-12 33.0 36.0 2,060 1,980

Preliminary analysis using the REI also shows no difference in terms of meeting total
energy and protein intake between children who participated in supplementary
feeding programs compared to those who did not (Ulep et al., 2024). Significant
resources are allocated to school feeding but are unable to address systemic issues
and only underscore the institutional challenges in the delivery of comprehensive and
holistic provision of health and nutrition services. Despite these findings, funding for
school-based feeding programs has continued to increase, with a recent surge from
Php 5.6 billion in 2023 to Php 11.7 billion in 2024.

“Some of the food items were also found to be unfit for

consumption due to molds, pests, or because these were
past their expiration date.”
—“COA flags P5.6-B DepEd feeding program in 2023,”
Philippine Daily Inquirer, September 3, 2024
76 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
Government agencies must align and coordinate their efforts to deliver
comprehensive nutrition programs that effectively reach vulnerable children under
5 through synchronized health, education, and social services. Through extensive
multiagency consultations and workshops, EDCOM II has strengthened coordination
initiatives among key nutrition stakeholders such as the DOH, the NNC, and the DSWD.
These efforts culminated in a presidential directive from a sectoral meeting held last
December 3, 2024, to address program overlaps and gaps, improving how nutrition
interventions target the country’s youngest learners.

Given the alarming rates of stunting and wasting among Filipino children under 5
years old, strong multisectoral coordination ensures that critical interventions—from
maternal nutrition counseling by health workers to supplementary feeding in schools to
sustainable food security programs in communities—reach the most vulnerable families
at the right time. Different agencies must synchronize their efforts because a child’s
nutritional status is affected by multiple factors that no single department can address
alone, such as access to clean water, proper sanitation, primary health care, and diverse,
nutritious food sources. Joint planning and implementation among agencies is also
vital to stretch the government’s limited nutrition budget and prevent situations where
some municipalities receive overlapping programs while other high-need areas get left
behind. Effective addressing of child malnutrition requires strengthened multisectoral
coordination among government agencies to ensure synchronized delivery of targeted
interventions for vulnerable children in the early years.

Issue 3: Limited accountability measures prevent the NNC

from effectively executing its legal mandate to coordinate
multiagency ECCD initiatives.

EDCOM II finds that the lack of coordination among key agencies—the DOH, the DSWD,
and DepEd—continue to hamper the delivery of nutrition programs. At the heart of the
issue is the NNC, tasked by law to provide leadership in nutrition governance and policy
coordination.

RA 11148, or the First 1,000 Days Law, seeks to institutionalize the convergence and
scale-up of programs from different sectors around the critical first 1,000 days of life;
it also focuses on strengthening the implementation and enforcement of the existing
nutrition-related laws and policies. RA 11148 specifically mandates NNC to act as the
focal point for developing and integrating nutrition policies, monitoring programs
across public and private sectors, and managing joint planning and budgeting of
nutrition initiatives among member agencies.

Since its establishment in 1974, the NNC has been facing significant challenges in
fulfilling its mandated responsibilities, especially in providing comprehensive nutrition
governance and policy coordination across various sectors as outlined in various laws,
including RA 11148 (First 1,000 Days Law), RA 11037 (Masustansyang Pagkain Para sa
Batang Pilipino Act), PD 491, and EO 234. Consultations with EDCOM II have revealed
that the NNC has struggled to effectively coordinate nutrition plans and budgets across
various government agencies. In addition, it notably lacks comprehensive systems to
monitor and evaluate nutrition programs effectively.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 77

In an EDCOM II hearing on nutrition on July 4, 2024, when asked if they had data
readily available on the services for nutrition offered across LGUs, the NNC reported
that they had yet to request this information from their regional offices. These gaps
in monitoring hinder the ability of the NNC to assess the impact of interventions and
make data-driven decisions for program improvements and resource coordination.
This has resulted in fragmented approaches to nutrition interventions and inefficient
use of resources.

The NNC’s role in shaping nutrition policy has been less prominent than mandated,
resulting in missed opportunities to address emerging nutritional challenges through
evidence-based legislation and programs. Limited scope and reach in information
awareness campaigns have led to missed opportunities in public knowledge about
proper nutrition and its importance for national development. Despite these
challenges of being unable to fulfill many of their responsibilities, the NNC has
initiated program delivery activities, most notably the Tutok Kainan Supplementation
Program.

Tutok Kainan was launched in 2020 as a response to the persistently high rates of
stunting and wasting among Filipino children. The program aims to provide intensive
nutrition interventions for the first 1,000 days of life, covering pregnant women and
children up to 2 years old. The program’s coverage has gradually expanded, starting
with pilot areas in selected provinces and municipalities. As of 2023, Tutok Kainan has
only reached approximately 30% of its target beneficiaries nationwide, with plans for
further expansion.

“Since addressing undernutrition is

multisectoral in nature, agencies should work
together closely and communicate often.
Their responsibilities should be clear so
accountabilities will be delineated. Walang
turuan kung sino ang dapat may hawak ng ano.”
—Sen. Win Gatchalian
78 EDCOM II Year Two Report

“More often than not, when it comes to health, there

is really a gap between the national and local. The
battleground is not in your [NNC] office, it is in the LGUs.”
—Sen. Win Gatchalian

TABLE 4
NNC Tutok Kainan Budget, 2020–2023 GAA

Allotment Obligated Obligation Disbursement Disbursement

Year No. of Beneficiaries
(Php) (Php) Rate (Php) Rate

GAA 2020 24,311 139,042,383.00 125,392,191.96 90.2% 93,725,909.58 74.7%

(Phase 1) pregnant women

DOH-CFP 2021 10,646 children 62,000,000.00 58,108,098.05 93.7% 55,339,748.26 95.24%

(Phase 2) 6–23 months

DOH-CFP 2022 13,113 children 100,000,000.00 52,892,462.00 52.9% 33,375,233.75 55.13%

(Phase 3) 6–23 months

GAA 2021 15,510 children 110,000,000.00 62,212,901.87 56.6% 40,328,914.06 55.85%

(Phase 4) 6–23 months

GAA 2022 20,892 116,000,000.00 2,231,993.70 1.9% 334,799.05 13.8%

(Phase 5) pregnant women

CONAP 2022 - 113,968,100.00 6,830,305.50 6.0% - -

GAA 2023 10,426 75,429,140.00 13,832,802.00 18.3% - -

(Phase 6) pregnant women

Abbreviations: CFP = certified family physician, CONAP = Continuing Appropriations, DOH = Department
of Health, GAA = General Appropriations Act, NNC = National Nutrition Council

Although LGUs are mandated to develop their local nutrition action plans as mandated
in Section 17 of the 1991 Local Government Code, it was assessed that the NNC currently
lacks sufficient capacity to effectively monitor the implementation of these plans.
This may be attributed to the limited staffing of the NNC, with only 93 personnel out
of 126 authorized positions across the country according to the FY 2024 DBM Staffing
Summary, as well as the lack of oversight mechanisms between the NNC and the LGUs.
Consequently, the lack of data monitoring of the status of the local implementation of
these nutrition-related programs has become a barrier to evaluating the effectiveness
of these local plans. The Commission also pointed out the confusion among LGUs as
to the roles of the NNC and local health offices, which leads to challenges in tracking
progress and comparing outcomes across different regions and interventions.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 79

Another area of concern in nutrition and feeding programs is the lack of consistency in
measurement tools used to weigh children, such as bathroom scales, beam balances,
and suspended weighing scales. This variability can affect the accuracy of data on
child growth and development.

Recommendations
Effective ECCD governance requires strengthening the NNC’s operational capacity
and authority alongside establishing clear interagency coordination mechanisms
at both national and local levels. Due to the NNC’s inability to track and evaluate
program implementation at the local level, where the actual work happens, EDCOM
II reiterates its recommendation to strengthen the NNC’s operational capacity
and authority through filling the 40 vacant positions, with priority for monitoring
and evaluation roles. The NNC must prioritize the rollout of the National Nutrition
Information System, which requires quarterly reporting from all LGUs on local
nutrition program implementation and creates a central dashboard accessible to all
implementing agencies such as the DOH, the DSWD, and DepEd. The NNC should also
mandate the standardization of measurement tools in local nutrition action plans by
including equipment standards and regular calibration schedules.

EDCOM II has initiated the development of a joint memorandum circular to address

critical governance challenges in ECCD. The circular brings together nine key
agencies: the DOH, the NNC, the DSWD, the DILG, the DBM, DepEd, the DA, the ECCD
Council, and NEDA. Through this circular, these agencies will

• Define clear roles and responsibilities in ECCD governance while setting up

formal coordination mechanisms at both national and local levels;
• Create formal coordination mechanisms for streamlined communication and
collaboration;
• Develop robust reporting and accountability structures to drive effective
program implementation; and
• Aim to harmonize efforts and improve overall coordination among these
agencies.

“It has been very difficult to work on this. We have also

been working with many groups to address hunger and
malnutrition. . . and the Early Years have been the toughest
because we didn’t know who could we really work with
in government. We talked to NNC and they said they get
budgets, but they don’t have the means of delivery, and
then we talked to the DOH people, and the DOH people
said hindi klaro sa kanila that feeding is their mandate. . .
For the Early Years, it has fallen through the cracks.”
—Fr. Ben Nebres
80 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 2:
Supply-Side Factors
Issue 1: Poor accreditation and uneven distribution of
quality ECE resources across LGUs hinder ECCD delivery in
the Philippines.

In addressing the supply-side factors affecting ECCD in the Philippines, and in light of
varying LGU capacities, it is crucial to consider innovative approaches that can expand
access and improve quality. One promising strategy is integrating ECE into emerging
distance education platforms.

Recognizing the connectivity challenges in many areas of the Philippines, a multimodal

approach to content delivery is essential. Support materials and learning resources for
both parents and children can be disseminated through various channels, including
video broadcasts, radio programs, social media platforms, mobile applications, and
offline tools such as USB drives and SD cards. This diversified strategy bridges the
digital divide and ensures that even communities with limited internet access benefit
from these educational initiatives.

ECE begins at home, and access to reading materials plays a crucial role in a child’s
development. Research has consistently shown that the presence of books in the
home environment significantly impacts a child’s educational trajectory (Evans et
al., 2010). A comprehensive study (Manu et al., 2018) spanning 35 nations revealed a
striking finding: The mere presence of a single children’s book in a household nearly
doubled the likelihood of a child achieving grade-level literacy and numeracy skills.
This held true even when accounting for factors such as maternal education, family
wealth, and area of residence.

It is worth noting that oral language development precedes formal schooling, and
this emphasizes the need for early intervention and support (Reed & Lee, 2020). The
long-term effects of home literacy environments are equally compelling. Children
raised in homes with abundant reading materials tend to remain in formal education
for approximately 3 additional years compared to their peers from households lacking
books (Evans et al., 2010).

Quality multimedia resources also play a pivotal role in ECCD. The World Bank shared
a longitudinal research demonstrating the efficacy of high-quality educational
content delivered through television in fostering both cognitive development and
socioemotional skills in young learners. Nevertheless, Ulep et al. (2024) reveal that only
around 50% of children 0–36 months frequently read and watch educational media with
their caregivers (see Figure 9).
 Early Childhood Care and Development 81

FIGURE 9
Percentage of Children by Age in Months and Wealth Quintile* Who Frequently
Read and Watch Educational Media with Their Caregivers, 2019
Reading
Top 20% Bottom 40%
100

80
% Always or Sometimes

60

40

20

0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Age in months

Watching
Top 20% Bottom 40%
100

80
% Always or Sometimes

60

40
*Top 20% and bottom
40% Source: Ulep et
20 al. (2024)analysis and
visualization of pooled
2019 Expanded Nutrition
0 Survey (DOST–FNRI,
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 2019)
Age in months

In the context of Philippine early childhood education centers, these insights highlight
the critical need to assess and enhance the accessibility and quality of educational
materials and resources in early learning centers. This assessment must take into
account the varying resource capacities of LGUs to ensure equitable access for all
children regardless of their socioeconomic background or geographic location.

Recommendations
The Philippine government should invest in culturally relevant educational
multimedia programming as a scalable and cost-effective strategy to expand access
to quality early childhood education particularly in underserved areas. During the
EDCOM II ECCD Symposium held on October 23, 2023, the World Bank posited that
high-quality television programs that blend education with entertainment have
emerged as powerful tools for child development. Studies demonstrated that when
children watch well-crafted educational shows, they gain valuable thinking skills and
learn better ways to handle emotions and social situations (Calvert & Kotler, 2003;
Close, 2004; Huston et al., 2001; Huston et al., 2007; Mares & Woodard, 2001).
82 EDCOM II Year Two Report

While creating these programs requires significant upfront resources, their ability
to reach and engage a larger number of children makes them cost-effective in the
long run. Many regions have found success by carefully adapting established shows
to fit their cultural context, rather than starting from scratch. This approach allows
communities to provide enriching content that both children and their parents
can enjoy and learn from together. This medium presents a unique opportunity to
supplement traditional ECE methods, especially in areas where access to physical
learning materials or trained educators may be limited.

The Impact of Quality Media Resources

Through the Knowledge Channel Foundation, Inc.
In the Philippines, the Knowledge Channel Foundation, Inc. (KCFI) is a nonstock,
nonprofit organization that aims to improve teaching and learning in the country
through developing relevant and engaging video lessons for Filipino children. To
date, they have produced and acquired more than 3,500 video lessons for ECCD,
K to 12, the Alternative Learning System, as well as for Filipino parents. In addition,
they have provided access to more than 13,000 CDCs and public schools. The UP
Statistical Research Foundation (2008) study reveals that videos developed by
KCFI increased National Achievement Test scores by at least 2%, improved student
attendance, and reduced dropout rates. The LaSallian Institute for Development
and Educational Research (2015) study also shows that schools using KCFI media
resources enhance teacher training performance by up to 75%, and schools using
these media resources outperformed nonusers by up to 45%.

Issue 2: The insufficient number of CDWs with recognized

accreditation credentials remains a pressing concern.
A shortage of accredited CDWs is a critical challenge in achieving universal access to
ECCD services in the Philippines. Current estimates reveal a need for approximately
240,000 additional workers to achieve universal access to ECCD (Ulep et al., 2024).
However, compensation and qualifications for these workers vary widely, highlighting
the need for legislative support to standardize these aspects.

The ECCD Council 2022 Annual Report indicates that only 6,788 CDWs possess valid
accreditation. Compounding this issue is the absence of professional certification,
leaving many CDWs without industry-recognized credentials.

Most studies show that there is a significant positive relationship between teachers’
qualifications and the quality of ECCD. A meta analysis of 48 studies reveals that the
qualification of teachers positively correlates with quality early learning environment
(Manning et al., 2017). This highlights the need for a policy on the required qualifications
for CDWs, both incumbent and incoming, to raise the quality of foundational learning in
the early years.

Throughout Year Two, EDCOM II has been working closely with TESDA and various
industry stakeholders to open up pathways for CDW/Ts for educational and career
growth. The process of developing standardized training regulations is rigorous and
long, and continued engagement and participation is imperative to keep up this
legwork.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 83

“The supply issue is even worse in

population-dense cities than in low-income
municipalities.”
—PIDS, 2024

In April 2024, EDCOM II conducted a skills mapping exercise, bringing together

policymakers, local governments, development partners, and field implementers to
design training regulations (TRs) for upskilling CDWs. A Technical Working Group has
been created under TESDA and other ECCD stakeholders, to ensure that TRs align with
TESDA’s existing processes and are responsive to sector needs while anticipating
provisions in pending legislation. As stated in Special Provision No. 10 of the 2024 GAA,
“The TESDA shall prioritize the development of a training regulation for a qualification
in Early Childhood Care and Development for the existing and incoming CDWs, in
coordination with the Early Childhood Care and Development Council.” These activities
also followed the request of EDCOM II to convene a meeting with TESDA for the
development of TRs for CDWs. The TESDA Board finally approved the prioritization of
CDWs for TR development in November 2024.

Furthermore, consultations organized by EDCOM II have highlighted a major

discrepancy between Bachelor of Early Childhood Education (BECEd) degree programs
and ECCD competency standards. While BECEd graduates are trained and qualified to
teach up to primary school levels (Grades 1–3), ECCD competencies “are centered on
teaching children aged 0–4 years” (UP ACTRC presentation to EDCOM II on August 31,
2023), reflecting a mismatch between the general design of ECE degree programs and
the competencies needed to teach in the early years, specifically for children below the
age of 5.

The pending ECCD bills also propose that a CDW shall be a holder of at least an
associate degree in early childhood education, at least a senior high school graduate
and has passed the national competency assessment for CDWs, or a high school
graduate who has finished 2 years of tertiary education and has passed the same
assessment of TESDA for CDWs. TESDA shall provide such assessment and certification
free of charge.

Recommendations
To address the limited professional qualifications of CDWs in the Philippines, where
nearly 13,000 of the CDW workforce have completed only high school education,
TESDA and CHED must (a) collaborate with LGUs to establish local training hubs
and scholarship program, and (b) engage NGOs and academic institutions to
develop and deliver accessible national certification programs and higher education
pathways specifically designed for the existing ECCD workforce.The Philippines
Economic Update December 2024 edition highlights prioritizing financing for our
early years workers, rolling out a targeted training program, and professionalizing
our early years workers as key recommendations to address the shortages in the
CDW workforce and to build their capacity in delivering ECE (World Bank, 2024).
Through the efforts of EDCOM II, and with the support of the new TESDA leadership,
the proposed 2025 GAA includes a provision for scholarships for an NC III in ECCD.
These are offered to incumbent CDWs whose highest educational attainment is a high
school diploma.
84 EDCOM II Year Two Report Early Childhood Care and Development 85
86 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 3:
Demand-Side Factors
The global focus on providing optimal early life opportunities for children has
intensified, and recent empirical studies from diverse economic contexts have
consistently demonstrated the enduring positive effects of participation in high-
quality ECCD programs on child development outcomes (OECD, 2015; Onyango et al.,
2021; Peisner-Feinberg et al., 2001; Rao et al., 2014).

Over the past decade, participation rates in formal pre-primary education programs
have steadily increased worldwide (Global Partnership for Education, 2020). However,
significant disparities in access and enrollment persist. These inequities are primarily
influenced by geographical location, household economic status, and various other
socioeconomic factors. Pre-COVID 19 pandemic data collected by UNICEF and
UNESCO from 196 countries revealed that global ECCE enrollment for children aged 3
to primary school entry stood at 54%. However, this figure varied significantly across
economic strata, ranging from 21% in low-income countries to 79% in high-income
countries (McCoy et al., 2017).

A significant proportion of the global young child population—approximately 40%, or

equivalent to 350 million children from birth to school entry age—is currently deprived
of access to quality childcare services (Devercelli & Beaton-Day, 2020). This deficiency
has far-reaching implications beyond child development as it exacerbates familial
economic hardship by restricting parental employment opportunities and elevating
levels of parental stress.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 87

Compounding this issue is a notable lack of demand for ECCD services in many
communities. This insufficient demand often stems from a complex interplay of
factors, including limited awareness of the benefits of early childhood education,
cultural preferences for home-based care, and financial constraints faced by families
(Ejuu, 2012; Lasco, forthcoming; McCoy et al., 2018; PIDS, 2024; UNICEF, 2012).

Issue 1: There is very low demand from parents and families

to enroll their children in early childhood programs.
In 2019, the Philippine Statistics Authority reported that around 97% of parents
surveyed believe that children below 5 years of age are “too young to go to school”
(see Table 5). The dual challenge of inadequate supply and insufficient demand for
ECCD presents a multifaceted problem. This situation underscores the critical need
for comprehensive policy approaches that address ECCD accessibility and quality
while simultaneously working to increase awareness and stimulate demand for ECCD
services. Such strategies are essential components of both child welfare and broader
socioeconomic development initiatives (Ulep et al., 2024; Vargas-Baron et al., 2022;
Yoshikawa et al., 2018).

TABLE 5
Top Reasons for Nonattendance in Schools
for Children Aged 3-4, by Wealth Quintile, 2019

Top Reasons Bottom 40% Top 20%

Too young to go to school 97.30% 99.07%

Financing reasons 0.61% 0.00%

Supply-side issues (e.g.,

0.61% 0.00%
distance, transportation)

Others (e.g., lack of personal

0.90% 0.00%
interest, illness, disability)

Source: 2019 Functional Literacy, Education, and Mass Media Survey data (PSA, 2019)

Cultural norms and lack of awareness of ECCD benefits limit participation. Supply-side
challenges, such as inadequate infrastructure and trained professionals, exacerbate the
issue. Discussions with parents in specific regions highlight disparities (Ulep et al., 2024).
There are also disconnects between parental knowledge and practice regarding health
and nutrition, especially concerning breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices.

Since the 1990s, the proportion of children aged 3–4 attending Pre-Kindergarten has
increased from 3% to 40%. Kindergarten participation also increased significantly
from 49% of Grade 1 students attending Kindergarten in 1998 to 98% in 2017 (Abrigo
& Francisco, 2023). While the increase in Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten
participation is remarkable, challenges of providing universal access to high-quality
early childhood education programs persist.

Data from DepEd show that 75% of elementary school dropouts in school years 2018–
2019 and 2019–2020 occurred between Kindergarten and Grade 4, with about 60%
of these happening between Kindergarten and Grade 1. This underscores the urgent
need for a comprehensive framework for early childhood education and a robust
assessment of its quality and performance indicators.
88 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The limited number of CDCs in local

areas creates significant barriers for
families. Many must travel long distances,
resulting in higher transportation costs
and scheduling difficulties, especially for
working mothers. Most parents prefer CDCs
to be within a 10-minute walking distance
from their homes.

The inadequate and delayed access to high-quality early childcare and parental
interventions has profound implications for children’s learning and cognitive
development in later years. With timing of utmost importance in nutrition-specific
interventions, particularly the first 2 years of a child’s life or the first 1,000 days,
the period from prenatal care to the child’s second birthday is crucial for receiving
essential services. The significant gaps in the delivery of necessary health and nutrition
interventions during this critical window persist, also compounding the alarming
levels of stunting among Filipino children.

Lack of nearby CDCs prevents families from enrolling their children in early
childhood education programs. During EDCOM II consultations, parents lamented
the lack of CDCs as one of the primary reasons that has impeded participation. The
limited number of CDCs in local areas creates significant barriers for families. Many
must travel long distances, resulting in higher transportation costs and scheduling
difficulties, especially for working mothers. Most parents prefer CDCs to be within a
10-minute walking distance from their homes.

Analyzing the 2023 DSWD dataset of the list of CDWs from the ECCD Information
System and the Philippine Standard Geographic Codes (PSGC) of all the barangays in
the country, EDCOM II has found that there are 36,152 barangays with CDW IDs matched
with the 2023 fourth-quarter PSGC dataset. Assuming each CDC should have one
assigned CDW, there are still 5,822 barangays without a matched CDW, while 2,799
CDWs remain untagged with CDC IDs. This gap highlights the pressing need to expand
CDC coverage to meet the needs of underserved communities.

Local leaders play a critical role in addressing this issue. However, many barangay
officials are unaware of their responsibilities under the various laws that include
tapping into different funds to establish a day care center in every barangay.

CDC activities and supplementary feeding programs are not enough incentives for
parents to bring children to day care centers. ECCD programs must account for the
logistic realities of parents. Through insights gathered from EDCOM II consultations,
parents cited that the short duration of CDC activities, typically lasting 30 minutes to 2
hours, is a deterrent due to the opportunity cost of missing work. Some also explained
that supplementary feeding programs, vitamin distribution, and vaccinations—though
helpful—were not enough incentives to offset the logistic and financial burdens
families face. Thus, we need to reevaluate how we design our ECCD programs, not
only in addressing access, but also in rethinking how services are structured to better
support the needs of Filipino families in order to drive the demand for ECCD services.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 89

Global research underscores the broader benefits of accessible childcare. A 2023

study by Anukriti et al. on childcare regulation and its impact on women’s workforce
participation offers valuable insights for policymakers worldwide, including the
Philippines. Researchers examined data from across 95 countries using the World
Bank’s Women, Business, and the Law childcare database to assess how childcare laws
affect female labor force participation. The study reveals a promising trend: Countries
that implement comprehensive childcare laws see a notable increase in women joining
the labor market. On average, female labor force participation rises by 2% following
the enactment of such laws, with the effect growing to 4% after 5 years.

The findings underscore the crucial role that ECCD policies play in advancing
women’s economic opportunities. By focusing on improving childcare accessibility
and affordability through legislation, nations can effectively support women’s
engagement in paid work. This aligns with previous research from both high-income
and developing countries, which consistently shows a positive correlation between
robust childcare systems and improved maternal employment outcomes (Halim et al.,
2023; Olivetti & Petrongolo, 2017).
90 EDCOM II Year Two Report

A rigorous study by Calderón (2014) examined the effects of Mexico’s Estancias

Infantiles para Apoyar a Madres Trabajadoras program, which significantly expanded
subsidized childcare from 2007 to 2010 especially for children aged 4 and below and
children with disabilities up to age 6. Childcare centers were privately owned and
were required to meet the minimum quality standards and caregiver requirements in
order to receive a monthly subsidy per child. These centers also receive a one-time
subsidy ranging from $3,970 to $5,560 for improvement costs. The research found
that Estancias Infantiles increased women’s probability of working by 1.5 percentage
points (a 4.3% increase) and reduced time spent on child-rearing by 54 minutes per
week (Calderón, 2014). The program also led to more stable employment and higher
labor incomes for eligible women.

Recommendations
Policymakers must develop a comprehensive ECCD framework that harnesses the
untapped potential of diverse home-based caregivers to strengthen early childhood
development outcomes. A holistic perspective on ECCD presents an opportunity for
Philippine policymakers to craft more comprehensive and culturally relevant strategies
by recognizing and leveraging the full spectrum of caregivers. A forthcoming EDCOM II
Policy Brief explores the multifaceted nature of ECCD in the Philippines by highlighting
the importance of recognizing caregivers beyond parents and guardians (Lasco,
forthcoming). This study, based on interviews and literature review, emphasizes the
Philippines’s unique cultural context, where child-rearing is often a communal effort. It
identifies key figures such as older siblings, domestic workers, grandparents, and early
childhood educators as pivotal in shaping young minds, and notes the influence of
extended family, local health workers, and faith-based groups in the ECCD landscape.

The study advocates for a shift in policy focus. It suggests moving away from parent-
centric approaches to embrace a more inclusive model that acknowledges and supports
all contributors to a child’s development. The recommendations it puts forth include
innovative ideas such as integrating caregiving skills into educational programs,
enhancing the status and training of household staff involved in childcare, creating
support systems for grandparents, and bolstering public day care services.

This study, based on interviews and literature

review, emphasizes the Philippines’s unique
cultural context, where child-rearing is often a
communal effort. It identifies key figures such as
older siblings, domestic workers, grandparents,
and early childhood educators as pivotal in
shaping young minds, and notes the influence of
extended family, local health workers, and faith-
based groups in the ECCD landscape.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 91

Effective communication campaigns are critical to boosting ECCD enrollment and

improving parenting practices. Effective communication strategies are crucial for
promoting enrollment and demonstrating the value of early learning programs. The
Philippines can create impactful communication campaigns that ultimately contribute
to better outcomes for young children across the nation through a comprehensive
strategy that incorporates advocacy, interpersonal communication, community
mobilization, and mass communication. This multipronged approach ensures
messaging reaches various stakeholders through diverse channels.

Campaigns should be evidence based by utilizing data to inform messaging and

track impact. This allows for targeted interventions and continuous improvement of
communication efforts. Rapidly expanding access to ECCD without addressing demand
can result in low enrollment. Thus, effective campaigns must not only inform about available
services but also cultivate desire for early learning among families and communities.
Successful campaigns go beyond awareness-raising to promote lasting behavior change in
parenting and nutrition practices. This requires sustained and culturally sensitive messaging
that addresses local beliefs and barriers (Lasco, forthcoming).

Alongside developing a national ECCD communication strategy that aligns with

the country’s education goals and cultural context, the Philippines can also engage
and leverage families and community leaders to amplify messages and model
desired behaviors. Parenting programs must emphasize skills building and practical
application to support caregivers effectively. The Early Learning Partnership of the
World Bank shows that empowering caregivers entails building self-confidence,
developing skills through role playing, providing group support, and encouraging
application at home.

Integrating these strategies into ECCD communication efforts can amplify their
impact. Programs for caregivers can create a ripple effect that improves both
parenting practices and children’s education outcomes and overall wellbeing.

TABLE 6
Core Delivery Methods/Essential Components
of Parenting Programs, Early Learning Partnership

• Build upon families’ strengths and goals

• Establish a positive relationship between
facilitators and families
Build self- confidence • Positive feedback from facilitators

• Demonstration and modeling

• Practice and rehearsal
• Role-playing
Practice and develop skills

• Peer support
• Group discussion
• Ongoing support from facilitators
Group support

• Homework
• Setting parenting goals
• Review progress
Apply at home

Source: World Bank Group presentation, “Providing Strategic Advice on Philippines Education System’s Issues
Advisory Services and Analytics,” EDCOM II ECCD Symposium, October 23, 2023
92 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 4:
Governance and
Financing of ECCD
The current composition and structure of the ECCD Council require a thorough review,
focusing on its capacity to fulfill its mandates outlined in the Early Years Act.

Issue 1: Current policies fail to adequately address the

fragmented governance structures and insufficient
financing mechanisms that hinder the delivery of quality
ECCD services.

The governance of ECCD in the Philippines faces significant practical challenges

that require legislative support to address. Key issues include unclear roles and
responsibilities among agencies, weak coordination mechanisms, and insufficient
funding for ECCD initiatives.

Key players like the NNC and the DOH face overlapping mandates and resource constraints.
Despite both being members of the ECCD Council and the NNC, opportunities for
coordination during these council meetings are often missed, leading to duplicated efforts
and inefficient resource allocation.

The NNC, as mandated by EO 234 (s. 1987), plays a crucial role in coordinating nutrition-
related efforts across various sectors. However, its capacity to address ECCD effectively
is limited by functional overlaps with other agencies and resource constraints. There is
a pressing need to clarify and strengthen the NNC’s role in ECCD governance to ensure
effective implementation of nutrition programs for young children.

Similarly, the DOH is legally mandated to lead and oversee nutrition efforts through
RA11148 (First 1,000 Days law). However, the DOH struggles to align health and
nutrition interventions with early education initiatives due to fragmented interagency
coordination. Strengthening the DOH’s capacity to lead interagency collaboration on
ECCD-related health and nutrition programs is essential.

Recommendations
Governance and financing of ECCD must be strengthened through the amendment
of RA 10410 (Early Years Act of 2013). The EDCOM II priority bills for ECCD, House Bill
No. 10142 and Senate Bill No. 2575, aim to establish a more robust ECCD system in the
Philippines. Both bills propose to attach the ECCD Council to the DILG to reinforce
the role of LGUs in the implementation of ECCD programs and services. Both bills also
propose creating dedicated ECCD offices in cities and municipalities to manage local
implementation.

The proposed legislation, likewise, mandates funding through a combination of public

and private sources with specific provisions for supporting underserved areas. The
House version includes a provision on adopting a program convergence approach
from the funds of the DILG, the DSWD, the DOH, DepEd, CHED, and TESDA. The Senate
 Early Childhood Care and Development 93

version includes a line-item allocation in the LGSF, specifically for establishing CDCs
and hiring CDTs and CDWs in fourth- and fifth-class municipalities.

The bills also institutionalize professional development and standardize qualifications

for ECCD workers by setting minimum salary grades (SG 11 for CDTs and SGs 8–10 for
CDWs in the Senate version) and requiring regular competency assessments.

Additionally, the bills establish clear monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, including
mandatory annual reporting to Congress and regular curriculum reviews. Private
sector participation is also encouraged through tax incentives under the Adopt-a-
School program, and a fund for an ECCD Program Contracting Scheme with private
service providers.

These reforms collectively aim to create an efficient, inclusive, and sustainable ECCD
system.

Issue 2: Severe underinvestment and inequities in financing

continue to hinder access to ECCD programs and services.
As shown in the research undertaken in Year Two, the country’s overall supply of capital
investments for ECCD falls short of meeting the goal of universal access for children
aged 3–4 to ECCD services (Ulep et al., 2024). Findings suggest that the government
allocates only Php 3,870 per child for health. This is significantly below the average
government spending per person of approximately Php 8,700 on health in low- and
middle-income countries (LMICs) (Ulep et al., 2024).
94 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 7
Nutrition Outcomes: Philippines vs. Other Low-
and Middle-Income Countries with Similar GDP Per Capita

Country

Outcome Indonesia Vietnam Philippines Ghana Senegal Cambodia Myanmar Nepal

Indicator

GDP per capita

4,332.71 3756.49 3460.53 2363.30 1636.89 1625.24 1209.93 1208.22
(2021, USD)

% Government
budget spent on 8.51 9.35 6.60 6.42 4.26 5.21 3.49 4.58
health

Maternal
173 78 261 218 179 174
mortality ratio

Prevalence of
9.9 6.30 21.1 14.40 17.2 11.5 12.5 19.7
low birth weight

Infant mortality
18.9 16.4 20.5 32.6 29.1 21.3 33.7 22.8
rate

Children stunted 24.4 19.6 26.7 12.7 17.0 22.3 24.1 26.7

Children wasted 7.1 5.2 5.5 4.7 8.1 9.6 7 7.7

Under–5
22.2 20.6 25.7 44.0 38.6 24.8 41.8 27.2
mortality rate

Note: Data across countries may belong to different years. The information has been compiled from various sources:
the Demographic and Health Survey Program (2023) for 2014–2022, the DOST-FNRI (2021), and the UNICEF-WHO-
World Bank Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates (2023).

In 2021, 6.6% of government spending in the Philippines were on health, which is higher
than many LMICs with lower gross domestic product (GDP). Note that Ghana, with
a lower GDP per capita, still has a similar health expenditure as the Philippines; and
Vietnam, with a similar GDP per capita, has a significantly higher health expenditure.

There is also a need to vastly improve participation rates in early education and
essential health and nutrition services by piloting public-private partnership financing
models like vouchers and implementing innovative, science-based behavioral change
communication campaigns targeted at diverse groups.

In the Philippines, ECCD programs are mainly funded by the national government,
with household out-of-pocket spending on pre-primary education reaching Php 8
billion and nearly half of attendees paying participation fees. Despite mechanisms for
decentralization, the national government continues to be the primary source of financing
for early education, health, and nutrition services, with its contribution steadily increasing.

Under a decentralized system, local governments are tasked with financing and
delivering primary health care services. In contrast, the national government, including
agencies like the DOH and the NNC, sets standards and provides technical and financial
support. As the national purchaser, PhilHealth offers limited primary health care services
through various benefit packages. However, overlaps and ambiguity in delineating these
services create inefficiencies. For early education, both national and local governments
contribute to pre-kindergarten funding, with the national government providing
technical and financial assistance.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 95

Inequities in nutrition financing need to be addressed. There is also a need to address

inequities brought about by the dependence of nutrition interventions on local
government resources, apart from improving the strategic allocation at the national to
better support the first 1,000 days and other nutrition intervention programs.

The current financing structure for ECCD initiatives presents significant practical
limitations, especially for LGUs. Analysis of the Special Education Fund (SEF) reveals
stark disparities in available resources among different LGU classes. For instance,

• Municipalities have a median SEF income of only Php 1.6 million—merely 4%

of the median SEF income of cities and provinces; and
• First class municipalities have SEF incomes 68 times greater than their
sixth-class counterparts.

These disparities significantly impact the ability of low-income LGUs to implement

ECCD programs effectively. Moreover, legislation over the years has expanded the
mandated functions of LGUs in education and nutrition program delivery without
corresponding increases in funding sources.

FIGURE 10
LGU ECCD Financing Challenges

Inadequate fiscal including reliance on national

resources transfers, low local revenue
and low prioritization mobilization, and lack of
of human capital prioritization of the early years

Including both vertical and

Coordination failures and horizontal coordination, as well as
unclear accountability blurred lines of accountability

Capacity challenges Including planning and connecting

in public financial plans to budgets
management

Source: World Bank, Philippines Economic Updates Development Dialogues, December 12, 2024, Cubao, Philippines

To address these inequities, EDCOM II recognizes the critical need for enhanced
national government support while strengthening LGU engagement. This approach
aligns with the principles of the devolved functions of ECCD while ensuring effective
implementation of ECCD programs nationwide.

In a September 11, 2024 meeting led by EDCOM II with DOH secretary Teodoro Herbosa
to discuss improvement mechanisms in the implementation of health and nutrition
programs for young children, the DBM put forth a recommendation to consider a
LGSF allocation focused on fifth-class municipalities and geographically isolated and
disadvantaged areas. This funding will incentivize LGUs to allocate counterpart funding
for nutrition initiatives, fostering sustainability ECCD program delivery/ especially
for low-income LGUs. This approach will spur LGUs to augment the funds through
alternative funding sources, encouraging LGU commitment and ownership of ECCD
programs.

Tying national support to LGU commitment allows for more equitable distribution of
national resources for resource-constrained LGUs while encouraging LGUs to prioritize
ECCD in their local development plans and budgets.
96 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
Beyond financial resources, effective ECCD implementation demands strategic
investment in local government capacity, particularly in strengthening low-income
LGUs’ ability to deliver services. While priority must be given to low-income LGUs, the
prevalence of stunting and lack of ECE participation remains a problem across cities and
municipalities in the country. For instance, Bansud, in Oriental Mindoro, despite being
a second-class municipality, has an alarming stunting rate of 30.57% among children
under 5 (Operation Timbang Plus, 2023).

EDCOM II emphasizes the importance of comprehensive capacity-building initiatives

through the provision of continuous technical assistance from national agencies to
LGUs. EDCOM II recommends adopting a “hand-holding” approach, not only to low-
income LGUs, but also to LGUs that require additional technical support in program
planning, financial management and budgeting, and monitoring and evaluation of
ECCD programs and services. Increasing the local governance capacity development
in the systematic and efficient implementation of ECCD can be included in the Newly
Elected Officials orientation course, as well as a program in the Local Government
Academy of the DILG. To address LGU financial challenges, policymakers can refer
to the equity-focused measures from both versions of the ECCD bill, particularly the
program convergence budgeting approach and Local Government Support Fund.

Successful ECCD programs underscore the importance of taking an integrated

approach to ECCD—one that combines quality education, proper nutrition, and
community engagement. When local governments commit to these comprehensive
strategies and engage their communities effectively, as demonstrated by exemplary
LGU programs, they create sustainable initiatives that significantly improve
outcomes for its youngest citizens and build stronger foundations for their
communities’ future.
 Early Childhood Care and Development 97

Local government initiatives across the Philippines have demonstrated remarkable

success in transforming ECCD through innovative and comprehensive approaches.
By examining these exemplary programs, we can identify distinct strategies and
best practices that have created lasting positive impact in their communities.

Muntinlupa City’s Early Childhood Education Division exemplifies strong

institutional framework and comprehensive service delivery. Created through
Ordinance No. 04-139, the division operates with its own Annual Investment Plan
and distinct organizational structure. Its professionalization of early childhood
workers through clear career progression paths has elevated service quality;
while its multistakeholder approach enables extensive services including health
programs, supplementary feeding, and educational initiatives. Its innovative use of
multiple funding streams has resulted in a robust Php 72.9 million budget by 2023,
serving over 8,000 children annually through 90 child development centers.

The Naga Early Education and Development Program demonstrates excellence

in transforming traditional day care services into quality early education centers.
Its innovative approach includes establishing Montessori-type day care centers
in each sitio with trained workers and modern learning equipment. The program’s
success lies in its creative use of the Local Government Code through implementing
a “counterpart” policy where barangays and parents contribute to operational costs.
Its integration of special education services, including therapy for handicapped
preschoolers, showcases their commitment to inclusive education. Its achievement
in doubling day care centers from 30 to 54 and reaching one-fourth of potential
beneficiaries in just 2 years demonstrates the program’s effective expansion strategies

Barangay Taloot’s “Kapurok Ko, Karamay Ko” program in Argao, Cebu,

demonstrates effective community-driven initiatives. Its innovative purok system
combines education, health, and nutrition programs through community-based
approaches. The program’s integration of its Food Available in the Home initiative
with purok-based feeding activities has created sustainable nutrition solutions.
Its “Tabo sa Purok” initiative allows families to sell surplus produce, consequently
creating an economic benefit alongside nutritional improvements. The program
has significantly reduced malnutrition rates from 7.03% to 1.78% and decreased
nonreaders from 6.01% to 1.48% between 2013 and 2023.

Taguig City’s award-winning ECCD programs integrate free day care, nutrition
intervention, and innovative physical activities to foster holistic early childhood
development. In 2022–2023, the City of Taguig demonstrated exemplary ECCD
practices through its award-winning child-friendly and nutrition programs. The city’s
comprehensive approach includes free day care services with learning materials and
supplementary feeding; the AlagaNutri Program, which provides tailored nutrition
interventions and health monitoring for 6- to 9-year-old students; a 120-Day Dietary
Supplementation Program focusing on children aged 1–5 years in Barangay Lower
Bicutan; and an innovative Overweight and Obesity Management Program featuring
physical activities like push biking. These integrated initiatives, which earned
Taguig the Sixth Seal of Child-Friendly and Nutrition Honor Award in Metro Manila,
showcase how local governments can effectively combine education, nutrition,
health monitoring, and physical activity promotion to support early childhood care
and development.
 99

BASIC EDUCATION

Starting with
the Basics: Filling
Persistent Gaps
in Basic Education

Introduction
In 2024, the basic education sector had to hurdle the continuing challenge of
addressing pandemic-induced learning loss. While learners have returned to school,
many remain unprepared for their current grade levels. A recent UNICEF study (Parker
et al., forthcoming) found that, even before the pandemic, most Grade 4 students were
performing at least a year below curriculum standards in math and literacy; this gap
has now widened to 2–3 years due to COVID-19 impacts.

Frequent class cancellations due to rising heat indices toward the end of school
year (SY) 2023–2024, as well as flooding at the start of the current school year, have
compounded pandemic-induced learning loss, increasing pressure on schools to
innovate. To meet learning outcomes despite these disruptions, schools must foster
conducive learning environments and provide adaptive support for their students. At
the system level, policy enhancements and key learning inputs are essential, especially
as the Department of Education (DepEd) begins the phased implementation of the
new MATATAG curriculum.

Continuing its mandate to assess the basic education system and recommend
necessary reforms, the EDCOM II Basic Education Subcommittee has focused on three
priorities: Priority Area 8 (School Infrastructure), Priority Area 9 (Alternative Learning
System, or ALS), and Priority Area 10 (Home and School Environment). This chapter
delves into these priorities and also provides updates on the Year One findings on
Priority 5 (Learning Resources), Priority 6 (Measurement of Learning Outcomes), and
Priority 7 (Curriculum and Instruction).
100 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Year One Updates

Priority Area 5: Learning Resources
The Year One Report highlighted significant challenges in textbook procurement,
with only 27 titles acquired in the past decade. This shortfall has led to the chronic
underutilization of allocated funds, leaving only Grades 5 and 6 with complete sets of
books. Other grade levels have had to rely on learners’ manuals, self-learning modules
(SLMs), activity sheets, and teacher-made resources. The report also identified the
barriers faced by book publishers in the procurement process and recommended
solutions, such as pivoting to procuring textbook titles already available in the market
rather than commissioning custom manuscripts.

To advance its recommendations, EDCOM II facilitated coordination with the

Government Procurement Policy Board - Technical Support Office (GPPB-TSO) to
secure their policy opinion on preselecting textbook titles. Since its first hearing
on learning resources on June 1, 2023, EDCOM II has been engaging the GPPB-TSO
through activities and meetings and requesting their comments and insights. On
June 19, 2024, the GPPB issued a clarification confirming that preselecting textbook
titles does not equate to prequalification and is therefore a valid procurement option.
Prequalification is the process of evaluating prospective bidders’ qualifications
against identified requirements to determine their eligibility to submit bids (Non-
Policy Matter No. 054-2013); this process has been replaced by a simple eligibility
screening under the Government Procurement Reform Act (Republic Act [RA] No.
9184) to improve the efficiency of the procurement process.

Despite recent changes by DepEd—such as combining manuscript procurement

with textbook printing and delivery—challenges persist in procuring and delivering
textbooks for the MATATAG curriculum rollout.

A study on textbook procurement, commissioned by EDCOM II with support from

the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the Australian Government and the
Philippine Business for Education, has further examined these issues. Malaluan and
Maribojoc (2024) outlines several recommendations for the improvement of the
procurement process for textbooks, including the following:

• Develop a textbook policy for public schools. A comprehensive textbook

policy will contribute to system improvement by aligning curriculum, pedagogy,
textbooks, and assessments. The policy would serve as a road map for the short-
and long-term planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of the whole
procurement cycle—i.e., the evaluation, selection, acquisition, distribution, and
use of textbooks for public schools. By formalizing this through legislation, the
commitment to improving educational resources can be institutionalized.
• Introduce a system of pre-evaluation and preselection of textbooks before
procurement. This system will ensure thorough reviews, early preparation,
teacher participation, expedited procurement, and responsiveness to local
needs. This process can also stimulate growth in the book publishing industry.
• Amend the Book Publishing Industry Development Act (RA 8047) to allow
DepEd to develop textbooks under extraordinary circumstances. This
amendment would give DepEd the flexibility to respond effectively to unique
challenges in educational resource development.
 Basic Education 101

• Conduct a study on textbook procurement decentralization. Investigating

the potential for decentralizing procurement processes could lead to more
localized and responsive educational resources.1
• Closely monitor the entire life cycle of the textbook/teacher’s manual and
gather feedback. Systematic and continuous monitoring and feedback
collection will ensure that textbooks and teacher’s manuals remain relevant and
effective in classrooms.
• Arrange continuing dialogues among DepEd, the National Book Development
Board, and publishers. Regular communication among these stakeholders will
foster collaboration and innovation in textbook development and procurement.
Further research and consultations should also be conducted as the New
Government Procurement Act (RA 12009) is rolled out.

These findings and recommendations, presented to key DepEd officials and staff, will
inform policy development, including target setting, for Priority Area 5.

Issue: Insufficient textbooks and learning resources hinder

recovery.
Learning loss recovery efforts face significant obstacles due to insufficient resources.
The PISA 2022 results highlight a direct correlation between learner performance and
the availability of learning resources, yet EDCOM II has identified persistent textbook
shortages for Grades 1–10 despite budget allocations. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the
update on the procurement status of textbooks and teachers manuals in Grades 1, 4,
and 7. Several challenges have been identified, including inadequate time for textbook
development, high participation costs for publishers, and pricing issues related to
paper quality and production timelines. During the pandemic (fiscal years 2020–2023),
DepEd deprioritized the printing of textbooks and instead focused on providing self-
learning modules. Based on the data submitted by DepEd, most of the bottleneck
delays are caused by technical reviews of the textbooks. EDCOM II recommends that
DepEd consider procuring textbooks already available in the market and systematizing
internal review to expedite the procurement process.

The Year One Report also emphasized that successful learning loss recovery efforts
required several key elements: holding regular and timely assessments to track
learner progress, grouping learners based on their actual proficiency rather than
their grade level, and prioritizing foundational skills.

1 Notably, during the House hearings in the Committee on Education, Arts and Culture, the difficulty in regional pro-
curement of books has also been observed in the pilot for the MATATAG textbooks. This highlights the need to further
study and strengthen local capacity of both DepEd as well as publishers/bidders regionally.
102 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 1
Status of Procurement: Grade 1 Textbooks and Teacher’s Manuals

GRADE 1 TEXT BOOKS &

ng

ed
n

er
ti
TEACHERS MANUALS

io

er
in

iv
at

iv
el
Pr
n

liz
io

el
id

D
ie

&

D
na
is
b

ng
v
Region

ff
Re

Re
v

%
O
Fi
Re

oi

0
gn
r

ng
Fo

Fo

Fo

10
r
NCR - Filipino

Fo

Si

O
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

5 - Bicolano
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

8 - Waray
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

RO 1*
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

RO 6*
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

RO 10*
• Good Manners and Right Conduct
• Makabansa
• Reading & Literacy
• Language

* ROs 1, 6, & 10 experienced failure of bidding for Ilokano, For Grade 1 Mathematics, lesson
Hiligaynon, & Sinugbuanong Binisaya, respectively; exemplars and worksheets are
hence, they are now procuring Filipino TXs and TMs. provided.
 Basic Education 103

FIGURE 2
Status of Procurement: Grades 4 and 7 Textbooks and Teacher’s Manuals

GRADE 1 TEXT BOOKS &

TEACHERS MANUALS

n
on o
ti cti
se of
id

ec d u

iv g

ed
b

el in
y
vi w

I
d

sp o

D
Re

er

er
D go
Re vie

In r

D %
rP
ep
Grade 4

iv
0
r

n
Re

el
Fo

Fo

10
Pr

O
Araling Panlipunan
Good Manners and Right Conduct
Filipino
Science
Music and Arts
English
• Regions I–V, CAR, NCR
• Regions VI–XII, Region XIII
Math
• Regions I–IV, IX–XII,
CAR, Region XIII
• Regions VI–VIII, NCR

NO N E 1 0 0 % D E L IV E R E D
Physical Education and Health
• Regions I–IV, VI–VIII, CAR
• Regions V, NCR
• Regions IX–XII, Region XIII
Edukasyong Pantahanan at
Pangkabuhayan
• Regions I–V, IX–XII,
CAR, NCR, Region XIII
• Regions VI–VIII

Grade 7
Araling Panlipunan
English
Maths
Filipino
Music and Arts
Physical Education and Health
Techology and Livelihood
Education
Values Education
• Regions I–IV, CAR, NCR
• Regions VI–XII, Region XIII
Science
• Regions I–IV, CAR
• Regions V–XII, NCR,
Region XIII

Note: Data from DepEd submission (January 6, 2025)

104 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 6: Measurement of Learning Outcomes

The call for more large-scale assessments as a foundation for educational reforms
was first championed in Making Education Work: An Agenda for Reform (1994) by the
original EDCOM. The report recommended creating and administering the National
Achievement Test (NAT) to evaluate student progress: functional literacy by the end of
Grade 4, scholastic achievement by the end of Grade 6, and readiness for vocational
and tertiary education by the senior year of high school.

Nearly 3 decades later, EDCOM II’s Year One Report highlighted a new challenge: an
overabundance of assessments at various levels. The lack of access to the results of
national system assessments has prompted local and external stakeholders to develop
and administer their own tools, creating redundancies and inconsistencies. Teachers
lament that the increase in assessment tasks consumes instruction time without
informing teaching strategies, as critical data often remain inaccessible to those
who need it most. This is based on various EDCOM II consultations with teachers,
including the following:

• 2023 July 10–11. Teacher consultations and curriculum validation; focus group
discussion with 104 teachers, i.e., 33 private school teachers and 71 public school
teachers, representing 74 schools (19 private, 55 public) across nine regions.
• 2023 Oct 23, Iloilo. Focus group discussions with teachers and school heads
from schools division offices of Davao City and Iloilo City.
• 2023 Jul 28, UP BGC. Consultation with teachers.

This inconsistency is starkly illustrated by a contradiction in insights from the different

assessments. For example, the 2019 FLEMMS by the Philippine Statistics Authority
(PSA) reported basic literacy at 96.5% and functional literacy at 91.6%. However,
international large-scale assessments tell a different story. In the PISA 2022, only 24%
of students performed at Level 2 or higher in reading literacy, which means that only
one in four students could identify the main idea in a text of moderate length, find
information based on explicit, though sometimes complex, criteria, and reflect on the
purpose and form of texts when explicitly directed to do so.

Specifically, EDCOM II highlighted that functional literacy should include the

comprehension of texts. EDCOM II also pointed out that common tasks (e.g., writing
the respondent’s name) should not count toward functional literacy. Finally, EDCOM
II recommended considering the framework of the Program for the International
Assessment of Adult Competencies as a reference for refining the FLEMMS. Table 1
shows the approved definitions alongside the previous ones.

These recommendations led to the PSA’s

Board Resolution No. 2024-13, which
updated the definition of basic and
functional literacy for the first time since
1989. Basic literacy now includes numeracy,
and functional literacy now requires
comprehension.
 Basic Education 105

TABLE 1
Updates on the 2024 FLEMMS

Previous Definition, 1989–2019 Approved Definition

Literacy Literacy
Description Classification Description Classification
Level Level

Cannot read
0–A Illiterate
Cannot read and write
0 Illiterate
and write Can read and
0–B Low literate
write only

Can read,
Can read and
1 Basic 1 write, and Basic literate
write only
compute

Can read,
Can read,
write,
2 write, and Functional 2 Functional literate
compute, and
compute
comprehend

Can read,
write,
3 Functional
compute, and
comprehend

High school
4 Functional
graduate*

Note. The previous classification automatically assigns high school graduates and those with higher qualifications as
functionally literate.

Source: PSA, 2024

While the new definitions of basic and functional literacy will be implemented in the
next round of the FLEMMS, the PSA has provided simulations of possible changes in
the basic and functional literacy rates using the revised standards. The results show a
7-point decline in basic literacy and a 30-point drop in functional literacy rates (see
Figures 3 and 4). The results of the next FLEMMS cycle will most likely reflect similar
results.

The shift is expected to result in more substantive interventions through adult

literacy programs, including the ALS. Improved adult literacy education can improve
the subjective quality of life in economic, familial, intrapersonal, and interpersonal
aspects (Mtika & Abbott, 2023). Not only do highly literate adults have more economic
opportunities, they also make better informed decisions for their families and support
their children better in their formative years (World Bank Group, 2018). Results of
international large-scale assessments, such as the PISA and Southeast Asia Primary
Learning Metrics (SEA-PLM), have established that the educational attainment of
parents, especially of mothers, significantly impacts student performance.
106 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 3
Comparison of Basic Literacy and Functional Literacy Rate

FLEMMS 2003–2019

100

75

50

25

0
2003 2008 2013 2019 2019 (simulated)

Basic literacy Functional literacy

FIGURE 4
Comparison of Basic and Functional Literacy Rates by Highest
Educational Attainment: Previous vs. Approved Definitions

FLEMMS 2003–2019

100

75

50

25

0
Elementary Junior High School Senior High School

Basic literacy (based on previous definition)

Basic literacy (based on approved definition)
Functional literacy (based on previous definition)
Functional literacy (based on approved definition)

Note: Figures based on FLEMMS 2019. The previous definition was used for all FLEMMS cycles from 1989–2019.
 Basic Education 107

To enhance assessment practices, the Commission recommends rationalizing

existing key stage assessments, introducing a learning progression assessment, and
modernizing testing through computer-based modalities.

For rationalization, the key stage assessments should not only inform system
enhancement and accountability, but also be used to improve learners’ mastery of
essential topics. These assessments should focus on literacy and numeracy in Grade
3, expand to include scientific thinking in Grades 6 and 10, and evaluate readiness
for tertiary education or work in Grade 12. The results should further guide targeted
interventions for students, such as well-funded learning camps for underperforming
Grades 3, 6, and 10 students before allowing them to proceed to the next grade level.
Finally, it is important to highlight that students with extremely low scores even after
attending the learning camps and being provided with additional support should be
retained in their grade level until they show mastery of core competencies or referred
to special education services and further assessment to determine presence of
disability.

Meanwhile, the learning progression assessment refers to a formative evaluation

of key competencies in literacy and numeracy over time, distinct from curriculum-
based assessments. It should be developed and standardized at the national level
but administered by the teachers in their classrooms thrice a year—i.e., at the start,
middle, and end of the school year for Grades 1 to 3 and potentially extending to Grade
6. Individual progress reports should be shared with students, parents, teachers, and
schools to inform targeted interventions and critical skills development.

To enable efficient processing and timely reporting, DepEd has to transition to

computer-based assessments. Although schools still face challenges like limited
internet and computer access, investing in digital infrastructure is essential for
assessments and learning delivery. While the resources are not yet universally
available, test administration can adapt in the interim by establishing testing centers
in schools division offices and extending testing windows to accommodate all
students.

The Commission, in collaboration with DepEd, is studying possible solutions

to harmonize assessment activities and standards, including establishing an
independent assessment body as a government-owned or -controlled corporation.
This body would oversee learning outcomes across the education sector, starting
with basic education and eventually encompassing technical-vocational and higher
education. As a government-owned or -controlled corporation, it would have
the potential to attract and retain measurement experts by offering competitive
personnel benefits and utilizing flexible procurement processes, which will build
up its capacity for data analysis and research. This independent body would ensure
the integrity of assessments and increase accountability through regular, unbiased
reporting, free from the influence of education agencies.

For basic education in particular, this body would focus on planning, test
development, and data analysis for key assessments, including international large-
scale tests and national achievement exams (the NAT, the ALS Accreditation and
Equivalency, National Career Assessment Examination, and teacher evaluations).
Meanwhile, the Bureau of Education Assessment can be retained to facilitate test
administration, following standards set by the independent assessment body.
108 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

Insights from
Learning Visit in Vietnam
From March 21 to 23, 2024, an EDCOM II delegation visited Hanoi, Vietnam, to
benchmark education policies, reforms, and practices. The delegation met with
Vietnam’s National Assembly and Ministry of Education and Training, visited three
public schools, and held a focus group discussion with Filipino teachers working in
Hanoi and nearby cities.

Members of the Commission visited Vietnam to study their education system’s

success, focusing on access and equity, teacher development, assessments, and
governance. Vietnam was selected for its outstanding PISA performance in math and
reading, achieving better academic outcomes than many wealthier nations despite
having GDP levels similar to the Philippines. Their high enrollment and completion
rates offer valuable insights for Philippine education reforms.

A highlight of the visit was an expert meeting with education specialists from the
World Bank in Hanoi who provided an overview of Vietnam’s systemic approach to
education reform. This approach, implemented across 4 decades, comprised the
following components:

• Central specification. The reform began by defining clear learning standards or

competencies to establish a clear framework for educational goals.
• Achievement goals. Following the identification of learning competencies,
achievement goals (performance standards) and target proficiency levels were
set to ensure that expectations were transparent and measurable.
• Alignment. Once the goals were set, school resources, curricular content, and
teaching strategies were aligned with the performance standards to foster an
environment conducive to learning.
• Accountability measures. With the appropriate resources and support
systems in place, necessary accountability measures were designed to enforce
standards, identify system weaknesses and breakdowns, and facilitate targeted
improvements.
 Basic Education 109

• Continuous learning. The Vietnamese system prioritizes continuous learning

from continuous reflection and adaptation to enhance educational practices
and outcomes.

Based on the discussions during the trip, the Commission identified some of the key
drivers of Vietnam’s success in education:

• Prioritizing primary education. Vietnam allocates significant resources to

primary education to ensure that students receive adequate support during
the foundational years. In 2022, Vietnam spent USD 745.8 per student in
Grades 1–3—more than double the regional average (USD 328). The Vietnamese
education system also emphasizes early school readiness. Various nursery-
level programs designed for children aged three months to three years are
widely available and typically accessed by the public. These programs focus on
holistic development encompassing physical, cognitive, linguistic, emotional-
social, and aesthetic skills. In 2010, the government established a development
framework for 5-year-old children, comprising 120 indicators. Moreover,
the Vietnamese government ensures equitable distribution of resources by
prioritizing students in remote and disadvantaged areas through affirmative
action programs and teacher incentives.
• Strong emphasis on the timely provision of input and support services.
Schools provide essential resources and support services, including meals
for learners and teachers. Workbooks for students are provided with a 1:1 ratio
and distributed a few months before classes to allow students to prepare and
study for their upcoming school year. Public school classrooms are typically
air-conditioned and designed for dynamic learning. Another key priority of
the Vietnamese government is attracting top professionals to the sector as
teachers. Teaching is esteemed in Vietnam, even if the starting salary is fairly
similar with the Philippines. The government strategically invests in human
development by providing teacher training and hiring capable individuals,
particularly in sectors and regions that need the most support.
110 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

• Enforcing an assessment and accountability system. Vietnam’s robust

assessment system informs educational interventions, enabling the timely
delivery of learning resources and teacher training opportunities based on data.
Despite having a heavily centralized political system, local government units
(LGUs) are primarily accountable in making sure that schools in their respective
areas receive necessary input and perform well in assessments. This data-driven
approach is complemented by a strong testing culture, evident in high-stakes
exams at the end of the lower secondary level, which determine progression to
upper secondary schools.

Parents also play an active role in supporting education and ensuring accountability.
They contribute financially to nursery and preschool improvement initiatives; invest
in tutorials, extra lessons, and learning materials for their children; and expect regular
homework and personalized feedback from teachers. Government initiatives, such
as providing phones and internet connectivity for teacher-parent communication,
further empower parents to hold educators accountable.

Adherence to international standards further strengthens the education system.

Schools openly align their curricula with top-performing schools in the United
Kingdom, and foreign teachers (including Filipinos) are hired to enhance foreign
language instruction.
 Basic Education 111

Year Two Overview

Priority Area 7:
Curriculum and Instruction
In Year One, EDCOM II identified several critical issues, including the overwhelming
workload for students and teachers under the MATATAG curriculum and inefficiencies
in learning loss recovery efforts. The centralized governance structure of DepEd was
also highlighted as a barrier to the successful implementation of Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). Additionally, a lack of sufficient learning
resources, such as textbooks, exacerbated learning disparities across regions. These
findings underscored the need for reform to ensure inclusivity and resilience in the
education system.

In 2024, EDCOM II focused on addressing these issues through legislative and policy
measures. For the MATATAG curriculum, assessments highlighted the need for teacher
training, reduced administrative burdens, and access to quality learning materials.

Furthermore, EDCOM II supported the passage of RA 12027, or the Act Discontinuing

the Use of Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction to amend the MTB-MLE
program, proposing Filipino and English as the primary mediums of instruction while
maintaining regional languages as auxiliary tools. This change aimed to address the
challenges of implementing mother tongue instruction in a linguistically diverse
nation. The Commission also advocated decentralization and enhanced local flexibility
to improve resource allocation and curriculum delivery.

RA 12027 lapsed into law on October 10, 2024.

Efforts to enhance learning recovery were

bolstered by House Resolution No. 1805,
authored by EDCOM II Co-chairperson Cong.
Roman Romulo, urging DepEd to suspend
regular academic programs for 8–12 weeks to
implement focused interventions addressing
the alarming learning gaps.
112 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 1: Excessive academic demands and lost teaching

days impede student performance and well-being.
A study by Dabbay and Largoza (2024) from De La Salle University found that
Filipino students endured excessive academic demands compared to their regional
counterparts. Junior high school (JHS) students in the Philippines spent longer
instructional hours per week than students in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and
Vietnam yet performed the poorest in the 2018 PISA. Senior high school (SHS)
students reported spending 12 hours more than the recommended weekly homework
time, with total academic learning hours exceeding standard full-time working hours
for employed adults.

These findings necessitate a reexamination of the extensive academic learning time

prescribed for Philippine schools. The study indicated that elevated stress levels
surpassed optimal thresholds for academic performance, suggesting that this may be
counterproductive and detrimental to students’ well-being.

This underscores the need for a more balanced approach to academic scheduling, one that
considers both the quality of learning and the well-being of students and teachers alike.

Issue 2: Overlapping topics and low proficiency levels of

students weaken the senior high school curriculum.
Further examination of the SHS curriculum is necessary to eliminate overlapping
topics and ensure better alignment with the K–12 program’s four exit points.
Unpacking prerequisite skills is essential, as many competencies listed are still at
higher-order thinking levels.

DepEd has initiated a comprehensive four-phase review process that includes a

comparative analysis of educational systems from six selected countries. Consultative
forums with academia, industry stakeholders, regional councils, technical-vocational-
livelihood supervisors, and private SHSs have resulted in three proposed SHS
curriculum models aimed at enhancing implementation.

Moreover, DepEd has developed an ALS SHS curriculum based on the most essential
learning competencies; it mirrors the structure and content of formal education
while addressing the unique challenges of ALS learners, such as time constraints and
contextualizing these competencies for instruction. It is also recommended that
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction be made a core subject for all students, not
just those enrolled in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math strand or the
General Academic Strand.

Low proficiency levels among SHS students are evidenced by below-proficient NAT
2022 scores for Grade 12 and poor reading and writing skills among incoming SHS
students as indicated by the PISA 2022. In response, DepEd has established the
National Learning Recovery Program (NLRP) to enhance learner performance.

Issue 3: The lack of a unified learner progression framework

impedes educational continuity.
Learning progressions, as per Duschl et al. (2007), describe successively more
sophisticated ways of thinking about and understanding a topic over a broad span of
time.
 Basic Education 113

A learning progression workshop held on August 22, 2024, surfaced that while a
strategy for curricular progression exists and that DepEd has developed curriculum
guides for each grade level and subject area, there is no clearly articulated
learning progression that connects educational stages—from early childhood care
and development to higher education and technical and vocational education
and training—for both formal and nonformal systems. Hence, because learning
progression is not clearly articulated, guidance for teachers and other stakeholders is
likewise limited.

The absence of tools and processes to measure learner progression exacerbates

these challenges. Across basic education, early childhood care and development,
technical and vocational education and training, and higher education, there is a
pressing need for clearly defined minimum competencies and a consistent scale for
measuring progression. Improving the reliability and validity of assessments, along
with alignment across subsectors, is necessary to bridge gaps.

A learning progression workshop held on August 22, 2024, surfaced that while a
strategy for curricular progression exists and that DepEd has developed curriculum
guides for each grade level and subject area, there is no clearly articulated learning
progression that connects educational stages—from early childhood care and
development to higher education and technical and vocational education and
training—for both formal and nonformal systems.

Finally, as far as policy is concerned, there is a need to adopt enabling legislative

and executive policies and to include an implementation plan to address issues in
continuity and leadership. Key prerequisites to this include the promotion of shared
commitment across the education system and the clear articulation of the learning
progression in developmental domains—literacy, numeracy, and 21st century skills—in
the formal system, as well as their counterparts in the informal system.
114 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 4: Our best learners are left behind due to lack of

government support and attention.
According to a study by Reis and Renzulli (2011), gifted and talented children need
additional support because their unique needs are often unmet in traditional
classrooms, thus leading to underachievement, disengagement, and even dropout
risks. It is critical that emergent talent is spotted and nurtured early on (NAGC,
2012). Without differentiation and opportunities to further improve their talents,
the potential of talented students is unfulfilled. Research shows that effective
support strategies include instructional grouping, acceleration through curriculum
compacting or grade skipping, and enrichment models like the Schoolwide
Enrichment Model (SEM), which offers advanced, interest-based opportunities. These
interventions ensure gifted students are challenged and engaged, helping them reach
their full potential.

TABLE 2
Students in Special Science Programs and
Science High Schools vs. Universe of All Learners

Special Regional Legislated Special Philippine Universe of % of

Science Science Science Program Science ALL Learners “Best and
Programs High School High on Science, High School Brightest”
(Elementary) Schools Technology, System Learners
and Supported in
Engineering SY 2023–
2024

106,670 9,428 10,230 143,118 10,350 27,081,292 1.03%

Source: EDCOM II, 2024, October 13

Comparatively, countries such as China and South Korea target their top 3%, while
Australia and Europe support up to the top 10%. For the Philippines, this would mean
the need to support an additional 533,502 to 2.43 million learners.
 Basic Education 115

Data shows that the government supports

only 1.03% of 27,081,292 learners considered
to be the “best and brightest” in the country.

Several gifted and talented learners in the Sciences and Mathematics are catered by
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Under the DOST is the Philippine
Science High School (PSHS) system, which exemplifies specialized education with a
research-oriented curriculum focused on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math.
This is as compared to the DepEd Regional Science HS and Special Science Program
Curriculum which provides learners with enriched science, mathematics, and English
curricula in addition to the existing secondary high school curriculum.

TABLE 3
The PSHS Curriculum

Specialization Years Service, Creativity, Institutional

Gr 12
Action, Leadership Celebrations
Enhanced engagement in the chosen area of Enhancement (SCALE)
specialization, while fostering innovation and *Science Immersion
Gr 11 STEM integration Program
Field Trips

Advancement Years Alternative Learning

Gr 10
Experiences (ALA)
Deepening of knowledge, skills, and values in Student
the various disciplines that prepare scholars for Activities
Gr 9 their ownspecialized course of study

Foundation Years
Gr 8 Competitions
Fundamental knowledge, skills, and values in the
different content areas
Outreach
Gr 7 Programs

Source: PSHS, 2024

Compared to the DepEd curriculum which follows a spiral progression across grade
levels in high school and does not transition seamlessly from JHS to SHS, the
PSHS curriculum is strategically designed to scaffold skills and knowledge in STEM
education. As testament to the rigor of its curriculum, the PSHS system is one of the
top feeder schools to the University of the Philippines campuses. The figures below
illustrate the proficiencies of the University of the Philippines College Admission
Test (UPCAT) takers across different subjects during the tests in 2020 and 2024,
with consideration to where students were enrolled at the time of testing. Notably,
DepEd Science High Schools, or schools given by DepEd the liberty to implement
entrance exams and other selection procedures to ensure that they admit the most
qualified students also perform well in the exam, as shown in Figure 5.
116 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 5
UPCAT Performance

Note: The UPG is the combined score of an applicant’s weighted UPCAT score and the weighted average of their
grades in high school.

Abbreviations: UPCAT = University of the Philippines College Admission Test, UPG = University Predicted Grade,
PSHS = Philippine Science High School
 Basic Education 117

FIGURE 6
PSHS System, SY 2022–2023 to SY 2024–2025
PSHS SYSTEM SY 2022-2023 TO SY 2024-2025
Number of Slots vs. Number of Applicants
Slots Principal Qualifiers Applicants

REGION / CAMPUS SLOTS

I. Ilocos 347 533

3,943
II. Cagayan Valley 360 668
2,465
III. Central Luzon 360 755
1,952
IV-A. CALABARZON 360 786
3,298
MIMAROPA Region 148 318
3,953
V. Bicol 328 643
2,772
VI. Western Visayas 360 697
3,021
VII. Central Visayas 330 579
3,152
VIII. Eastern Visayas 270 551
3,080
IX. Zamboanga Penisula 252 365
1,816
X. Central Mindanao 360 690
3,632
XI. Southern Mindanao 360 686
2,319
XII. SOCCSKSARGEN 360 658
4,095
NCR (Main Campus) 719 3,234
4,540
CAR 270 469
2,119
XIII. Caraga 360 602
2,645
BARMM 0 679

However, gaining admission into PSHS is competitive, with limited slots for a sizable
pool of applicants. As what can be seen in Figure 6, there are only 90 to 120 slots
allocated in each regional campus of the PSHS system, with the exception of 240 slots
in the Main Campus (NCR), which leaves other qualified applicants with no opportunity
to enter the PSHS. While there were 49,481 applicants for the 16 Pisay campuses from
SY 2022–2023 to SY 2024–2025, only 11,351 (23%) qualified. However, only 5,544 were
able to eventually pursue their studies in PSHS, with the remaining 5,807 “turned away”
due to lack of slots (see Figure 6). Notably, private school students outperform public
school students (43% vs. 17%) in the PSHS National Competitive Examination (NCE).
118 EDCOM II Year Two Report Basic Education 119

FIGURE 7
TIMELINE
Timeline of DepEd Special Curricular Programs (SCPs)
SCP Special Curricular
DepEd Special Curricular Programs (SCPs) Program
SPS Special Sports
Program
SPA Special Program
in the Arts
SPFL Special Program in
DM 173 and 242 DO 63 DO 54 Foreign Language
SPS piloted, aimed to Allocated funding for the Strengthened the implementation of SPA SPJ Special Program in
enhance school sports Special Programs in arts, and SPS, with further integration into the Journalism
and train teacher-trainers sports, and education overall curriculum framework SPTVE Special Program in
Technical-Vocational
DO 25 Education
Provided detailed guidelines
for the implementation and
evaluation of the SPS
DM 490
DM 135 Introduced Spanish as an
SPA established, focused elective language in high
on developing talents in schools under the SPFL
music, dance, drama, visual DO 46 DO 21
arts, and media arts Established Introduced SCPs as supplementary
DM 560
comprehensive policy subjects rather than replacements
Officially launched
guidelines for SCPs for Technology and Livelihood
the SPFL; expanding
across secondary Education (TLE), aligning them with
to include languages
education, embedding the K–12 basic education Program.
such as French,
them as career
Nihongo, and
pathways
Mandarin Finalized SCP Manuals of
DO 37 Operations in response to
Introduced the Redesigned the MATATAG Curriculum
Technical-Vocational High
School Program, emphasizing
DO10 and 12
digital literacy and inventive DM 103
Enacted policy guidelines
thinking within SPTVE SPJ piloted,
for SCP implementation
emphasizing
under the MATATAG
the cultivation
Curriculum
of ethical and
competent
campus
journalists
0

10

12

15

19

20

24
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

20

20

20
20

20

20
20

20
20

20
20

20
20
120 EDCOM II Year Two Report Basic Education 121

FIGURE 8
TIMELINE
Timeline of Special Science Programs in the Philippines
Special Science Programs in the Philippines

Late 1950s 1960’s 1990’s 2000’s 2010’s

Creation of National Creation of Philippine Science Creation of the ESEP Launching of the Special Creation of the
Science Development High School (main campus) (Engineering and Program in Science, Science, Technology,
Board to advance and other science high Science Education Technology, and Engineering, and
research, foster schools Project), which Engineering (SPSTE), Mathematics (STEM)
innovation, and harness supported the which allowed regular Track under K–12.
science for national construction & schools to offer enhanced
progress upgrading of 110 science curricula for
high school science students showing aptitude
laboratories in these subjects

RA 3589, s. 1958 DepEd Special DepEd Regional DepEd Provincial Science DepEd Special Science Programs
Science High School Science High Schools High Schools (Elementary)
Passed to coordinate and promote
cooperation in the scientific
RA 3661, s. 1963 DO 69, s. 1993 DO 44, s. 1995 DO 51, s. 2010
research and development
activities of government agencies An act to establish Science High Establishing Provincial Guidelines on Strengthening
and private enterprises; grant the Philippine Schools Science High Schools Science Education at the
scholarship in mathematics, Science High School established Elementary Level
science, technology and science To expand the establishment
teaching to deserving citizens; To prepare its To provide a more of science HS to all provinces To develop students with
undertake, in collaboration with the students for a intensive and higher aptitude for science
Department of Education, a science career advanced and mathematics
thorough survey of the educational secondary
system and to determine, as well as education focused DepEd Special Science Programs (High School)

to recommend to the on science

DO 54, s. 1996
corresponding authorities, the
Guidelines for the Implementation of Special
measures which may be necessary
Science Classes Under the Engineering and
to make it an effective instrument
Science Education Project
for scientific advancement; and
creates the National Institute of
To improve the quality of science and
Science and Technology to
mathematics education, and to develop a
implement and conduct programs
strong science culture among high schools
of scientific and technological
research and development as may
be directed by the Board
122 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Meanwhile, in public schools outside the Philippine Science High School system, the
Department of Education has introduced a variety of special curricular programs for
gifted and talented learners (see Figure 8):

• Special Program in the Arts;

• Special Program in Foreign Language;
• Special Program in Journalism;
• Special Program in Sports;
• Special Program in Science Technology and Engineering; and
• Special Program in Technical-Vocational Education.

Evidently, these special programs were not borne out of a cohesive and deliberate
framework to support the best and brightest learners. Instead, these are different
initiatives that emerged over 24 years and were eventually grouped under one
category and office. Some SCPs still operate under policies and implementing
guidelines that date back to the era of DECS, the predecessor of DepEd. To illustrate
the different milestones on SCPs, refer to Figure 7

In consultation with implementing units in the DepEd Central Office, several gaps in
the implementation of these programs were identified:

• Limited financing. Following DepEd Order No. 13, s. 2016, the budget allocation
for special curricular programs (SCP) has been embedded in the MOOE of
implementing schools. Based on the data submitted by DepEd, allocation for
SCP learners in 2024 was at a measly Php 150 per elementary learner and Php
202 per high school learner. Both allocations suffered a decrease of around 9 to
11% for the 2025 fiscal year, considering the increase in the number of learners
for both levels. It was also raised that the Central Office is unable to monitor if
the MOOE allocation is in fact used for SCP-related activities only.

TABLE 4
MOOE Allocations to Special Curricular Program Learners at the Elementary
and Junior High School Levels

2024 2024 2025 2025

Allocation per Allocation per
SCP Learner SCP Learner

Elementary No. of learners 124,79 Php 150 131,304 Php 137

MOOE 18,719,250 17,988,648

allocation
Junior No. of learners 280,80 Php 202 1,672,294 Php 180
High School
MOOE 56,722,408 301,012,920
allocation

Source: DepEd submission as of December 2, 2024

In addition, the central office downloads Program Support Funds (PSF) for the
regional offices, which they can use to provide additional support for the SCP
implementation. Based also on the submitted data of DepEd last December 2024,
for SY 2024–2025, a total of Php 143,022,678.00 were downloaded as PSF, catering
to 358,642 learners in 2,267 schools, amounting to an average of Php 398.79 per
learner for the school year. During consultations, the rationale for the amounts was
unclear, and it was evident that they did not lead to significant improvements in
resource allocation.
 Basic Education 123

• Few opportunities for specialized teacher training and learning resources.

Largely due to limited funds, teacher training and learning resources for special
curricular programs depend heavily on support from external partners. While
extremely helpful for beneficiary schools, the result is uneven implementation of
these programs. Although Capacity Building for Specialized Teachers is part of
the allowable expenses for the program support funds, there is no mechanism for
monitoring to ensure that teachers of special curricular programs are prepared to
deliver specialized instruction.

• Absence of mechanisms for identification of specialization in earlier years.

Studies show that it is critical that emergent talent be nurtured early on, not
only to nurture talent strategically but also to ensure equity for the poorest, who
otherwise would not have opportunities to compete in special programs at the
secondary level. But notably, very few special curricular programs extend to
elementary levels. Worse, it is typically offered only in areas where a neighboring
high school also offers the same special programs.
• Lack of cohesive vision for curricular progression of special programs.
Because these programs are often implemented in silos, the curriculum at the
elementary level does not effectively transition into the secondary or tertiary
levels. For example, the curricula of Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES)
and the Special Program on Science, Technology, and Engineering (SPSTE)
do not transition seamlessly to the curricula of Special Science High Schools
(SSHS) or even the PSHS system. The development of these special science
programs across decades have been disjointed.

Moreover, as SCPs are predominantly designed for Junior High School learners,
learners who attend these programs have few opportunities to further advance
their skills when they transition to senior high school. To illustrate, even if Special
Program for the Arts completers take the Arts and Design track for senior high
school, the SHS curriculum may not significantly be more advanced than the special
program curriculum in JHS.

• Lack of clear delineation and structure of manpower throughout the DepEd

governance levels. During consultations, it was noted there is no clear and
established staffing pattern for program implementers and holders, spanning
from the Central Office to the Field Offices. At present, the personnel identified
for the implementation of SCPs consist primarily of Focal Persons from the
Central Office, as well as Division Education Program Supervisors assigned to
various subject areas.
• Absence of assessment mechanisms such as tracer studies to determine
the effectiveness or impact of the program relative to its set goals and
objectives. Although the DepEd BLD provides formative tools for classroom-
based assessments, the evaluation of SCPs is not standardized. Available tests
mostly lean toward measuring science and mathematics skills, lacking space for
measures in arts, foreign language, journalism, sports, and technical-vocational
skills. These exams are conducted without accounting for learners’ SCP
involvement, thus providing no opportunity to assess the long-term impact of
the programs on learners.
124 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
• Increase the slot allocations for the PSHS to ensure all qualified students are
admitted.
• Review and expand the DepEd policies on Special Science High Schools and
SCPs in order to increase slot allocations and ensure additional resources such
as teacher training, laboratories, and learning materials.
• Establish a DepEd program to identify and support emerging talent as early
as Grade 3, with a focus on discovering and nurturing gifted students from
disadvantaged backgrounds.
• Encourage CHED to create a scholarship program supporting top graduates to
pursue higher education abroad, similar to initiatives in countries like Vietnam
and Singapore.
• Review related DepEd policies and programs to ensure coherence of policies
including the selection and rotation of principals; selection of teachers;
assignments in non-teaching personnel, among others.
• Conduct graduate tracer studies to assess learner outcomes of the various
programs.
• Rationalize, update, and improve coherence of DepEd SCPs.

Issue 5: Design flaws undermine

the National Learning Recovery Program.
On July 3, 2023, DepEd released Order No. 13, s. 2023, outlining plans to implement
the NLRP within 90 days. However, additional policies are still pending, particularly
for the National Reading Program, National Math Program, and National Science and
Technology Program.

To address learning gaps and enhance reading proficiency, DepEd introduced Catch-
Up Fridays as part of the MATATAG agenda (DM 1 s. 2024). This initiative dedicates
Fridays to activities aimed at improving reading skills and comprehension, as well
as integrating values, health, and peace education. Despite initial efforts, Catch-
Up Fridays appeared to lack robust teacher training, adequate lesson guides, and
clear guidelines on research-based reading interventions. The absence of reliable
assessment and support for teachers to enhance their reading literacy skills has
hampered progress.

The Comprehensive Reading and Literacy Assessment, administered to Grades

1–3 twice a year, highlights the scale of the challenge. It indicates that about 4% of
learners from Regions IV-B, V, VI, VIII, and the National Capital Region (NCR) require
full intervention, 24% need moderate intervention, and the remainder need light
intervention.

The DepEd’s NLRP faces significant criticism and is in need of massive reforms,
as highlighted during a Senate Committee on Basic Education hearing chaired by
Senator Win Gatchalian (February 22, 2024).
 Basic Education 125

“Tingin ko ho sa intervention, it has to be

incorporated in the school year—bahagi na siya
ng school year. I don’t think ma-cu-cure ng camp
yung problema. The mere fact na may Grade 7 and
8 who cannot do basic addition and subtraction”
—Senator Nancy Binay, August 7, 2024, hearing of the Senate
Committee on Basic Education, on the National Learning Camps

The content of intervention camps often does not align with the required grade-level
competencies—e.g., focusing on basic arithmetic for Grade 8 students instead of
more advanced topics, such as algebra and quadratic equations. This discrepancy
leaves learners lagging behind in both current and earlier grade-level proficiencies.

Additionally, the program suffers from a lack of critical data to assess the program’s
effectiveness. Senators Win Gatchalian and Nancy Binay have expressed frustration
over the absence of key metrics, such as the number of learners needing intervention
and detailed screening results.

The program’s voluntary structure and inadequate data collection have resulted in the
inefficient allocation and utilization of resources.

Recommendations
Drawing from consultations conducted with the groups that led learning loss recovery
efforts after the pandemic, EDCOM II has identified key elements for implementation.
The Committee urges DepEd to integrate these into the NLRP.

To improve the situation, producing lesson exemplars that allow teachers flexibility in
pedagogy and ensure quality lessons is suggested.
126 EDCOM II Year Two Report

While the new decongested curriculum provides more teaching time, it is not
sufficient on its own. There is a need to continue capacitating teachers, reducing
administrative tasks, and providing necessary resources. The MATATAG curriculum
should aim to ensure that the 180 days of teaching actually result in 180 days of
learning.

EDCOM II has filed House Resolution No. 1805, authored by EDCOM II Co-
chairperson Cong. Roman Romulo and former Cong. Kiko Benitez, urging DepEd to
suspend the regular academic program for 8–12 weeks to implement an effective
learning recovery program for K–12 learners. The resolution calls for comprehensive
assessments before and after the intervention to determine learners’ proficiency levels
and the need for additional interventions. It also stresses the need for continuous,
targeted, and differentiated remediation throughout the schoolyear to address both
current and earlier grade-level proficiencies, as current programs such as the NLRP
and Catch-Up Fridays are deemed insufficient.

DepEd is considering recalibrating the NLRP to focus solely on those needing

intervention and potentially incorporating these interventions into the regular
school year rather than relying on camps. However, the overall challenge remains
significant, with concerns that addressing these learning gaps may take years or even
decades.

Priority Area 8:
School Infrastructure
Good school infrastructure is critical to ensuring quality education. In the Philippines,
regional disparities and environmental vulnerabilities have significantly impacted
the availability and quality of school buildings, affecting educational outcomes
(Figueroa et al., 2016). Based on hearings facilitated by the Commission on October 10,
November 21, and November 28, 2024, centralized governance and resource allocation
remain impediments to addressing the classroom backlog and improving facilities,
with additional challenges brought about by population growth, disasters, and project
implementation inefficiencies.

Issue 1: Classroom construction is slow, inefficient, and

unsustainable, emphasizing the urgency for more diverse
and effective solutions.

Of the 24 million learners in public schools, over 5.1 million are classified as aisle
learners,2 indicating a significant shortage of learning spaces in overcrowded
public school classrooms. This indicates a significant shortage of learning spaces in
overcrowded public school classrooms. At the national level, classroom construction
has been the default solution to addressing congestion in public schools. However,
the process of building new classrooms has been slow, inefficient, and unsustainable.
Moreover, population growth, finite buildable space, and changing needs continue
to outpace the government’s capacity to build, emphasizing the urgency for more
diverse and effective solutions.

2 Those in excess of the ideal number of 25 to 45 learners in a classroom.

 Basic Education 127

Public schools across the Philippines face a substantial infrastructure gap, with
a reported shortage of 165,443 (as per DepEd).3 The completion rate of classroom
construction has been declining over the past 5 years. In 2022, no new classrooms
were constructed from new appropriations. Only 847 classrooms or 12% of the
required number were slated to be completed by December 2024.

Historical increases in funding and attempts at long-term planning seem to be

inadequate. Historically, the Philippine government has tried to ensure the adequacy
of classrooms in public schools through long-term planning and continuous funding.
As early as 1953, RA 836 had allocated Php 20 million annually for 5 years to construct,
repair, and improve school buildings, emphasizing equitable distribution and public
bidding for large projects. This was followed by RA 1411 in 1955, which extended
funding with a 5-year public works appropriation that included the School Building
Program.

Under the Macapagal administration, RA 4171 (1964) provided Php 50 million

annually for 20 years, establishing a nationwide school building plan and reinforcing
protocols for equitable fund allocation and project implementation. These laws
stressed proper land ownership, limits on administrative costs, and the reversion of
unspent funds to the National Treasury to be allocated for the same purpose in the
following year.

3 In hearings on October 10, 2024, and November 21, 2024, as well as in DepEd submissions on November 25, 2024,
and December 4, 2024, the DepEd Education Facilities Division and the DepEd Finance Division reported conflicting
figures regarding classroom construction targets, accomplishments, and backlogs from 2014 to 2024. The range of
this discrepancy is attributed to the: (a) mismatched timelines of DepEd’s budget cycle and its data validation and site
prioritization processes; and (2) planning and construction challenges, including projects being abandoned, reverted,
or terminated.
128 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Another policy aimed at adequacy and equity in the provision of classrooms is RA

7880 (Fair and Equitable Access to Education Act of 1995), known in the field as
the Roxas Law. This law stipulates that the annual public funding from the General
Appropriations Act (GAA) for classrooms should be allocated based on specific
criteria: 50% based on student population, 40% to address classroom shortages, and
10% based on DepEd’s implementation of the policy. This allocation aims to balance
resource distribution, prioritizing both population density and existing classroom
deficits.

The Roxas Law became the basis for the process of the School Building Program
in the years that followed, with the Secretary of Education responsible for the
identification of the schools that will receive the additional classrooms, although the
actual construction fell under the responsibility of the Secretary of Public Works.

To facilitate the prioritization of schools, in 2003, DO 29 introduced a color

spectrum based on congestion level. Color assignments were as follows: school
buildings that had at least one classroom with 45 students or less were “blue”; those
with 46–50 students were “yellow”; those with 51–55 students were “gold”; those with
56 students or more were “red”; and those with no students were “black.” Priority
was given to “hot”-colored schools, namely those assigned gold, red, and black.
These priority lists were prepared by field officials and district engineers, and then
assessed and approved by the schools district superintendent (SDS), Department of
Public Works and Highways (DPWH) District Engineer, and District Representative.

To create well-informed classroom construction plans, the 2016 GAA had a special
provision of Php 1 million for DepEd to form site development plans. These would
comprehensively map out school sites, buildings, and land area, particularly
documenting the remaining buildable space, and be used to build a multiyear
plan for classroom construction. DepEd fully utilized this fund to create site
developments for 20% of its schools at that time (around 9,400 schools), but the
fund was never renewed again.

Thus, during the 1990s, the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports (DECS)
addressed classroom shortages by increasing the class size to 56 students,
promoting paired teaching and multigrade classes, and implementing two-shift
schedules in elementary schools and up to four shifts in secondary schools (e.g.,
DECS Order Nos. 22, s. 1994, and 26, s. 1995).

The policy has been reinforced through DO 62, s. 2004, which mandates double
shifting as the default arrangement for all secondary schools and congested
elementary schools. This policy is a direct response to the ongoing classroom
shortages and aims to maximize the use of already existing facilities. This rule has
been reiterated through DO 54, s. 2008, which emphasizes the need for strict
compliance to ensure that schools can effectively manage the high number of
students and limited classroom space.

Twenty years after the said policy, there are now 2,591 public schools (5.4%) having
double shifts, particularly in Region IV-A, the NCR, and Region III, and some even
implement triple or combinations of shifts. For instance, Ciudad Nuevo de Naic High
School in Naic, Cavite, operates six shifts, including morning and evening sessions.
A small number of schools implement triple shifts or combinations of two or more
shifts.
 Basic Education 129

FIGURE 9
Schools with Multiple Shifts, SY 2023–2024

Data from DepEd Learner InformationSystem as of January 31, 2024

Double Shift Triple Shift (with combination of two or more shifts)

Region IV-A 648 64 712

NCR 566 10 576

Region VII 211 27 238

Region III 196 14 210

Region XI 116 1 117

Region VI 90 3 93

Region X 73 3 76

Region V 57 12 69

Region XIII 41 - 41

Region XII 29 - 29

Region I 24 - 24

MIMAROPA 12 - 12

Region VIII 13 - 13

Region IX 8 - 8

CAR 4 - 4

Region II 1 - 1

BARMM - - -

Source: DepEd Learner Information System, as of January 31, 2024

Interestingly, a 2019 study by Cacho et al. that examined the impacts of a month-
long double-shift class schedule on Grade 4 students, teachers, and parents
during a temporary classroom shortage found improved student engagement and
behavior both inside and outside the school. Parents and teachers generally viewed
the adjusted schedule positively, citing benefits such as family engagement, rest,
recreation, cost-efficiency, and improved learning outcomes. While parents identified
more disadvantages than teachers and students, all groups successfully adapted to
the new arrangement. Teachers creatively optimized their teaching strategies, such
as integrating Values Education into different subjects to make the most of limited
time and resources. The study suggests implementing double-shift schedules in
schools with classroom shortages as an interim solution provided that challenges are
proactively addressed.

The Local Government Code of 1991 devolved school building construction to LGUs.
Prior to this, until 1990, school construction fell under the mandate of the DPWH, while
minor repairs that cost less than Php 20,000 were delegated to DepEd schools district
superintendents (SDSs). In 1991, DECS secured control over the school building
budget at the division level. This decentralization continued with the Third Elementary
Education Project, which empowered principals and LGUs to lead school building
efforts, fostering local ownership through a counterpart funding scheme that required
LGUs to contribute a portion of the costs.
130 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Despite policy, funding, and governance innovations, classroom construction has

been slow due to bottlenecks in the project cycle. Currently, the system operates
through a collaborative framework between the DPWH and DepEd through the Basic
Education Facilities Fund. This fund, which peaked at Php 118 billion in 2017, had been
drastically reduced to Php 28 billion by 2025 due to underutilization. In contrast,
the total budget requirement to address classroom shortage by 2023 was Php 413.6
billion. DepEd further estimates that Php 105 billion would be needed annually,
assuming a constant need for 12,000 classrooms each year. But the proposed budget
for 2025 only included Php 7.2 billion for constructing about 6,648 new school
buildings, way below the target.

The Basic Education Facilities Fund is underutilized due to bottlenecks in the project
cycle. Planning and procurement delays, design modifications, failed biddings, and
contract cancellations hinder the delivery of classrooms. Data used in determining
classroom shortage (or “forward estimates” for the budget call) are outdated, with a
delay of at most three years; for the 2024 forward estimates, DepEd used enrollment
data from SY 2022–2023 and school building inventory data from SY 2021–2022.

Bottlenecks also include limited budgets forcing prioritization of construction over

maintenance; standard specifications not being applicable in all regions; and issues
with a lack of buildable space, site availability, cost mismatches, and subpar quality.
Costing for classrooms is not aligned across agencies: DepEd uses a Php 2.5 million
cost per classroom, the average of its planning parameters, but DPWH uses a Php 3.5
million baseline cost per classroom, which accounts for current material costs, the
availability of materials, transportation costs, and site access for machinery. These are
complicated by budgets not being adjusted for current material costs and DepEd’s
limited visibility in project implementation. Last Mile Schools face construction delays
due to poor road networks and security risks despite funds being downloaded to field
offices.

The collaborative roles of DPWH and DepEd in managing school infrastructure

highlight systemic inefficiencies. In 2024, DepEd allocated Php 23.87 billion to
DPWH for constructing, repairing, and rehabilitating school facilities. Joint validation
and planning processes were established to ensure project feasibility and efficient
fund utilization. However, challenges persist, including delays in budget releases,

Construction delays have resulted from

various factors, including the need for
necessary permits from agencies such
as the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources and LGUs, shortages of
materials, third-party issues, unworkable site
conditions, difficulties in accessing remote
areas, and challenges related to right of way
(ROW), such as demolition, clearing, and
utility relocation, particularly in remote areas.
 Basic Education 131

site ownership disputes, limited buildable spaces, logistical errors in project

documentation, limited capacity to project student population growth especially in
urban areas, unprogrammed lists of validated schools, and errors in school names
or locations. These systemic inefficiencies underscore the need for streamlined
coordination and enhanced planning to ensure timely and effective delivery of
classroom infrastructure.

In 2011, the National and Local Government Counterparting Program for Classroom
Construction was established through Department Memorandum No. 50. This
program, which would run until 2017, involved memorandums of agreement
between DepEd and LGUs, where LGUs would provide 50% of the cost of classroom
construction. This collaborative approach aimed to leverage local resources and
accelerate the construction of classrooms, ensuring that funding was utilized
efficiently and effectively.

Innovative public-private partnerships (PPPs) for school infrastructure have

emerged in subsequent years. The Public-Private Partnership for School Infrastructure
Project (PSIP) adopted Build-Lease-Transfer and Build-Transfer models between
2011 and 2019, leveraging private sector expertise to address infrastructure gaps. The
first phase, from 2011 to 2015, utilized the Build-Lease-Transfer model, where private
sector partners would build the school infrastructure, lease it to the government for a
specified period, and then transfer ownership to the government. The second phase,
from 2013 to 2019, adopted the Build-Transfer model, where private partners would
build the infrastructure and then transfer it to the government upon completion.
These PPP models brought in private sector expertise and funding, helping bridge the
gap in school infrastructure needs.

The voucher system offers a possible, although limited solution for classroom
decongestion. Public schools continue to grapple with overcrowding, an issue that
worsens at higher levels of basic education. Regions such as IV-A, NCR, and the
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) are particularly
affected and face the highest number of aisle learners.

The absorptive capacity of private schools under the Government Assistance to

Students and Teachers in Private Education is insufficient to address the problems.
Nonparticipating private schools—which present a significant untapped resource—are
glaringly excluded from capacity calculations.

For instance, in congested regions such as the NCR, Region III, and Region IV-A, 1,605
public schools operate on shifting schedules to accommodate learners, while 5,760
private schools—both Educational Service Contracting (ESC) and non-ESC—have
136,573 free seats available for surplus elementary learners.

However, ESC schools alone can accommodate approximately 50,399 students—just

9.4% of the 536,057 surplus elementary learners in overcrowded public schools. This is
equivalent to 1 out of 1,175 congested public schools. By including both ESC and non-
ESC schools, the number of learners who could be accommodated jumps significantly
to 121,036, or 22.5% of the surplus. This translates to 181 out of 1,175 congested public
schools.

These findings underscore the need to broaden the scope of the voucher system to
include non-ESC schools, maximizing private-sector capacity. However, even with
this expansion, vouchers only alleviate congestion to some extent and remain an
incomplete solution when weighed against the sheer scale of the problem. Broader
strategies are needed to optimize resources and resolve systemic limitations.
132 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Policy gaps and insufficient coordination between the National Housing Authority
(NHA) and DepEd stall school construction within resettlement sites, making access
difficult for displaced children and congesting nearby schools. The implementing
rules and regulations of Batas Pambansa Blg. 220, last updated in 2008, only mandates
the inclusion of schools in housing sites with more than 1,500 dwelling units. This
implies a threshold of 3,000 school-age children, as the PSA estimates that roughly
half of households have children in school. This provision therefore delays access for
smaller or incrementally developed sites.

NHA Memorandum Circular No. 2015-0015 highlights the importance of educational

services in social housing sites but lacks guidelines for DepEd and NHA coordination on
key aspects, such as site selection, suitability, and planning. The lack of clear guidelines
on interagency collaboration could create gaps in ensuring that educational facilities
are appropriately integrated into housing sites, highlighting the need for more detailed
and coordinated planning between these two critical agencies.

Similarly, DILG Memorandum Circular No. 143-08 on the Creation of Local Housing
Boards does not include representation from the education sector, which is
critical in responding to the educational needs of displaced communities. Local
housing boards act as the sole clearing house for eviction and demolition activities
involving informal settlers in danger zones, public places, and government projects.
A representative from the education sector is critical in ensuring that the educational
well-being of affected communities is protected. Furthermore, the checklist for
the compliance certificate lacks any provision for data collection or reporting on
educational needs, and there are no provisions for mandating the establishment of
educational facilities or ensuring continuous service delivery after the initial relocation
of informal settlers. This oversight underscores the need for a more comprehensive
approach that integrates educational considerations into the relocation process.

Through Memorandum Circular No. 2020-160, the DILG sought to establish the
responsibilities of LGUs in managing the relocation of informal settler families.
Sending LGUs were tasked with ensuring that all qualified families were relocated
 Basic Education 133

to resettlement sites equipped with basic utilities, facilities, and services, and they
were also required to provide financial assistance to these families. Receiving LGUs,
through their local interagency committee, were responsible for formulating the plan
and undertaking the provision of necessary social services for relocated families.

However, this framework was revoked in 2023. DILG Memorandum Circular No.
2023-113 has since assigned the Department of Human Settlements and Urban
Development (DHSUD) to supervise resettlement governance. According to RA
11201 (DHSUD Act of 2019), the department is designated as the sole and main entity
responsible for planning, policymaking, regulation, program coordination, and
performance monitoring in all matters related to housing, human settlement, and
urban development. This mandate is primarily focused on ensuring access to and
the affordability of basic human needs, which are fundamental to the well-being of
the population. While this change aims to enhance efficiency, its impact on ensuring
integrated education infrastructure has yet to be fully realized.

The effects of these policy shortcomings are particularly felt in regions such as
CALABARZON, an economic growth corridor distinguished by its highly industrialized
landscape. This region is home to a significant number of economic zones and
industrial estates, with 17 already in operation, 8 proclaimed, and 30 in various stages
of development. Rapid urbanization and interregional migration have intensified
the strain on existing schools in the area. In Cavite, the population growth rate of
up to 16% (in Dasmariñas) is due to housing resettlements and employment-related
migration and has led to severe school congestion.

Addressing these challenges requires more robust interagency collaboration and

planning frameworks.

To address the socioeconomic needs and cultural activities of housing beneficiaries,

as well as to promote the implementation of environmental management programs in
housing sites, appropriate community facilities, such as schools and child development
centers, must be included in housing projects and incorporated into site plans.

Recommendations
With migration and population growth, the shifting demands continue to exceed the
government’s capacity to plan and build classrooms and schools that are responsive
to the needs of communities.

The classroom shortage is projected to take over 20 years to resolve with the current
average annual budget of Php 24 billion. The shortage affects not only physical
infrastructure but also education quality, with many students being taught in makeshift
or temporary classrooms and significant teacher shortages exacerbating the issue.

Creative solutions are needed not only to accelerate ongoing construction projects
but also to design decongestion schemes especially in the context of limited funding.
Moreover, innovative funding strategies must be in place to ensure that Filipino
students in the next decades are able to thrive in conducive learning environments.

The following recommendations are for ongoing and future construction projects:

• Contractors must submit catch-up plans to mitigate delays in current

projects. This should be supported by the use of concrete blocks, advanced
project management software, and inspections to avoid deficiencies. Priority
134 EDCOM II Year Two Report

must be given to schools with makeshift structures and those with high
classroom shortages. For 2025, discussions with DepEd should focus on the
implementation of calamity-resilient school buildings to address vulnerabilities
in disaster-prone areas. To address ROW and site ownership issues, clear
protocols for resolving site-related conflicts, including security permits and
facilitating ROW processes in coordination with LGUs and other agencies, must
be established.
• Technology for prefabricated school buildings is being explored to accelerate
the construction process. DepEd is also looking into building mid-rise
multistory buildings to maximize buildable spaces, especially in urbanized cities
and areas with limited land availability.

Improving the effectiveness of funding and governance for construction projects

will involve the following:

• The school congestion analysis can be seamlessly integrated into the regular
planning processes at the divisional, regional, and even national level. For
instance, Region III successfully simulated the integration of school congestion
analysis into their 2015 budget plan, demonstrating how classroom allocations
could be adjusted in favor of more appropriate strategies, such as acquiring
land.

Without these measures, housing policies will

continue to worsen school overcrowding, contribute
to facility gaps, and delay educational access to
relocated families. Coordinated governance is needed
to ensure that housing developments are responsive
to the basic human rights of citizens, including their
right to education.
 Basic Education 135

FIGURE 10
School Congestion Analytical Tool

Pupil-Classroom Ratio Pupil-Land Ratio Residential Mapping

With Buildable Space No Buildable Space

C. Enroll
A. New B. Vertical
in Nearby
Classrooms Expansion
Schools

D. GASTPE E. New Schools

School Type Appropriate Strategy

Redistribute
Pupil- Retrofit for
Pupil-Land New Class Enrollment New
Classroom GASTPE Vertical Others
Ratio rooms to Nearby School
Ratio Expansion
Schools

x x x

x x x x

x x x x

x x x

x x x

x x x x

x x x x

x x x

Source: The Asia Foundation, 2017

The School Congestion Analytical Tool is a planning framework that determines

the type of congestion problem faced by a school based on readily available
data and matches it with an appropriate program. It aims to generate five
reports: (a) an analysis of pupil-classroom ratio and pupil-land ratio; (b)
congested school analysis; (c) spacious school analysis; and (d) private school
analysis. Based on the reports, the School Congestion Analytical Tool is
designed to support proper identification and target setting of the various
strategies (The Asia Foundation, 2017).
136 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 Basic Education 137

Reprogramming allocations from the Government Assistance to Students and

Teachers in Private Education with input from school congestion analysis is another
area that DepEd should consider. This strategy has the potential to optimize the use of
support given to private schools, ensuring it complements the needs of public schools
more effectively. This approach can help optimize resource allocation and ensure that
educational needs are met more effectively.

• Analyzing schools as interconnected networks rather than isolated units

allows for a more precise assessment of their capacities. This approach
has yielded significant refinements in data accuracy. For instance, in
Cavite Province, the actual capacity of private schools was found to be
22,053 students—less than half of the initial estimate of 44,436. Accurate
measurements are crucial for effective resource allocation and targeted
interventions, ultimately aiding education planners in making informed
decisions.
• Attention should be given to isolated public schools, which are not part of
a networked system and are more vulnerable to issues such as community
relocation, overcrowding, and poor urban planning. This is illustrated in Figure
11, the school mapping on the municipality of Naic, Cavite. Unlike networked
schools that can redirect extra students to nearby private schools through
subsidies, isolated schools do not have this option. For these schools, the only
viable solution to handling increased student numbers is to build additional
school infrastructure. This underscores the need for targeted infrastructure
development in areas where networked solutions are not feasible.
• Senator Win Gatchalian suggests implementing a counterpart program where
LGUs share 50% of construction costs with the national government. This
approach, similar to one he implemented as mayor of Valenzuela City, could
facilitate the simultaneous construction of more classrooms. DepEd has tried a
50-50 funding scheme, where LGUs certify the availability of their funds before
DepEd releases its share. However, this has been unsuccessful in many cases
due to LGUs’ inability to deliver their portion.
• An alternative is the matching (1-1) scheme for classrooms, and there have
been successful instances where LGUs, such as in Nagpayong, have purchased
land, built buildings, and covered the costs of soil testing when they had the
necessary funds.
• Expanding SDS responsibility and authority by allowing LGUs to construct
classrooms simultaneously, with flexible funding arrangements not
necessarily limited to a 50-50 split, will enhance the counterparting
mechanism. This approach aims to leverage the capabilities of LGUs, especially
in regions such as the NCR, to expedite classroom construction.

For areas without buildable spaces, the following complementary strategies to

decongest public schools are proposed aside from the voucher system:

• A referral system at the LGU or schools division office level must be established to
facilitate the transfer or referral of students from congested public schools to more
spacious public schools, thereby distributing the student population more evenly.
• The regional analysis also highlights the potential of certain private schools
to act as hubs that will accommodate surplus students from congested
public schools. Some private schools are connected to over 30 congested
public schools, making them prime candidates to absorb additional students
if subsidies, including those provided through programs such as Enhanced
Education Service Contracting and the SEF, are available. These subsidies could
facilitate the transfer of public learners to these private schools, helping reduce
overcrowding.
138 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 11
School Mapping Case Study: Naic, Cavite

Tanza

Naic
8,623 Surplus
Ternate
Learners

Maragandon
ISOLATED
131 Learners

Public School with ISOLATED

Surplus Learners 255 Learners
Private School
with Capacity

Shortest Paths to
Private Schools
20-minute travel
time via vehicle

Issue 2: Regional disparities in the quality of classrooms

result in learning inequalities among Filipino students.
The quality of school infrastructure in the Philippines is shaped by geography, climate,
and societal conditions (Figueroa et al., 2016). For example, schools along the eastern
seaboard, which are exposed to the Pacific Ocean and prone to natural hazards, are
generally in poorer condition compared to buildings in the northern provinces that
are protected by a mountain range. Decades of civil unrest have also resulted in severe
infrastructure deterioration in the southern provinces.

Maintenance is a challenge due to limited capacity and funding at the school and
local government levels. Decentralized management often results in inefficiencies,
as many municipalities lack the necessary resources for infrastructure improvements.
Currently, only 30% of all school buildings are in good condition. More than half of
concrete and all wooden school buildings in the country will be beyond their useful
life by 2040. Without new construction or maintenance, only 16% of classrooms would
remain in good condition by 2040.

Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) initiatives are also complicated by water
systems falling under LGU jurisdiction. This limits DepEd control despite its capacity
to fund WASH facilities through the WASH in Schools program. Public schools in most
regions lack sufficient sanitary facilities, with toilet-to-student ratios falling below
recommended standards.
 Basic Education 139

Over 2,000 schools lack adequate or upgraded electrical connections, leading

to safety issues. Off-grid schools face barriers to connection with local electric
cooperatives. As shown in Figure 12, the majority of schools without electricity are
located in North Cotabato, Palawan, Sulu, Zamboanga del Sur, and Negros Occidental.
By 2020, most public schools (98%–99%) already had electricity access through the
Basic Education Facilities Program, but challenges remained in terms of universal
access and modernized infrastructure.

Off-grid schools are often located far from the available tapping points of local
electric cooperatives, making traditional electrical connections impractical. In such
cases, solar panels emerge as a viable alternative source of electricity. DepEd plans
to conduct a thorough assessment of the feasibility of solar power as a steady and
reliable supply for large-scale implementation.

Around 39,335 schools need upgrades to support

the demands of modern education programs,
especially those with technical-vocational
requirements. Modernization upgrades encompass
improvements to power systems, the installation
of new transformers, and the integration of solar
power systems.
140 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 12
Schools Without Electricity Map
Data submission from DepEd as of October 10, 2024

Cordillera Number of schools

1 North Cotabato Adminstrative
Region without electricity
127 schools
• Cotabato Electric Cooperative, Inc. (95) 0
• Cotabato Electric Cooperative, Inc.
- PPALMA (32)
Cagayan
30
Valley
2 Palawan
50
118 schools Ilocos
• Busuanga Island Electric Region NO
DATA
Cooperative, Inc. (8) 80
• Palawan Electric
Cooperative, Inc. (110)
120

3 Sulu Pangasinan

118 schools
• Basilan Electric Cooperative, Inc. (4) CALABARZON
• Siasi Electric Cooperative, Inc. (23)
• Sulu Electric Cooperative, Inc. (91)

4 Zamboanga del Sur

84 schools Central
Luzon
• Zamboanga City Electric
Cooperative, Inc. (4) NO
DATA
• Zamboanga del Sur I Electric
Cooperative, Inc. (75)
• Zamboanga del Sur II
Electric Cooperative, Inc. (5) Bicol Region

Masbate

5 Negros Oriental
75 schools
• Negros Oriental I Electric
Cooperative, Inc. (37) Eastern
• Negros Oriental II Visayas
Western
Electric Cooperative, Visayas
Inc. (38)

Central
Visayas

Negros Camiguin

2
Occidental

5
CARAGA
Palawan Negros NO
Oriental DATA Misamis
Oriental

Northern
Mindanao
Lanao
del Sur
Davao
Zamboanga del Norte
Sibugay

4 Maguindanao
Zamboanga
Peninsula
1
Zambonanga
del Sur North
Cotobato

3
Basilan

Davao
Sulu Occidental

Last Mile Schools, which cater to 1.6 million learners, lack all these basic amenities.
Out of 9,000 schools, 1,500 do not have electricity and 1,000 do not have toilets
(Data from DepEd submission as of October 10, 2024). Fifty percent of these schools
are located in BARMM. The increasing trend for unobligated allotments in the Quick
Response Fund, which should be used to provide relief and rehabilitation to disaster-
affected communities, further complicates the situation.

Pupil-to-classroom ratios reveal regional spatial inequality. Classroom shortages were

already a serious problem in the 2000s, with ratios of 40.14 elementary pupils per classroom
and 55.44 secondary students per classroom in SY 2002–2003, indicating overcrowding in
schools. Although the Philippines has shown significant progress in addressing classroom
overcrowding, regional ratios reveal spatial inequality (Figueroa et al., 2016).
 Basic Education 141

The NCR and its surrounding areas, while having well-maintained infrastructure, face
severe overcrowding. Congestion in the NCR and Region IV-A can be attributed to
highly populated areas where rapid enrollment growth has outpaced the construction
of new classrooms. For JHS in Region XI and junior and senior high school in
BARMM, congestion may be caused by the schools being geographically dispersed
and remotely located,, such as in Indigenous people’s communities. Historically,
addressing the underdevelopment of physical infrastructure, including school
infrastructure, has been difficult in these regions. (Figueroa et al., 2016)

Classroom congestion negatively impacts assessment scores (Navarro, 2024)

The 2005–2010 period saw a significant increase in resource inequality in schools,
particularly in terms of PCRs, pupil-teacher ratios (PTR), and per-pupil teacher
salaries. A substantial portion of this inequality stems from within-division disparities,
especially in noncity or rural divisions, where the allocation of resources varies more
widely than across different divisions. This disparity highlights the uneven distribution
of educational resources within the same administrative areas. (David et al., 2018)

In rural schools, the PCR and PTR have a significant effect on NAT scores, indicating
that infrastructure and teacher availability are critical factors in these areas. In
contrast, teacher experience and salary, which are indicators of human capital quality,
have a more pronounced impact on performance in urban schools, although this effect
is relatively weaker compared to the influence of PCR and PTR in rural schools.

Recommendations
Geographic and social factors beyond the control of local school boards have
created disparities in school quality and quantity. Therefore, national government
interventions are essential to minimize inequities and ensure equal access to
education. It is important that local authorities are adequately supported and
equipped to manage and maintain school infrastructure effectively. The continuous
monitoring and adjustment of school facilities are necessary to reduce disparities and
provide equitable educational opportunities across all regions.

Resources should be reallocated within divisions to address inequities and improve

average test scores. The benefits from allocating additional resources to under-
resourced schools yield greater improvements. The government must invest more in
the maintenance and upgrade of school buildings that are prone to degradation. There
should be a focus on building stronger, disaster-resistant school buildings in high-risk
areas to ensure the safety and continuity of education.

Navarro (2024) emphasizes a need for greater focus on JHS and SHS classrooms
to address acute school congestion, although more classrooms in elementary are
needed despite projected decline in elementary school enrollment.

Studies also suggest that reallocating resources based on the specific conditions of
each province can help reduce disparities. Urban schools often face overcrowding due
to migration; while 1,175 public schools, mostly in rural areas, have surplus capacity,
suggesting that they have more space than needed. However, rural schools struggle
with teacher shortages.

Deploying less experienced teachers to rural schools initially and then transferring
them to urban schools as they gain experience may offer a more effective strategy for
addressing regional disparities in teacher allocation. This approach challenges the
conventional wisdom that prioritizes experienced teachers for rural areas, but it could
be more effective in addressing the specific needs of these regions.
142 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Research shows that reducing the number of students per classroom is associated with
better student learning outcomes, particularly in rural schools (Yamauchi & Parandekar,
2014). Developing mechanisms to reallocate excess classrooms should also be explored,
such as referral systems for student redistribution across public schools, as piloted
by Angeles City, Pampanga, with The Asia Foundation (City of Angeles Resolution No.
7186, s. 2015).. Flexibility in current allocation practices will enable better responses
to changing population dynamics. Despite widening resource inequality, student
achievement inequality, as measured by NAT scores, actually decreased during the same
period. This suggests that there may have been some leveling effects, possibly due
to improved resource utilization in underprivileged schools. However, more targeted
interventions are necessary to sustain and enhance these improvements.

Issue 3: The Philippine education infrastructure faces

severe vulnerabilities to climate change, with frequent
disasters causing school closures, learning losses, and
structural damage.

The Philippines ranks as the most disaster-prone country in the world. The country’s
high exposure to natural hazards, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons,
and floods, results in substantial costs and disruptions to the education system. Even
if all school buildings were in optimal condition, DepEd still faces annual losses of Php
17.98 billion due to the high hazard exposure.

Disasters lead to frequent class suspensions, resulting in significant learning losses,

particularly when schools are used as shelters (Abrigo et al., 2024). During SY 2023–
2024, 11 million learners lost over 20 school days. The NCR lost 27 school days, while
the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) lost a staggering 42 days (see Figure 13).
Despite efforts to recover these lost days through in-service training days, additional
weekday hours, and Saturday classes, it is impossible to fully compensate for the time
missed.

Visayan and Mindanaoan regions experienced even more learning losses, exacerbating
regional inequities. Test performance declined, ranging from 10% to 20% of a standard
deviation. This translates to 4–8 months of lost learning (David et al., 2018).

The climate crisis is projected to intensify, resulting in more school days lost, as
demonstrated by the already higher numbers in the first two quarters of SY 2024-
2025. This is based on the presentations of representatives from DOST PAGASA and
DOST PHIVOLCS during a hearing on November 28, 2024.

Significant learning losses from short-term school closures are driven more by a
drop in student interest and engagement rather than teaching inefficiencies. This
is consistent with previous findings that show increased psychological distress
among displaced children after disasters, underscoring the need for postdisaster
psychosocial interventions for children.

Efforts to address these include the use of alternative delivery modes (ADMs), such as
the learning modules and online lessons used during the COVID-19 pandemic. However,
implementation gaps persist. For example, only 37% of teachers have laptops, and
just 17% of students have access to the gadgets necessary for online learning (DepEd
submission on October 10, 2024). Additionally, regions lack a uniform monitoring tool
for ADMs, leading to inconsistent practices. To address this, SLMs are being produced
under the MATATAG curriculum, with those for certain grade levels already completed.
 Basic Education 143

FIGURE 13
Impact of Disasters: School Days Lost Out of 80 Days

Students lose up to a month’s

worth of school days, with the
highest at 35 days lost in CAR

42% (11 million learners) of the

SY 2024-2025 so far, or two quarters entire public school K-12 student
population lost over 20 days due
to class suspensions in SY
Cordillera 2023-2024
Adminstrative
Region
35

33
Region II
Region I
Cagayan Valley
Ilocos Region
31

Region IV-A
Region III
Central Luzon 29 31 CALABARZON

22 Region V

20
National Capital Bicol
Region

MIMAROPA 16
6
Region VI Region VIII
Western Visayas 6 Eastern
Visayas

3
Region VII Region XIII
Central
Visayas
6 Caraga

Region IX
Zamboanga
Peninsula
11

Region X
Northern 2
Mindanao

3 5
Region XII Region XI
Northern Davao
Mindanao Region

The impact on learning has been profound: it may be that for every day of school
closure, the Math and Science achievement of Grade 4 students declined by 12%–14%
of a standard deviation—equivalent to half a year of learning (Abrigo, et al., 2024). This
is comparable to, or even exceeds, the cumulative effects seen in countries with the
longest pandemic-induced school closures.

DepEd’s disaster funds are insufficient and constrained by procedural limitations,

hampering proactive disaster preparedness and effective response efforts. In a
hearing on November 28, 2024, DepEd undersecretary Annalyn Sevilla underscores
the difficulty of utilizing the Quick Response Fund proactively before disasters occur
due to restrictive procurement processes. This limitation hampers the department’s
ability to prepare and respond effectively.
144 EDCOM II Year Two Report

In Region V, where disaster risks are acute, DepEd undersecretary Revsee Escobedo
reveals that the Disaster Preparedness and Response Program funds for 2023 and
2024 in Region V were exhausted. The pooled funds covered only 10%–15% of regional
needs, indicating a significant shortfall.

According to Undersecretary Sevilla, schools are allocated Php 20,000 for clean-up
activities and Php 50,000 for minor classroom repairs under their maintenance and
other operating expenses (MOOE). There have been appeals to the Commission on
Audit to exempt clean-up funds from strict audits to facilitate quicker response times.

Preparedness activities, including personnel training and the procurement of

necessary equipment, are prioritized under disaster funds, but their scope is limited.
Response funds are utilized for setting up temporary learning spaces, performing
clean-up and minor repairs, distributing learner and teacher kits, and providing
psychosocial first aid. However, the scale of these efforts remain inadequate.

Flooding, storm surges, and landslides pose major risks to school infrastructure,
particularly in low-lying areas. Assessments by the University of the Philippines
Resilience Institute (UPRI) reveal that climate change is expected to worsen rainfall
intensity, increasing infrastructure strain. UPRI’s hazard maps identify vulnerable
schools, with Region VIII being the most exposed to storm surges.

UPRI has assessed 59.7% of LGUs using high-resolution hazard maps for community
planning. The SAFER-U Project has been instrumental in conducting impact
assessments on schools, calculating potential repair costs for damage from flooding,
landslides, and other hazards. This targeted approach ensures more effective disaster
response and infrastructure planning, enabling authorities to allocate resources more
efficiently.

Intensifying weather events underscore the need for updated hazard maps, as those
based on historical data may become insufficient for future planning. For example,
UPRI assessments specifically focused on 100-year rainfall and typhoon conditions
provide valuable insights but do not account for emerging projections of shifts from
2-day to 5-day rainfall events.

As extreme weather conditions are expected to worsen in the coming years due
to climate change, the educational sector in the Philippines will continue to face
significant challenges in maintaining consistent and effective learning environments
for its students.

The Climate Change and Education Playbook (ADB, 2024) examines the implications
of climate change on education systems in Asia and the Pacific, highlighting how
education is affected by and must adapt to climate risks. This adaptation is crucial
for enabling the transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. Climate-
resilient education systems are essential for safeguarding learning outcomes amid
extreme weather and preventing an exacerbation of the learning crisis.

Recommendations
To address climate-related challenges to school infrastructure, education
policymakers must prioritize building climate-resilient structures and designing
innovative learning solutions. Schools need weather-resistant buildings; updated
hazard maps; real-time disaster preparedness data from UPRI, PAGASA, and
PHIVOLCS; and data-driven program planning tools, such as PlanSmart for Safe
 Basic Education 145

Schools. Additionally, the school building design should be tailored to the specific
vulnerabilities of each area, rather than applying a one-size-fits-all approach, ensuring
that they effectively address local risks.

Investments in solar energy for off-grid schools, structural reinforcements, and

intersectoral collaborations can bolster resilience. Integrating climate resiliency
into the curriculum and promoting green skills development in technical-vocational
programs can further prepare students for a low-carbon future.

The urgency to adapt is clear: By strengthening school infrastructure and adopting

proactive policies, the Philippines can reduce educational disruptions caused by climate
change and secure a safer and sustainable learning environment for future generations.

To optimize disaster funds, EDCOM II and DepEd will study mechanisms to improve
the timeliness and accessibility of the Quick Response Fund for schools.

Addressing postdisaster psychological distress and learning losses among children

requires engagement beyond the traditional education sector. It involves the broader
community and necessitates postdisaster psychosocial interventions to support the
well-being and educational recovery of affected students.

Priority Area 9:
Alternative Learning System
The ALS is DepEd’s nonformal education program designed as a critical lifeline for
out-of-school youth and adults who have not completed basic education. Managed
by the Bureau of Alternative Education (BAE), the key programs of ALS include the
Basic Literacy Program, aimed at eradicating illiteracy; and the Accreditation and
Equivalency Program, which enables learners to obtain certifications equivalent to
formal education levels in elementary, JHS, and SHS.
146 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 1: The ALS remains underfunded, underprioritized,

and poorly integrated into the broader education system.
The ALS program has existed in various forms since 1948 through the Bureau of
Nonformal Education (The World Bank, 2018). Its components, however, were recently
institutionalized through RA11510 (ALS Act). While supported by law, in reality, ALS
remains sidelined in the education space, often treated as secondary to formal
education. This lack of prioritization has significant consequences on resource
allocation, program implementation, and the overall support to ALS learners.

Enrollment and participation in ALS are inconsistent and misaligned with regional
needs. Enrollment in ALS averages around 600,000 learners annually, with most
participants enrolled in the Accreditation and Equivalency Secondary Program (see
Figure 14). Meanwhile, Figure 15 shows a comparison of the number of ALS enrollees per
region using SY 2022–2023 data from the Learner Information System and the estimates
of out-of-school youth (OSY; from 17 to 24 years old only) using the 2022 Annual Poverty
Indicators Survey. These two graphs show that ALS enrollments are lower than the
number of OSY who need to be in the program. For instance, in Region IV-A, only around
52,000 OSY (6.7%) were enrolled; while more than 700,000 were not.

Funding distribution does not reflect the number of OSY in the area, causing
disparities. Based on a consultation with DepEd on August 1, 2024, regions also
receive a uniform amount of Php 7 million per year, regardless of the number of ALS
learners or OSY in their areas. This means that we spend about Php 783 per learner in
CAR and only Php 112 per learner in Region V, resulting in the inequitable distribution
of resources and inconsistent and unfair coverage of demand.

FIGURE 14
Number of Out-of-School Youth, Covered vs. Not Covered by ALS

Region IV-A 52,427 761,01*

Region III 48,149 568,651
NCR 45,714 546,083
Region VII 43,499 341,304
Region VI 46,404 286,257
Region V 62,896 196,761
Region XI 54,135 205,485
Region I 23,201 206,674
Region XII 39,544 179,826
Region X 46,799 154,926
BARMM 33,364 167,712
Region VIII 35,025 154,385
Region IX 29,238 142,397
Region II 22,103 123,390
MIMAROPA 23,253 100,634
Region XIII 29,751 91,932
CAR 8,946 54,145

0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000

ALS OSY NOT COVERED BY ALS

Abbreviations: ALS = Alternative Learning system; OSY = out-of-school youth
Source: DepEd, 2023; PSA, 2022
 Basic Education 147

FIGURE 15
Average ALS Enrollment in the Past 5 Years
A&E Secondary A&E Elementary BLP
800,000

575,587

600,000 481,903
460,386 460,240

365,651
400,000

200,000
132,128
105,362 125,377 118,976
84,384
52,008 33,617 22,834 33,168 32,617
0
2019–2020 2020–2021 2021–2022 2022–2023 2023–2024

School Year
Abbreviations: A&E = Accreditation and Equivalency, BLP = Basic Literacy Program

Issue 2: Reaching target groups is challenging due to

insufficient data and monitoring systems.
Notably, the ALS Act (RA 11510) not only identifies OSY as potential ALS beneficiaries;
it also mandates that the program prioritize indigenous peoples, learners with
disabilities, teenage mothers, socioeconomically disadvantaged learners, children
in conflict with the law, persons deprived of liberty, rebel returnees, learners in
emergency situations, and out-of-school children in special cases (Section 3 of RA
11510). However, targeting these groups has been difficult due to a lack of data and
monitoring mechanisms.

The ALS Act assigns LGUs as responsible for providing technical support to ALS
teachers, conducting program monitoring, identifying out-of-school children and
adults, managing community learning centers (CLCs), and securing funding for ALS
programs by allocating funds from the SEF within their jurisdiction, among others
(Section 16 of RA 11510). In practice, however, the identification of learners, referred
to as literacy mapping by DepEd field units, relies heavily on the initiative of ALS in
conducting information and advocacy activities.

Completion rates in ALS are alarmingly low. In SY 2023–2024, only 302,807 learners
(46.2%) completed the program out of 655,517 enrollees. UNICEF (2021) finds that
socioeconomic challenges, such as a lack of financial support, the need to work, a lack
of interest, early marriages, vices, and bullying, contribute to high dropout rates. These
reasons mirror the factors that lead students to drop out of formal school to begin
with, suggesting that despite the flexibility of the ALS program, it still fails to fully
address the needs of many learners.

Issue 3: Inconsistent funding and governance undermine

ALS implementation.
While RA 11510 mandates that LGUs use the SEF for ALS, implementation depends
heavily on the interest and commitment of local executives. In some consultations, it
was raised that some LGUs refused to spend on ALS using their SEF because they used
outdated guidelines that did not explicitly require ALS expenditure.
148 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Some LGUs refer solely to DepEd-DBM-DILG Joint Circular No. 1, s. 2020, which is an
addendum to the Revised Guidelines on the Use of the Special Education Fund. This joint
memorandum circular was published before RA 11510 was enacted and does not explicitly
include ALS-related activities as allowable expenditures under the SEF. Monitoring at
the national level has also proven difficult because while the Bureau of Local Government
Finance of the Department of Finance collects data on SEF spending, its data collection
tool does not explicitly require LGUs to identify and itemize expenditure items for ALS.

DepEd funding for ALS is poorly targeted. In contrast to formal schools that are
funded through the school MOOE, ALS depends solely on program support funds
that are downloaded from the central office. EDCOM II learned in consultations that
the program support fund for ALS was evenly distributed across regions at Php 7
million each without considering the actual number of enrollees per region. DepEd has
acknowledged this issue in a congressional hearing and plans to implement a revised
funding formula in the coming year.

Fragmented governance hinders coordination between ALS and other learning

options. Flexible learning options (FLOs) aim to service learners unable to attend regular
schools. However, governance silos at the DepEd Central Office prevent effective
harmonization. Learners often lack guidance on which program best suits their needs,
with ALS being perceived as the last resort rather than a complementary option.

According to DO 21, s. 2019, DepEd has institutionalized FLOs to provide a menu of

learning interventions and pathways that are responsive to the diverse needs, context, and
circumstances of learners. FLOs allow for variations in teaching and learning modalities,
organization, and approaches. There are two main types of FLOs: ALS and ADMs (see
Figure 16) ADMs are further subdivided into five different types in the prevailing policy:
Home School; Instructional Management by Parents, Community, and Teachers; Modified
In-School Off-School Approach; Night High School; and Open High School. Table 5
summarizes the description and target beneficiaries of each of these programs.

FIGURE 16
Types of Flexible Learning Options

Flexible Learning Options

1 Alternative Delivery Modes (ADM) 2 Alternative Learning System (ALS)

Home School Basic Literacy

Program

IMPACT Accreditation and

(Instructional Equivalency
Management by
Parents, Community,
and Teachers)

Modified-in-
School Off-School
Approach

Night High School

Open High School

Program
 Basic Education 149

According to DO No. 21, s. 2019, DepEd has institutionalized Flexible Learning Options
to provide a menu of learning interventions and pathways that are responsive to the
needs, context, circumstances, and diversity of learners.

FLOs allow for variations in organization, approaches, and modalities of teaching and
learning.

TABLE 5
ADM Types and Target Beneficiaries

ADM Description Target Beneficiaries

Home School Home schooling provides basic education to learners in Learners unable to attend
a home-based setting with parents, guardians, or tutors school but have someone
as learning facilitators, under supervision by DepEd and capable of delivering
designated licensed teachers. instruction

IMPACT IMPACT provides basic education to learners in a school- Learners in congested

based setting wherein multigrade learners are grouped schools where there
for learning facilitated by peers, parents, or community are community­-based
volunteers and teachers
members under the guidance of an instructional
supervisor. It also allows for independent learning.

MISOSA This approach involves the provision of formal education • Learners in

in school and off-school to learners from Grades 4 to overpopulated schools
6 with the capacity for independent learning and who • Learners unable to
could not be fully accommodated in school. They receive attend school regularly
blended instruction. The in-school group is in the due to economic,
classroom or with subject teachers while the off-school physical, and social
group is with a teacher-facilitator in a separate venue. constraints

Night High School Learners attend classes after regular school hours. This High school learners unable
learning option allows program completion beyond the to go to school during the
prescribed number of years. day

Open High School This program provides an opportunity to all high school High school learners
Program learners capable of independent learning to complete incapable of going to or
basic education through quality distance education. staying in school

Abbreviations: IMPACT = Instructional Management by Parents, Community, and Teachers; MISOSA = Modified In-
School Off-School Approach

Source: DO 21, s. 2019

The ALS and ADMs were designed to complement each other and support learners
unable to attend formal schooling during regular hours. The key difference lies in their
target beneficiaries and curriculum design: ADMs adhere to the formal curriculum and
are intended for learners at risk of dropping out or those returning from dropping out,
while the ALS runs a distinct yet parallel curriculum and is tailored for out-of-school
youth and adults who have already dropped out and are beyond the typical school age.

In the national budget, funding for both programs is combined into a single line item.
However, the implementation of these programs has not been strategically aligned.
The DepEd Central Office separates their management, which has made it difficult to
harmonize the two programs. The ALS is managed by the BAE, and ADMs remain under
the Bureau of Learning Delivery.
150 EDCOM II Year Two Report

On the ground, learners hardly receive guidance on whether they should be placed
in ADM or ALS programs. Consultations reveal that ALS learners struggle to access
information about learning centers and enrollment procedures despite efforts of ALS
teachers and field personnel to conduct literacy mapping. Additionally, ADMs have
become closely associated with the use of SLMs, particularly during the COVID-19
pandemic and disasters, and are not seen as complementary to ALS.

The effective coordination of the ALS and ADMs is crucial to better support learners
facing challenging circumstances. By offering more flexibility through ADMs, more
students closer to the typical school age can remain in the formal education system,
which should reduce dropouts and, consequently, the need to transition to the ALS.
This strategic coordination will ensure that learners will not be left behind and have
the resources and opportunities to succeed regardless of their context and situation.

Issue 4: Inadequate learning spaces significantly hinder ALS

program delivery and affect learner dignity and engagement

In consultations conducted by EDCOM II, learners highlighted that proper learning

spaces, with chairs, desks, toilets, and other WASH facilities, are particularly important
for them. Such spaces not only make studying easier but also help restore their sense
of dignity. Many ALS learners have dropped out of school due to financial hardships
or family-related challenges, so being in well-equipped learning environments makes
them feel valued and treated equally as other students in their communities.

Currently, 57.5% of the CLCs for the ALS are Type 1, or makeshift facilities, described
under the ALS Act as “a simple, temporary meeting place with tables and chairs or any
open multipurpose area or any private property temporarily lent for learning purposes”
(see Figure 17 and Table 5).

FIGURE 17
Number of ALS Community Learning Centers per Type

Type 5 Type 4 Type 3 Type 2 Type 1

30,000
27,150
25,804
24,599 23,982 23.603
21,902
20,000

15,704
14,436 14,075 13,977 13,713
12,649
10,000

0
 Basic Education 151

TABLE 6
Types of ALS Community Learning Centers

A simple, temporary meeting place with tables and chairs or any open
TYPE 1
multipurpose area or any private property temporarily lent for learning
CLC
purposes

A semipermanent structure made mostly of light materials (e.g., nipa,

TYPE 2
softwood) and equipped with basic furnitures and learning equipment,
CLC
dedicated to ALS learning sessions and related activities

A typical barangay learning center that is permanent and secured,

TYPE 3 mostly made of cement and other heavy building materials and
CLC equipped with basic furniture and learning equipment dedicated to
ALS learning sessions and related activities

A two- or three-story building fully equipped with basic furniture and

TYPE 4 advanced information and communication technologies for learning
CLC (e.g., computers), dedicated to ALS learning sessions and related
activities

A permanent building equipped with ALS and other learning materials,

TYPE 5 utilized by learners and other members of the community, functioning
CLC as resource centers where materials are either transported from house
to house or borrowed by individual interested community members

Moreover, in field consultations, learners and teachers lamented that in some areas,
local officials refuse to accommodate ALS classes in barangay facilities, thus forcing
them to conduct classes in makeshift facilities and public areas such as basketball
courts. These unsuitable environments exacerbate the challenges already faced by
ALS learners and educators.

Efforts to establish high-quality CLCs face financial and logistical challenges. During
the EDCOM II hearing on ALS (August 1, 2024), the BAE stated its goal to build at least
one Type 5 CLC per municipality or per division office. Type 5 CLCs are envisioned as
fully equipped learning centers designed to provide better infrastructure, resources,
and support for ALS programs, ensuring that learners’ needs are met. However, each
Type 5 CLC costs approximately Php 14 million, raising concerns on efficiency and
sustainability, considering that such centers may not necessarily be accessible to all
learners, especially in large divisions. Since fiscal year 2022, funds have been allocated
through the GAA for this purpose; but none of the planned Type 5 CLCs have been
completed, with a number still under construction.

Issue 5: The lack of support for ALS teachers undermines

the program and its ability to engage learners.
ALS teachers play a vital role in creating a sense of belonging among ALS learners,
particularly adolescents and youth who may feel neglected and discouraged because
of the difficulties that caused them to leave formal schooling in the first place. Without
strong teacher support, the program risks losing its ability to connect with learners
and fulfill its mission of offering a second chance at education.
152 EDCOM II Year Two Report

There are no specialized professional development programs tailored for ALS

instruction. Often, ALS teachers are asked to attend in-service training designed for
special education or formal school teachers, which do not address the unique needs of
ALS learners. Consequently, many DepEd Mobile Teachers and District ALS Coordinators
are ill equipped to handle the distinct contexts and challenges of their students.

The challenge is even more pronounced in ALS SHS programs, which are typically
implemented in school-based CLCs. Because these require advanced competency
levels, teachers from formal classes are often assigned to deliver classes for the ALS.
As such, the delivery of the program becomes more formal and with flexibility provided
only in the scheduling of classes. In these cases, the setup merely mirrors ADMs.

ALS teachers also shoulder responsibilities beyond teaching. They are often required
to deliver learner support services, including counseling, basic nursing, career
guidance, and mental health support—services often delivered in schools but not
extended to ALS learners. During consultations, many teachers revealed that they
used their own salaries to print learning materials or cover expenses, such as food and
transportation for their students, especially those who have no income and are at risk
of dropping out due to financial constraints.

Issue 6: Private sector support for ALS remains limited

due to a lack of clear guidelines for implementing tax
incentives.
Private providers are critical to the ALS, especially in reaching underserved
populations, specifically OSY. By SY 2023–2024, at least 668 CLCs were being run by
non-DepEd organizations, including local governments, private schools, faith-based
groups, and community-based organizations. In that school year, these centers served
16,802 learners who completed the ALS program. While this represents only 5.5% of
the 302,807 completers, these centers often operate in the most hard-to-reach areas,
bridging educational gaps that the formal system struggles to fill.

The ALS Act (RA 11510) incentivizes private sector involvement by exempting
donations from donor’s tax and allowing for their deduction from the donor’s gross
income, in line with the National Internal Revenue Code of 1997, as amended. However,
this provision has not been implemented due to a lack of specific Bureau of Internal
Revenue (BIR) guidelines. EDCOM II recommends issuing a dedicated BIR regulation
to guide implementation and urges DepEd to establish a mechanism to promote
awareness and ensure partners’ access to these incentives.

Recommendations
To address the identified challenges, EDCOM II recommends the following to improve
ALS implementation:

• Revise budget allocation for ALS program support funds to align with the
actual needs of each region. Integrate the ALS in the normative MOOE formula
for school-based CLCs, ensuring that allocations are based on clear and well-
documented data on program implementation standards.
• Update SEF guidelines. Update the DepEd-DBM-DILG joint circular on the use
of the SEF to explicitly include ALS-related expenses. This will enable consistent
funding support for ALS programs.
 Higher Education 153

ALS: A Lifeline for Learning

and Second Chances
“It’s never too late to graduate,” declared
a barangay captain from Cagayan de Oro Teaching Where Learners Work
during the May 2024 commencement Teacher Pinky started as a night school
ceremonies of Alternative Learning teacher for out-of-school youth through
System (ALS) students. She said that Xavier University’s social outreach
with the ALS, anyone can now get an project. Since then, her classrooms
education regardless of age. have taken many forms. She has taught
abandoned women at the local DSWD
The kapitana is not just a public figure office, given lessons to a group of
but also a student of Teacher Pinky Marris teenage mothers at a community learning
Fabria, an ALS educator in Region X. For center, and provided basic literacy and
15 years, Teacher Pinky has seen how numeracy to young workers atop
adult learners, burdened by the demands a mountain of garbage.
of earning a living to feed their families,
struggle to prioritize education, which is In the ALS, the school goes where the
why she beams with pride whenever one students are. Teacher Pinky meets her
of them completes the program. students where they work, breaking down
barriers to education.
“Retaining students is extremely difficult.
Many easily choose daily survival over Like her, Teacher Hazel Galabo also
basic education,” declares Teacher Pinky. adapts to this unconventional setup for
Despite this challenge, she has devoted giving education. Teacher Hazel has been
herself to bringing education to the doing the ALS since 2006 in the same
places where it’s needed most. region as Teacher Pinky.
154 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

“In the ALS, there are no Mondays school in Cagayan de Oro, she was
to Fridays. There are no fixed school forced to leave and chose to enroll in ALS
hours or proper classrooms. Everything instead.
depends on when and where students are
available,” says Teacher Hazel. She has A transferee from another school, Ruby
done classes literally under a mango tree. felt unwelcome by her new Grade 8
She once taught barangay tanods at their classmates. The discomfort grew worse
ronda outposts. She also did classes by when she reported several students for
the docks while port workers wait for the cheating during an exam. The backlash
boats to arrive. was swift and brutal. Physically attacked
in the halls and verbally assaulted online,
Among these dock workers was a she was left feeling isolated, afraid, and
54-year-old who recently passed the unwilling to return to school.
Accreditation and Equivalency exam,
enabling him to enroll in TESDA courses. “The ALS gave me a second chance. Here,
He praised Teacher Hazel for helping him the teacher listens and understands each
open doors to new opportunities. student’s situation, which makes the
learning environment more comfortable,”
These success stories are what kept both Ruby shares. This support was something
Teacher Pinky and Teacher Hazel going, she found lacking in her previous
even after nearly 2 decades in the ALS. school, where neither the teacher nor
the guidance counselor adequately
“I feel an indescribable joy to be part addressed her bullying experience.
of someone’s learning journey,” says
Teacher Hazel. Surrounded by classmates much older
than her, some old enough to be her
Teacher Pinky echoes that sentiment. parents, Ruby found a supportive
She adds, “The ALS program has changed community that helped her heal and
lives, including mine. It has made me process what she had gone through. ALS
become a different but better kind of helped her become more open-minded
teacher.” and ready to return to regular school.

A safe space for learning “In the ALS, I learned to be less

For Ruby, not her real name, the ALS was competitive because everyone was just
more than just an alternative to formal there to learn, no matter their age or
schooling, it was a refuge. After being circumstances,” she says.
relentlessly bullied in her former public
 Basic Education 155

• Separate budget line items for the ALS and ADMs. Recommend for the DBM to
assign the ALS and ADMs separate line items in the national budget to enable
more accurate monitoring and reporting.
• Harmonize ALS and ADM implementation. Develop mechanisms to better
integrate ALS and ADM programs, ensuring that learners are provided flexible
access to education tailored to their needs.
• Engage stakeholders on pending ALS policies. Conduct thorough
consultations on pending ALS policies, including the recognition of private ALS
partners and the ALS SHS policy, to ensure that these policies are responsive
and effective.

Priority Area 10:

Home and School Environment
DepEd has long recognized the critical importance of creating a safe and positive
learning environment for Filipino learners. In 2012, it issued DO 40: Policy and
Guidelines on Protecting Children in School from Abuse; Violence, Exploitation,
Discrimination, Bullying and other Forms of Abuse, or the DepEd Child Protection
Policy, which reiterates DepEd’s “zero-tolerance policy for any act of child abuse,
exploitation, violence, discrimination, bullying, and other forms of abuse.”

To further strengthen efforts in addressing bullying in schools, DepEd issued DO 55,

s. 2013, or the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) of the Anti-Bullying Act of
2013 (RA 10627). This policy requires all public and private schools to adopt bullying
prevention programs and a child protection and anti-bullying policy. Noncompliance
may result in the suspension or revocation of the permit or recognition of a private
school.

However, it was not until 2021 that DepEd established the Child Protection Unit (CPU)
and the Child Rights in Education Desk (CREDe) through DepEd Order No. 003, s. 2021
to establish a mechanism to fully operationalize, implement, and coordinate programs,
projects, and activities on child protection (DepEd website, 2024). Eventually, the
CPU would combine with the CREDe to form the Learner Rights and Protection Office
(LRPO), the office currently mandated to plan, implement, and coordinate child
protection activities at all department levels. The LRPO operates under the Office of
the Undersecretary for Operations.

The LRPO launched the Learners TeleSafe Contact Center Helpline on November
24, 2022, to provide an avenue for learners, teachers, nonteaching personnel, and
stakeholders to raise learner protection concerns and bullying incidents. This helpline
uses various communication platforms, such as calls, text messaging, Facebook
Messenger, email, website forms, and service walk-in clients. Here, they can seek
assistance, intervention, and referral to appropriate offices for immediate action,
ensuring that the necessary support is promptly provided.

Despite these initiatives, bullying remains pervasive in Philippine schools. The 2018
PISA study reported that 65% of Filipino students experienced bullying a few times a
month, the highest among participating countries. A significant observation from the
reported cases is that the majority involve physical bullying, more likely to be reported
because it is usually more apparent.
156 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 Basic Education 157

But bullying takes various forms—verbal, physical, relational, and cyberbullying—each

influencing how victims respond and cope. This diversity highlights the importance of
a comprehensive approach to defining and addressing bullying.

In the Philippines, there is no significant difference in reports of bullying between

high and low achievers, a pattern that contrasts with findings in other countries. This
suggests that bullying impacts students across all academic performance levels
equally (Bernardo, 2024).

Schools play a critical role in shaping the bullying dynamic, as variations in the
school social environment significantly affect students’ mental health and academic
performance. However, limited focus on antibullying programs at the school level
complicates efforts to address the relationship between bullying and academic
experiences.

While the PISA 2022 indicated a slight decline, one in three students still reported
weekly bullying. Data from the LRPO helpline further demonstrate the insufficiency
of the systems to address bullying cases. It revealed that only 38 out of 339
(approximately 11%) of reported cases were resolved between November 2022 and
July 2024. (DepEd LRPO submission, June 13, 2024)

As of June 2024, the regions with the highest number of reported cases were the NCR,
Region IV-A, and Region III. In contrast, regions such as IV-B, BARMM, and XII each had
only one reported case. This disparity may not necessarily reflect actual differences in
the incidence of bullying but rather the effectiveness of the reporting mechanisms in
place. It suggests that some regions may have more robust reporting systems, while
others may need improvement to ensure that all cases are accurately reported and
addressed.

Issue 1: The IRR of the Antibullying Act is outdated and

urgently needs revisions to address bullying challenges and
ensure effective antibullying interventions.

One of the key success factors noted by UNESCO (2019) in their comprehensive
research on ending school violence and bullying is that “a supportive legal and
policy framework is essential, to convey a clear message that violence and bullying
are unacceptable and to provide the foundation for planning, implementation, and
monitoring and evaluation of the national response.”

However, since its release more than a decade ago, there has not been any policy
on revisions to DepEd DO 55, s. 2013, also known as the IRR of the Anti-Bullying
Act, despite significant and numerous policy developments (see Table 7). These
subsequent policies, while strengthening the overall child protection framework
have not been reviewed and understood in relation with the Anti-Bullying Act. This
gap becomes more critical given the changing context of the learning environment,
particularly with the rise of cyberbullying incidents that go beyond the limited
definition provided in the original IRR, and the lack of standardized implementation
guidelines for schools in handling such cases.

Given the prevalence of bullying and its impact on students’ well-being, EDCOM II has
prioritized bullying under Priority Area 10 and focused on revising the IRR to address
policy gaps and enhance the effectiveness of antibullying interventions.
158 EDCOM II Year Two Report

EDCOM II has convened a technical working group (TWG) to work on the revision
of the IRR. It includes representatives from DepEd, child protection advocates,
educational researchers, and other stakeholders. Meetings were conducted from
January to July 2024, with field consultations in NCR and Region VIII, as well as
workshops to refine proposed policy changes.

Outdated and incomplete definition of bullying limits the scope of school

interventions. The IRR narrowly defines bullying as repeated acts, focusing on
traditional forms such as physical and verbal bullying. It lacks provisions for modern
challenges, such as cyberbullying, indirect bullying (e.g., gossip or veiled remarks),
and emerging forms of peer pressure. The absence of a comprehensive definition
constrains schools from implementing comprehensive interventions.

Schools are required to develop their own antibullying policies and programs, but
the IRR provides little guidance. Provisions indicate that these policies and programs
must encompass prevention, intervention, and reporting mechanisms. However, there
is no centralized framework or template to ensure consistency, leaving schools to
interpret requirements individually. This results in fragmented programs or suboptimal
policies.

The monitoring processes and standards of success indicators for the implementation
of these policies are also not defined. In addition, there is no clarity on the frequency
or regularity of mandatory activities, such as the review of the personnel’s code of
conduct.

Furthermore, it may not be necessary for each school to have a unique antibullying
policy and program. Instead, schools could adopt similar policies and programs
but prepare different operational plans to suit their specific needs. An alternative
approach could be for the DepEd order to provide a range of tools and guidance that
schools can select from and adapt for their use, thereby ensuring consistency and
effectiveness in antibullying efforts.

The IRR designates the Child Protection Committee (CPC) to manage bullying
complaints. The CPC handles both child protection and bullying cases in schools. Its
members include the school head/administrator as chairperson, a guidance counselor
or teacher as vice chairperson, and representatives from the faculty, parents, students,
and the community. The CPC’s responsibilities encompass raising awareness about
bullying, implementing the school’s anti-bullying policy, monitoring bullying incidents,
and making referrals to appropriate agencies.

However, the CPC faces several challenges in effectively addressing bullying. Many
schools, such as those in Navotas and Tacloban, have limited access to registered
guidance counselors. They often rely on full-time teachers to handle bullying cases,
which may dilute their capacity to focus solely on these issues. CPC allocation is also
dependent on whether schools prioritize it. This means CPCs often lack the financial
support and capacity building to function fully. Additionally, PTA and student council
officers change yearly, meaning capacity building needs to happen each year.

The IRR does not address how school heads, teachers, and CPCs should be trained
and supported. Schools often lack the expertise to implement evidence-based
and localized prevention and intervention strategies, and there is no clarity on how
DepEd will support capacity-building efforts given the highly decentralized nature of
implementation. The decentralized approach places a significant burden on schools,
many of which lack the personnel, budget, and tools to enforce policies effectively.
 Basic Education 159

Teachers express a need for better training on antibullying strategies and support
mechanisms. Teachers, who often serve as the first responders in bullying situations,
require specific guidance on how to handle the incidents of bullying that occur in
their classrooms. While the law mandates schools to develop and implement their
own antibullying policies, it would have been more effective if it provided detailed
guidance based on widely accepted principles. Although the IRR outlines procedures
on Section 10.B (Subitems a and b), it would be more helpful to include specific
guidance tailored for teachers rather than addressing school personnel in general.

While the importance of training is acknowledged, there is no guidance on the key

content, structure, modality, frequency, and quality of training programs. This lack
of detail leaves schools without a clear road map for implementing comprehensive
and effective training initiatives. Given this, it is essential to provide more specific
guidelines to ensure that training programs are robust, relevant, and regularly updated
to address the evolving needs in managing bullying incidents.

Reporting systems and platforms vary across divisions. Students lack clarity on what
constitutes bullying, as well as where and how to report it. The handling of bullying
varies significantly based on school leaders’ and teachers’ practices, and reports
frequently fail to stop the behavior, creating a cycle of incidents.

There is no guidance on how bullying as a topic can be effectively integrated

into the curriculum. This integration is crucial in introducing key concepts in
a developmentally appropriate manner. To enhance the effectiveness of these
programs, prevention interventions should be updated to reflect best practices from
more recent research.

Staffing issues both in the central and field offices make policymaking as well as
monitoring and evaluation functions difficult to fulfill. Prior to the establishment
of the LRPO, there was no dedicated office for addressing bullying-related issues.
It is also just recently that its plantilla items were approved by the DBM. Its full
operationalization and resourcing is critical for the agency to effectively carry out its
mandate under the law.

Sanctions for failure to comply with the Anti-Bullying Act are vague. The IRR outlines
sanctions for schools and personnel that fail to comply with the Antibullying Act. For
public schools, noncompliance can lead to administrative cases being in accordance
with civil service rules. For private schools, disciplinary actions will be taken by the
school itself, but these actions must be reported to the DepEd division office. This
ensures compliance and accountability across both public and private educational
institutions.

However educators report that sanctions are vague and may be perceived as
unreasonable or unfair, particularly given the limited support mechanisms available
to those responsible for implementing the act. Clearer and more specific guidelines
on sanctions, coupled with adequate support for implementers, would help ensure
fairness and effectiveness in enforcing compliance.
160 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 7
Other DepEd Policies That Cover Bullying

Other DepEd Policies That Cover

Scope Limitations
Bullying

DO 40, s. 2012 • Landmark policy stating the • Limited policy scope on

DepEd Child Protection Policy zero-tolerance policy of cyberbullying
DepEd for any act of child • Asks CPCs in schools to create
abuse, exploitation, neglect, their child protection policy with a
violence, discrimination, code of conduct and school-based
and bullying referral monitoring system with
• Includes guidance on the no common policy basis from the
establishment of CPCs in Central Office
schools

DO 18, s. 2015 • Provides procedures for • Does not specify the source of
DepEd Guidelines and dealing with serious cases funding and support for activities
Procedures on the Management of students who are alleged in its implementation
of Children-At-Risk and as, accused of, or adjusted
Children in Conflict with the as having committed an
Law offense under Philippine
laws
• Appoints CPCs as the
restorative judgment panel

DO No. 032, s. 2017 • Acknowledges the • Still tasks CPCs to take on the work
Gender-Responsive Basic prevalence of gender-based
Education Policy bullying

DepEd DO 43, s. 2018 • Still tasks the CPCs to take • No mention of DO 55, s. 2013 |
Guidelines on the Release, Use, on the work BE 197 in the document, which
Reporting, and Monitoring still refers to DO 40, s. 2012 | BE
and Evaluation of Fiscal Year 198 when there have been some
2018 Child Protection Program revisions in terms of reporting,
Funds for Capacity Building such as on the role of the
designated personnel (teacher or
guidance counselor) to fill out the
intake sheet

DO 3, s. 2021 • Establishes the CPU and • CPU and CREDe are currently
Creation of the Child CREDe lodged in the LRPO under the
Protection Unit and the Child • Puts the CPU under the Office of the Secretary, but their
Rights in Education Desk Office of Undersecretary for organization is only mentioned
Field Operations in DO 1, s. 2023—i.e., the revised
• Puts CREDe under the designation of undersecretaries
Office of Undersecretary for and assistant secretaries to their
Legal Affairs strands and functional areas
of responsibilities and revised
signing authorities. It will be good
to have all elements in one DepEd
order.
 Basic Education 161

Issue 2: Source of funds for implementing child protection

policies is unclear, as well as how much support schools
can get to implement anti-bullying initiatives.
Funding for child protection and antibullying initiatives has undergone significant
changes. The substantial funding increased from 2022 to 2024 (from Php 14,170,
400.00 to 54,910,133.00) for implementing DepEd Order (DO) No. 40, s. 2012 and
DO 55, s. 2013 (DepEd, June 24, 2024). However, since the funding depends on the
programs and activities identified by LRPO, it is not clear whether this increase will
be sustained. Moreover, it is also unclear where the budgetary support for SDOs and
schools to implement their anti-bullying initiatives, such as informing parents and
learners, will come from. While LRPO can support some SDO and school initiatives,
and the LGU can also provide support, not all schools/SDOs can access this support.

Currently, zero bullying cases are included as an indicator in the Individual

Performance Commitment and Review Form and the Office Performance Commitment
and Review Form. The Results-Based Performance Management System is under
review to address this aspect. Funding requests for antibullying programs are
managed at the division level by LRPO focal points. Additionally, previous school
grants for innovations have been absorbed into the MOOE, now primarily used for
school utilities.

Recommendations
Expand the definition of bullying is a critical step in addressing policy gaps.
Cyberbullying, indirect bullying, and peer pressure must be included to reflect the
evolving nature of bullying. It is recommended to clarify whether bullying should
be defined strictly as repeated behavior or if severity and impact should also be
considered. Bullying behaviors should also be classified to guide interventions and
distinguish them from other problematic behaviors. Emphasis should be placed
on school-level responses with clear intervention guidelines rather than relying on
technical jargon.

Schools require an antibullying framework to ensure consistency while allowing for

localized adaptation. This framework will provide much-needed guidance for schools,
reducing inconsistencies in policy application. There is also a need to distinguish the
Antibullying Policy from the Child Protection Policy, given that they are guided by
different laws despite both falling under child safety.

A new learning model is being developed to enhance mental health programs,

integrating social and emotional learning and addressing bullying concerns. This
broader scope of these topics in the curriculum can help address the underlying
causes of bullying. Insights from the Department of Health on healthy learning
institutions should also be incorporated.

DepEd is currently developing a Code of Conduct/Learner’s Handbook at the central

office that will include antibullying guidance. A potential challenge at the division level
is ensuring the quality of localized antibullying policies across a large number of schools.

Policies should be localized and contextualized, with flexibility for private schools to
adopt them, using broad inclusive language. Potential challenges in implementing
catchall policies at field offices should be acknowledged, and concrete prevention
and intervention initiatives during classroom hours, along with examples of programs,
should be included in the IRR annexes.
162 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The roles and responsibilities of implementers of antibullying policies and programs

must be clearly defined. This clarity on job function, including on workload and
qualifications, will help teachers and guidance designates. CPCs should be assigned
to handle bullying cases with specific functions.

Capacity-building measures for school heads, teachers, and CPCs are imperative.
Teachers need to be capacitated on antibullying programs through both in-service
and preservice training. Regular training and workshops will equip these key
personnel with evidence-based strategies and best practices for prevention and
intervention. CPCs must be reconceptualized to better address bullying-specific
behaviors. Proposed actions include assigning full-time personnel for guidance and
discipline, who can provide counseling and assistance to learners and teachers. The
implementation of RA 12080 is expected to attract mental health professionals to
schools, further strengthening the support network by adding dedicated experts to
manage learner concerns, including bullying.

Additionally, reducing the teacher-student ratio in schools, where possible, could help
mitigate bullying based on existing studies.

Orienting learners about reporting procedures is crucial, ensuring they know who
to approach and how to report incidents. Launching an information campaign on
bullying through school signages and online awareness campaigns can educate
students and parents. Maintaining a hotline for reporting bullying cases, with the
option for anonymous reporting, could mitigate fears of retaliation and increase
reporting rates.

The Learner Rights and Protection Division has contributed by developing and
distributing Social Behavioral Change materials on antibullying, which include
details on reporting channels such as the Learners TeleSafe Contact Center Helpline.
This helpline, accessible through the easily remembered contact number “#33733
(#DepEd),” provides a direct and safe way for students to report bullying.

However, while these resources are vital, what is most crucial is implementing
comprehensive antibullying policies that involve the entire school community
(Gaffney & Farrington, 2021).

Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms need to be clearly defined. These must

identify clear metrics for monitoring the implementation and assessing the
effectiveness of antibullying measures. To address underreporting, the reporting
process should be streamlined, and the relevant DepEd orders should be clearly
referenced. While it is commendable that the Results-Based Performance
Management System is being reviewed to improve bullying case reporting as a
performance indicator, a comprehensive, coded intake sheet is also needed for better
data management and privacy.

Guidance must be provided in integrating bullying prevention into the curriculum.

The content and pedagogy of the MATATAG curriculum should be reviewed to
ensure it covers antibullying principles. Developmentally appropriate modules on
empathy, conflict resolution, and bullying prevention must be embedded in classroom
instruction.
 Basic Education 163

Efforts should be made to prevent the normalization of bullying in schools. This

involves creating a school environment where such behavior is not tolerated
and where students feel safe and supported. According to Nob et al. (2024) on
understanding bullying in the Philippines, school climate, structure, and the presence
of adult support significantly affect bullying rates and student belongingness.

DepEd must allocate adequate resources, including funding for the personnel,
training, and tools needed for schools to enforce antibullying policies effectively.
The LRPO needs to be fully established, requiring plantilla items for central and
regional office staff and a detailed DepEd memo from the CPU outlining its
establishment. Additionally, a clear budget line should be established for the capacity
building of parents and parent-teacher associations within DepEd.

Effective antibullying practices include a comprehensive definition of bullying,

the accessible documentation of cases, consistent enforcement, tiered sanctions,
stakeholder involvement, and LGU involvement in augmenting limited school
resources and supporting antibullying policies (Baloloy & Zapanta, 2024).
 165

HIGHER EDUCATION

Access, Equity,
and Progress:
Advancing
Philippine Higher
Education

Introduction
Many Filipino parents dream of sending their children to college, yet insufficient
income has prevented more than half from achieving this goal. According to the
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), 74% of Filipinos aspire to see
their children earn a college diploma, yet 51% cite financial constraints as a significant
barrier (AmBisyon Natin 2040, 2016).

A college education has long been linked to intergenerational social mobility, driving
the widespread aspiration for higher education. This preference is further reinforced
by employers who often use a college degree as a screening tool for employment,
even for roles that do not require one. This practice diminishes the perceived value of
Philippine technical qualifications and delay the development of advanced technical
education, which could strengthen local economies while enhancing the country’s
national development and global competitiveness.

Using a college degree as a universal employment filter and the lack of alternative
pathways for socioeconomic mobility have reinforced the view that higher education
is as essential as basic education. This belief has driven the legislation of free tuition
in public higher education institutions (HEIs), benefiting all socioeconomic classes.
However, the EDCOM II Year One Report highlights an urgent education crisis,
emphasizing early nutrition, access to early childhood education, quality basic
schooling, and diverse training opportunities. In this context, the sustainability of a
universal free tuition model requires reevaluation to address broader systemic needs.
166 EDCOM II Year Two Report

In terms of income elasticity, Alba (forthcoming) identifies that higher education

is a luxury good, where expenditure increases with household income—unlike the
relationship between food and income. This “luxurification” has exacerbated the
hardships of poor Filipino households. Additionally, Albert, Punongbayan, and
Muñoz (2024) documented a sharp decline in the returns to higher education in
terms of logarithmic hourly wages, dropping from 141.4% in 2010 to 93.7% in 2022—a
47.7-percentage-point decrease in just 12 years compared to those with no formal
education. This decline highlights inequities across income levels: The first income
decile experienced a 64-percentage-point drop in returns, compared to only an
18.2-percentage-point decline for the 9th decile. These disparities indicate that higher
education may not mitigate but instead exacerbate income inequality.

Notably, the institutionalization of universal access to higher education in state

universities and colleges (SUCs) and eligible local universities and colleges (LUCs)
under Republic Act (RA) No. 10931 (University Access to Quality Tertiary Education)
has led to a 5.7% decrease from 2014 to 2022 in the proportion of young respondents
citing financial concerns as a reason for not attending school (Figure 1)1. Conversely,
other reasons for nonparticipation in higher education have increased during the
same period. The proportion of respondents citing lack of personal interest rose by
10.28%, while those citing employment or job seeking increased by 12.59%. These
trends highlight evolving challenges that require targeted policy responses.

FIGURE 1
2014 vs. 2022: Cited Reasons for Not Attending School

100.00

31.58%
Other
44.17%
75.00 Employment/
looking for work
Bullying
Accessibility
of school
23.06% Problem with
3.99%
school record /
50.00
birth certificate
Marriage / family
matters / taking care of
24.94% children / pregnancy
14.66%
Lack of personal
interest
25.00 Illness / disability
High cost of education
/ financial concern
26.68%
20.98%

0.00
2014 2022

Source: PSA (2014, 2022), as cited by Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024)

1 This reduction was more pronounced among males, with an 8.6% decline. Similarly, the proportion of young respon-
dents citing marriage, family responsibilities, childcare, and pregnancy as barriers to higher education dropped by
25.1%—a larger reduction than that observed for financial concerns (19.07%)—and was particularly significant among
young females.
 Higher Education 167

A key policy question remains: Continue providing full subsidies to learners in public
HEIs, regardless of their socioeconomic status, or not? Regardless of the decision,
ensuring equitable access to higher education is vital for achieving economic and
human development goals, such as job security and economic empowerment.
Notably, facilitating the transition of young Filipinos to higher education and the
workforce is key to leveraging the Philippines’s demographic dividend (The World
Bank, 2024).

The Human and Social Development section of the Philippine Development Plan 2023–
2028 also emphasizes the development of a knowledge economy. This vision requires
globally competitive and inclusive technical-vocational education and training (TVET)
and higher education sectors capable of producing the human capital necessary for
socioeconomic transformation. Higher education is pivotal in preparing the workforce
for 21st-century demands and contributing to the country’s underdeveloped research,
innovation, and enterprise (RIE) ecosystem.

Global innovation benchmarks highlight the Philippines’ strengths in specific areas.

For instance, the country ranks third among lower-middle-income nations in the
Global Innovation Index ranking. It performs well in the Innovation Output Index
Ranking, reflecting the ability of the country to make costly innovation investments
into more higher-quality innovations. However, within Southeast Asia, East Asia, and
Oceania, the Philippines ranks 11th out of 17 in economic performance on the Global
Innovation Index, revealing gaps in regional competitiveness (World Intellectual
Property Organization, 2024).

Year One Updates

Priority Area 11: Access to Higher Education: Review of Free
Higher Education and Amendments the Commission on
Higher Education’s Tertiary Education Subsidy

Prioritizing the poorest of the poor in implementing the Tertiary Education Subsidy
(TES) has been a key recommendation of EDCOM II since Year One. Following this, the
2024 General Appropriations Act (GAA) included a provision to prioritize TES grantees
under the Listahanan 3 database and students from low-income households. This
action addressed a notable gap: many TES grants were awarded to students enrolled
in private HEIs in places with no SUCs/LUCs (PNSLs), who may not necessarily belong
to impoverished households.

Consequently, the 2024 GAA provision was included to realign budget allocation with
the intent of the Universal RA Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act of
2017, ensuring equitable access for impoverished learners.

In a motu proprio hearing held on May 6, 2024, at the House of Representatives,

the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Unified Financial Assistance
System for Tertiary Education (UniFAST) affirmed their commitment to prioritize the
poorest of the poor in allocating TES grants. Complying with the GAA provision, the
TES implementation for the academic year (AY) 2024–2025 resulted in a significant
increase in the share and number of poor TES grantees. Specifically, the number of
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps) TES grantees rose from 495 in AY 2022–
2023 to 160,032 in AY 2023–2024, representing a 27% share of TES recipients under
168 EDCOM II Year Two Report

the 4Ps category relative to the total number of TES grantees (see Figure 2). However,
this expansion of TES coverage came with a reduction in the amount of individual
grants. Previously set at Php 30,000 for private HEIs and Php 20,000 for public HEIs,
TES grants were standardized to Php 10,000 across all HEI types. Despite this shift,
most TES slots (65%) continued to be awarded to PNSL grantees.

FIGURE 2
TES Grantees Allocation by Eligibility Criteria
600,712 600,712
600k

436,113
409,414 390,510 390,510
400k 374,088 (65%) (65%)
364,427
349,320
185,036 245,685
(45%) (56%)
275,098 205,524 198,415
(56%) (57%)
70,864 227,371 288,451
(26%) 3,439
(77%)
200k 4,518 (1%) 2,824
7,433 (1%) 157,484
(1%) 720 (0%)
(3%) (69%)
160,032 160,032
(27%) (27%)
372 (0%)
196,801 219,860 186,989 156,079 245,185 495 (0%)
(72%) (54%) (43%) (43%) (43%) 69,392 85,265
(23%) 50,170 50,170
(31%) (8%) (8%)
0
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2022 2023 2023 2024
(2nd sem, (1st sem, (2nd sem, (1st sem, (2nd sem,
AY 2021-22) AY 2022-23) AY 2022-23) AY 2023-24) AY 2023-24)

PNSL 4Ps Listahan

Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b) assert that comparing the regional distribution

of PNSL with the estimated population of poor students enrolled in private HEIs
within the same region helps identify areas of potential leakage or areas where
nonpoor PNSL obtained TES. Accordingly, nine out of 17 regions exceeded the
estimated population of poor students observed in private HEIs, with Region XII
(SOCCSKSARGEN) exhibiting the highest number of leakages (29,384), followed by
Region III (Central Luzon) (14,682). This observation highlights the need to refine the
targeting mechanism of the TES to focus on those in economic need rather than
solely on residency and the absence of SUCs and eligible LUCs.

Priority Area 12: Quality Assurance

Since the start of EDCOM II, its higher education agenda has emphasized the
articulation of the country’s quality assurance (QA) system and the review of CHED’s
QA policy, particularly the horizontal and vertical typologies outlined in CHED
Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 46, s. 2012, which mandates outcomes-based
and typology-based QA. The Year One report identified the next steps, including
workshops for accreditation bodies supported by EDCOM II and the reconstitution of
the remaining Technical Panels.
 Higher Education 169

Mapping the Higher Education Quality Assurance System

In mapping the higher education QA system, EDCOM II adopted the description
of the prevailing system as outlined in the ASEAN-endorsed 2018 Philippine
Qualifications Framework (PQF) Referencing Report to the ASEAN Qualifications
Reference Framework (AQRF). In 2018, the DepEd secretary formally submitted this
report to the AQRF Committee on behalf of DepEd, the Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA), CHED, the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC),
and the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), as chair of the PQF National
Coordinating Council. All relevant stakeholders unanimously approved the report’s
depiction of the education system’s QA of qualifications before submission.

The report identifies CHED as the external QA body responsible for registering
private HEIs, certifying SUCs for compliance before their conversion into universities,
and granting institutional recognition to LUCs as an HEIs. CHED also sets minimum
standards for all higher education programs and qualifications, excluding law, marine
transportation, and marine engineering. These standards are developed by Technical
Panels composed of experts from various discipline clusters, industry representatives,
professional organizations, and the PRC for regulated professions. Furthermore, CHED
monitors and evaluates compliance with these standards and administers voluntary
assessments that surpass minimum requirements, such as the establishment Centers
of Excellence and Centers of Development for programmatic QA, vertical typology for
private HEIs, and SUC levelling (see Table 1).

TABLE 1
Quality Assurance by CHED

Setting, Monitoring, Voluntary Assessment of Quality Beyond

and Evaluating Compliance Compliance with Minimum Standards
with Minimum Standards

Commission on Higher Programmatic QA

Education (CHED) • CHED Center of Development (COD)
• CHED Center of Excellence (COE)

Institutional QA
• CHED Institutional Sustainability Assessment (ISA)
• CHED Autonomous or Deregulated Status (for private HEIs)
• CHED State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) Levelling

Source: Modified Table 6, Criterion 6 of the Philippine Referencing Report to the AQRF (22 May 2019)

In addition to CHED and the government agencies responsible for law and maritime
programs, the QA bodies for Philippine higher education include local voluntary
accreditation agencies classified as peer-/school-based or professional organization-
based—which are either international or local bodies with international links.

The report’s official portrayal of CHED as a QA body holds significant implications

in the Philippine context. While government-led QA systems are standard in
European and ASEAN countries, QA in the Philippines was initially perceived as being
driven primarily by voluntary accreditation conducted by local and international
accreditation bodies. This perception led to strong opposition from some
stakeholders against CMO 46, s. 2012, which alludes to CHED as an external QA body.
170 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The Philippine Referencing Report addresses this misconception by highlighting the

government’s central role in assuring the quality of Philippine qualifications. It aligns
the country with the AQRF’s QA concept, which encompasses four core processes:
the registration of education and training providers, the supervision of assessment
systems leading to qualifications, the accreditation of qualifications, and the
regulation of certificate issuance. By clarifying these roles, the report challenges the
prevailing belief that QA in the Philippines is predominantly voluntary.

Toward a Functional Horizontal Classification of HEIs

While CMO 46, s. 2012, differentiates professional institutions, colleges, and
universities in its horizontal typology, its vertical typology relies on the same
accreditation-based indicators for academic excellence, albeit with varying weights.

Since the issuance of the CMO, little progress has been made in refining the
operationalization of each HEI type. Moreover, the horizontal typology has seen limited
implementation. In practice, CHED has largely adopted a one-size-fits-all regulatory
approach to QA and other program and policy matters.

Following these consultations, Dr. Allan B. I. Bernardo and his team at the De La
Salle University reviewed horizontal classification systems from other countries and
conducted a cluster analysis using data from CHED and a nonrandom sample of HEIs.
This analysis aimed to establish a functional HEI classification system and promote a
diversified higher education ecosystem, where distinct HEIs fulfill specialized roles
aligned with national and societal development goals.

The proposed horizontal classification system offers a foundation for developing and
implementing comprehensive strategic programs for higher education in the Philippines.
The preliminary findings from Dr. Bernardo’s team are detailed in the Situationer section
of this report.

Harmonization Workshop Series of School-Based Accreditation Bodies

In 2024, EDCOM II supported initiatives to enhance voluntary QA by facilitating five
workshops led by Dr. Maria Cynthia Rose Bautista and Dr. John Christian Young for
the Sub-Committee on Higher Education. Organized by school-based accreditation
bodies, now referred to as External Quality Assurance Agencies (EQAAs), the
workshops addressed common concerns and focused on harmonizing criteria,
approaches, and metrics. These initiatives aimed to align with global trends in
higher education and QA while establishing a collegial EQAA network to collaborate
with CHED on QA policies, promoting mutual understanding and clear terms of
engagement.

• Quality is conceptualized as purposeful, exceptional, transformative, and

accountable.
• Purposeful: conformance to a stated mission, vision, or standards.
• Exceptional: achievement of distinction through the fulfillment of high
standards.
• Transformative: positive change in student learning and personal and
professional potential.
• Accountable: accountability to stakeholders in the optimal use of
resources and delivery of educational products.
• CHED serves as the external quality assurance agency responsible for
accrediting qualifications. According to the AQRF briefer, accreditation is the
process by which a qualification gains national recognition within a National
Qualifications Framework (NQF). This involves endorsing the complexity and
volume of learning as appropriate to the qualification type. Achievement
 Higher Education 171

standards—whether competency based, educational, or occupational—form

the foundation of qualifications and include completion rules. These standards
may be established by public providers, a single agency, or multiple industry
agencies, encompassing activities such as granting permits, setting standards,
and other related processes.
• Accreditation is a voluntary and collegial process founded on principles of
academic self-governance. It involves evaluating the quality of an institution’s
or program’s services, operations, and outcomes against established standards
and its mission or objectives. Independent peer judgment follows this internal
review. In the Philippines, accreditation provides formal recognition by an
external agency that an educational program or institution exceeds the
minimum quality standards set by regulatory bodies. Conversely, profession-
based accreditation is a voluntary process where programs are internally
examined against national or international industry/profession standards
and subjected to independent judgment by non-peer-based accreditors or
auditors. This grants formal recognition by an external industry/profession-
based accreditation agency that an educational program complies with industry
or professional standards.
• The EQAAs decided to pursue a principles-based (PB) quality system instead
of a rules-based (RB) one, recognizing that these systems represent opposite
ends of a spectrum. Key differences include:
• Focus: PB focuses on improvement; RB focuses on compliance.
• Primary purpose: PB is formative, aiming to develop; RB is summative,
focusing on final outcomes.
• Improvement objective: PB is open-ended; RB is more limited.
• Reviewers: PB uses skilled peers; RB relies on technical experts.
• Trust: PB operates on trust and verification; RB works to eliminate
distrust.
• Feedback: PB offers evaluations; RB conducts audits.
• The EQAAs decided to align their practices with the 7S Framework (adapted
for EQAAs) and the ASEAN Quality Assurance Framework (AQAF), focusing
more closely on the AQAF. Key actions include
• Staying updated on quality assurance developments as part of
continuous improvement
• Collaborating with national and international stakeholders, all five EQAAs
agreed to join the Asia Pacific Quality Network and the AQAF.
• Offering regular training for assessors and inviting each other’s
assessors to build a community of accreditation practice.
• Ensuring professionalism and ethics by developing a common Manual for
Accreditors or Code of Ethics.
• Regularly assessing their quality assurance practices, starting with peer
assessments, to promote continuous improvement.
• Harmonization of accreditation areas: The EQAAs started the process of
identifying areas of convergence and divergence in their accreditation
practices by
• Creating an inventory of accreditation areas assessed by the five
agencies, broken down into subareas.
• Comparing how their instruments assess these areas and subareas
• Identifying core accreditation areas and subareas to be standardized, as
well as those that may differ based on the unique characteristics of each
EQAA, the programs accredited, and the clients served
• Agreeing to work toward obtaining ISO certification as an initial
commitment
172 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• The EQAAs agreed to establish guidelines for justifiable deviations from

the requirements set by PSGs. They discussed several accreditation issues,
including
• Faculty qualifications and full-time–part-time ratio: The need to
reassess qualifications for professional programs, especially for
experienced practitioners without formal academic degrees, and the
rationale for requiring a specific full-time faculty ratio
• Teaching, learning, curriculum, and instruction: The importance of
properly assessing outcomes-based curricula, effective teaching
methods, and learning outcomes
• Libraries: The need to explicitly broaden the concept of a library to
include other learning resources available to learners, including online
databases, electronic publications, and otherinformation technology (IT)
resources beyond the current requirements, e.g., one full-time licensed
librarian and one full-time support staff for every 1,000 users—which
HEIs have found difficult to meet
• EQAAs agreed to draft a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to guide
subsequent harmonization efforts independently of and beyond EDCOM II.
The MOU includes
• Reviewing and determining areas for harmonization
• Formulating an overall plan with timelines for future harmonization
workshops

Reconstitution of the Technical Panels

The fast-tracking of the constitution of the Technical Panels is an ongoing process.
These panels assist CHED in setting standards and in program institution monitoring
and evaluation, as mandated by Section 12 of the Higher Education Act (RA 7722, s.
1994). From 2020 to 2023, only 15 out of the 98 Technical Panels were reconstituted.
By November 2024, an additional 72 Technical Panels have been approved, leaving 19
still awaiting reconstitution.

Recognizing the urgency of this matter, EDCOM II strongly recommends the

immediate reconstitution of the remaining 19 Technical Panels. This step is crucial
for ensuring that academic programs align with the demands of the Fourth Industrial
Revolution. It also ensures that the policies, standards, and guidelines (PSGs) for each
discipline reflect evolving local and international professional and industry standards,
the paradigm shift to lifelong learning, innovative programs and learning delivery
modes, the PQF, which includes the recognition of learning, equivalencies, and an
institutionalized credit transfer system, as well as ongoing changes in the senior high
school (SHS) curriculum and other developments.

These actions are essential to creating a more agile and responsive higher education
system that supports the country’s social and economic development goals.
 Higher Education 173

TABLE 2
Technical Panels to Be Reconstituted as of November 2024

Discipline To Be Reconstituted

Arts and 1. Religious Studies

Humanities

Business and 2. Customs Administration, Logistics & Supply Chain Management

Management 3. Legal Management

Criminal Justice 4. Criminology, Law Enforcement, Administration, Industrial Security

Engineering 5. Agriculture and Biosystems

and Technology 6. Aeronautical and Aviation Related
7. Ceramic, Metallurgical and Materials
8. Chemical
9. Civil
10. Computer
11. Electrical
12. Electronics
13. Geodetic
14. Industrial
15. Mechanical
16. Mining
17. Sanitary
18. Manufacturing
19. Engineering Technology
Source: CHED (Received 22 November 2024)

Priority Area 14: Graduate Education, Research, and Innovation

EDCOM II’s Year One Report outlined two key tasks for Year Two: conducting research
to further refine the literature on the state of research and innovation (R&I) and its
policy recommendations—that included studies on R&I models, best practices among
HEIs, challenges faced by existing science and technology parks; and discussions
with key government agencies—such as the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST), the Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI), the Department of Energy, and the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources—to enhance synergies within the Philippine innovation ecosystem.

Recognizing the 3-year timeframe of EDCOM II, the Higher Education Subcommittee
chose to collaborate with the National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST),
the DOST,, and the Secretariat of the National Innovation Council (NIC) to advance
their evidence-based policy advocacies rather than embark on new research.

The “low-hanging fruit” for EDCOM II in Year Two were supporting provisions advocated
by the science community during the enactment of RA 12009 (New Government
Procurement Act). RA 12009 mandates that the NIC, in coordination with the
Government Procurement Policy Board (GPPB), streamline procurement processes
and reduce excessive bureaucracy, thereby accelerating research, development,
and innovation. This provision aims to identify and eliminate regulatory barriers that
hinder the growth of the R&D, technology, and innovation ecosystem over the medium
to long term. It allows the NIC and the GPPB to craft flexible policies that address
previously unrecognized obstacles unique to R&D and innovation.
174 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Year Two Overview

The total number of HEIs and enrollments in the Philippines has grown significantly
over the years. Since AY 1990–1991, the number of HEIs rose from 868 to 2,410
institutions by AY 2023–2024—a 178% increase. The public sector experienced over
200% growth, expanding from 231 to 696 institutions, including satellite campuses.
Similarly, the private sector grew by 171%, from 637 to 1,714 institutions, during the
same period.

In terms of enrollment, total numbers increased by 47% within a decade, from AY 2011–
2012 to AY 2021–2022. Public sector enrollments grew faster, nearly doubling with an
84% increase, while private sector enrollments saw a more modest growth of 22%.

TABLE 3
Type of HEI Distribution from AY 1990–1991 to AY 2023–2024

Type of HEI 1990–1991 2000–2001 2010–2011 2019–2020 2019–2020

Total public (including 231 389 633 667 696

SUC satellite campuses)
Total public (excluding 174 166 219 246 263
SUC satellite campuses)
SUC main 81 107 110 112 113
SUC satellite 57 223 424 421 433
LUC 34 40 93 121 137
Others 59 19 16 13 13
Total private 637 1,214 1,604 1,729 1,714
Private sectarian 225 312 334 339 349
Private nonsectarian 412 902 1,296 1,390 1,357
Total HEIs (including SUC 868 1603 2237 2396 2410
satellite campuses)
Total HEIs (excluding SUC 811 1380 1823 1975 1977
satellite campuses)
Source: Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 2023; Commission on Higher Education, 2023

TABLE 4
Distribution of Enrollments by HEI Type

Type of HEI AY 2011–2012 AY 2011–2012 % Change

Total public 1,055,949 1,942,250 83.93

SUC main 552,291 860,522 55.81

SUC satellite 370,466 735,068 98.42

LUC 128,961 345,635 168.02

Others 4,231 1,025 -75.77

Total private 1,565,798 1,907,528 21.82

Private sectarian 470,520 432,466 -8.09

Private nonsectarian 1,095,278 1,475,062 34.67

Total 2,621,747 3,849,778 46.84

Source: CHED (2015, 2023)
 Higher Education 175

Regional variation in higher education enrollments and participation is evident, as

shown in Figure 3. The National Capital Region, the Cordillera Administrative Region
(CAR), and Region VII: 47.2%, 44.1%, and 35.2%, respectively report the highest
participation rates. In contrast, Region V, Region XI, and the Bangsamoro Autonomous
Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) have the lowest share of college-age students
enrolled in higher education: 24.6%, 24.6%, and 18.7%, respectively.

Attrition rates also vary significantly across regions. Regions II, V, and MIMAROPA
record the lowest attrition rates at 36.3%, 37.4%, and 37.9%, respectively, while
Regions IX, VII, and BARMM experience the highest attrition rates at 59.5%, 60.7%, and
a staggering 93.4%.

FIGURE 3
Share of College-Age Students Enrolled in
Higher Education and Attrition Rates, by Region

100
93.4

75

60.7 59.5
54.9
50.2 51.2 52.4
50 48.5 47.6 46.3 47.5 47.2
44.2 44.1
41 38
36.3 37.9 37.4
35.2
30.7 31 32.5
28.1 28.1 28.4
25.1 26.4 25.9 26.9 25.4
25 24.6 24.6
18.7

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Share of College Age-Students Enrolled in Higher Education

Attrition Rate

Note: Share of college-age population in higher education are for the year 2020 and attrition rates are
for the year 2022.

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024), CPRBD (2024)

176 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 5
Quality Indicators of Higher Education Sector

Academic Year

Indicator 1997– 2000– 2004– 2008– 2009– 2014– 2018–

1998 2001 2005 2009 2010 2015 2019

Faculty qualifications

% with MA/MS 25.3 26.1 30.6 34.8 35.0 40.8 37.6

% with PhD 7.5 8.3 9.1 9.8 9.7 12.5 16.6

Accreditation of programs

Number of HEIs 297 407 428 606 701

% of HEIs 18.0 19.6 19.6 25.4 29.3

Number of HEIs with accredited programs excluding candidate status (%)

Level I 20.3 26.0 26.9 33.8 25.0

Level II 67.8 51.4 47.0 37.8 43.6

Level III 11.9 22.7 26.1 24.7 26.8

Level IV 3.7 4.6

Passing rates in licensure examinations across all disciplines

Overall takers 32.6 37.2 32.9 38.8 36.2 40 38

First time takers 50 60 56

Sources: For AY 2010-10 to AY 2018-19 (CHED 2020b); for AY 2004-05 (CHED 2015); AY 1997-98 to AY 2000-01
(CHED 2005), as cited by Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b)

Without other publicly available quality measures, the primary indicators cited are
the faculty’s highest educational attainment, accreditation, and passing rates in the
licensure examinations. Regarding faculty qualifications, the PSGs and the CMO 40,
s. 2008 (Manual of Regulations for Private Higher Education, or MORPHE) indicate
that many programs require faculty members to possess at least a master’s degree.
However, by AY 2018–2019, only 54.2% of faculty held advanced degrees, albeit an
improvement from 32.8% in AY 1997–1998.

While accreditation has become more common, progress has been modest. The
proportion of HEIs with accredited programs increased by only 11.3 percentage points,
from 18.0% in AY 2004–2005 to 29.3% in AY 2018–2019. Disaggregated by level, the
percentage of HEIs offering programs with Level I, Level III, and Level IV accreditations
rose during this period, while the share of Level II accreditations declined (Bayudan-
Dacuycuy et al., 2024b).

Licensure exam passing rates across all disciplines have shown steady but limited
improvement. For all examinees (first-time and repeaters), the passing rate increased
from 32.6% in AY 1997–1998 to 38.0% in AY 2018–2019, a gain of just 5.4 percentage
points. Among first-time test takers, the passing rate improved by 6 percentage
points, rising from 50% in AY 2009–2010 to 56% in AY 2018–2019 (Bayudan-Dacuycuy
et al., 2024b).
 Higher Education 177

Under Section 10 of RA 7722, the Higher Education Development Fund (HEDF) was
established “exclusively for the strengthening of higher education in the entire
country,” which implies “enhancing the quality of educational services.” However, as
shown in Figure 3, the allocation of HEDF funds has shifted significantly since 2016. In
that year, 86.63% of HEDF funds were directed toward the developmental functions
of CHED, but by 2022, this allocation had sharply decreased to 11.43%. Meanwhile, the
proportion allocated for regulatory functions increased from 11.32% in 2016 to 88.57%
in 2022. Funds of policy services remained negligible, declining from 2.04% in 2016 to
0.00% by 2022.

The data further reveals that the total funding allocated to higher education services
fluctuates yearly. For instance, there was a 65.41% decrease from Fiscal Year (FY) 2017
to FY 2018, while FY 2020 to FY 2021 saw a sharp increase of 118.52%.

FIGURE 4
Higher Education Development Fund Allocation

2,000 150

1,807.63
118.52
78.56

100
1,500

51.38
1,192.26 51.61
50
135.01 1,069.20
999.89
1,000

Year-Over-Year (%)
946.43
PHP (millions)

0
1,703.19 698.40
625.21 -6.48
610.16
1,032.88
489.30
500 214.84
885.60
-48.30 -50

-65.41 239.37
369.32
405.40 336.27 249.93
24.37 25.88 4.98 1.49 114.29
0 -100
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Total YoY Regulation Services Development Services Policy Services

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b)

178 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 11:

Access to Quality Higher Education
Issue 1: Ensuring improved access to higher education
Access to higher education is essential in promoting social equity and mobility.
By fostering inclusion of individuals from various backgrounds, higher education
contributes to poverty education and inequality. It enables individuals to improve their
socioeconomic standing and participate more actively in the democratic process,
fostering a more informed and engaged citizenry.

Against this backdrop, data shows an increasing participation of students from

the poorest segments of the population relative to the richest in both public and
private higher education sectors. As illustrated in Figure 5, the share of students
from the poorest six deciles in the private sector has increased between 2014 and
2022, as indicated by a positive differential. Conversely, the share of students from
the wealthiest three deciles in private HEIs shows a negative differential, with the
decrease becoming more pronounced in the higher deciles. Notably, the wealthiest
decile exhibits a 10.53% negative differential, indicating a 10.53% reduction in the
proportion of students from this group enrolled in private HEIs compared to other
deciles within the same sector.

In public HEIs, the proportion differentials for 2022 relative to 2014 are favorable for
the first three (poorest) deciles and negative for the remaining seven (richest) deciles.
This trend indicates that the share of students from the poorest three deciles has
increased relative to the rest of the public HEI student population. The cumulative
differential for the poorest three deciles shows a 10.97% increase in their share of
enrollment in public HEIs.

FIGURE 5
Distribution of Students by Income Decile in Private HEIs

30.00

26.40

21.05
20.00
Proportion (%)

15.99 15.88
14.57 14.62
12.76
12.06
11.05
10.00
8.48 9.11
7.19
5.75 6.16 6.13
4.23
3.09 3.38
1.47
0.61
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(poorest) Decile (richest)

2014 2022

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b)

 Higher Education 179

FIGURE 6
Distribution of Students by Income Decile in Public HEIs
15.00

15.00
13.31
12.94
12.07 12.00 13.31
10.89 12.94
10.91 11.01 11.16
10.89 10.75 12.07 12.00
10.47 10.19
10.00 9.93 10.89
11.1
10.91 9.4111.01
9.42 10.89 10.75 10.47 10.19
Proportion (%)

8.77 10.00 9.93

8.34 8.10

Proportion (%)
8.77
8.34
6.45

6.45
5.00

5.00
2.99

2.99

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(poorest) 0.00
Decile (richest)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(poorest) Decile
2014 2022

2014 2022

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b)

Despite the higher overall participation of poorer students, data reveals that
educational opportunities remain unevenly distributed across regions, effectively
limiting student choice. With the projected increase in the college-age population
by 2030 (see Figure 6), Yeban (forthcoming) highlights a significant shortfall in
the number of higher education institutions (HEIs) needed to meet population
projections for 2025 and 2030. This disparity is even more pronounced at regional
and provincial levels, where access to HEIs varies significantly. Many provinces lack
sufficient institutions to meet the educational needs of the 20–24 age group. Rural
provinces, in particular, are notably underserved.

FIGURE 7
Population Projection 18–21 Years Old (College-Age) in Thousands

9,200
9,068 9,092
9,020
9,000 8,949
8,857
8,000 8,620
8,620
8,600

8,400

8,200

8,000
2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Source: UN DESA World Population Prospects (2022), as cited by Ducanes (forthcoming)

180 EDCOM II Year Two Report

While many provinces currently have an adequate number of HEIs, Yeban’s

(forthcoming) analysis reveals that several provinces are expected to fall short in future
years. For instance, Agusan del Sur faces a significant shortfall, requiring approximately
nine additional HEIs by 2025 and nearly ten by 2030 to meet the needs of its growing
20–24 age group population. Similarly, Zamboanga del Norte, which is projected to
be adequate in 2025, will become only moderately adequate by 2030, highlighting the
need for additional HEIs to sustain adequacy as the population grows. This underscores
the urgent need for promoting access to higher education, especially by the regional
populations, while also being cognizant of their local projections the upcoming years.

Public Provision of Higher Education

State and local universities and colleges (SUCs and LUCs) are the primary public
higher education providers. According to Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024a), the
30-year compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of public HEIs, including satellite
campuses, slightly outpaced that of private providers at 3.44% and 3.38%, respectively.
However, the difference in 29-year CAGR for enrollment is more pronounced, with
public HEIs showing a 6.3% growth compared to 1.8% for private institutions.

Notably, LUCs experienced an 11.9% surge in enrollments during the same period. A
correlation analysis reveals that the number of public HEIs is closely linked to the 15–
24 age population, with the strongest correlation observed in LUCs (0.62), followed
by SUC satellites (0.57) and SUC main campuses (0.22).

Public HEI Expansion

SUCs primarily establish satellite campuses to improve access for remote populations,
but their institutional missions limit their expansion. In contrast, LUCs are established
to address the specific needs of local communities, often serving as a critical means
of access to higher education. Despite the growth in public HEIs, program expansion
has primarily been concentrated in business administration and education disciplines
at both undergraduate and graduate levels. SUCs, particularly their main and satellite
campuses, have also seen increased enrollment in engineering, technology, and IT-
related programs.
 Higher Education 181

Both SUCs and LUCs encounter challenges in expanding their capacities, but the
nuances differ by institution type:

TABLE 6
Capital Constraints Faced by Public HEIs

SUCs LUCs

Human Capital • Reports of closing down • LGUs are subjected to expenditure

programs due to non- caps under Section 325 of the Local
compliance with CHED Government Code, limiting personnel
requirements, highlighting spending to 45% (for first- to third-class
the importance of plantilla LGUs) or 55% (for fourth- to sixth-class
positions and job security. LGUs) of total annual income, which
results in reliance as part-time faculty.
This leads to LUCs being less preferred
as employers by teaching professionals.
• LUCs are vulnerable to local political
dynamics.

Physical Capital • Limitations in physical infrastructure and budgetary constraints are

exacerbated by surging enrollments.

• Addresses the issue of the

surge in enrollments by
adopting distance learning
models to accommodate
increased demand.

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024a)

Quality and Access: Differentiated Roles of LUCs and SUCs

EDCOM II identifies distinct roles for LUCs and SUCs in promoting access and
quality. LUCs emphasize affirmative action more by incorporating socioeconomic
factors, such as family income and household education profiles, into their admission
processes. For example, an LUC administrator reported implementing bridging
programs to support disadvantaged students, raising completion rates (Bohol
Roundtable Discussion, July 30, 2024).

SUCs, on the other hand, “have more stringent admission and retention policies, which
can be significant barriers for students with limited resources.” SUC administrators
acknowledge that merit-based admissions often favor students with more financial
resources, as they have better access to preparatory and support mechanisms. Some
SUCs have begun introducing affirmative action policies, but balancing expanded
access with maintaining quality standards remains challenging (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et
al., 2024a).

RA 10931 Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education: Free Higher Education

The resulting upward budgetary pressures and inefficiency of the UAQTEA in its
current form necessitate amendments to RA 10931 to alleviate the fiscal burden of
free tuition in SUCs and LUCs while better targeting the program’s benefits toward
lower-income groups. Findings indicate that SUCs and LUCs have generally enrolled
and accepted more students since the implementation of UAQTEA compared to the
AY 2015–2016 baseline.

As shown in Figure 7, from AY 2015–2016 to AY 2022–2023, the average annual

enrollment growth in SUCs and LUCs was 4.3%, significantly outpacing the 1.5% growth
rate in private colleges and universities (Ducanes, forthcoming). By comparison, the
college-age population grew by only 0.9% annually during the same period.
182 EDCOM II Year Two Report

“We are talking about intellectual capability to meet

the demands of academic work and the kind of
support they need, like allowance for school, money
for good laptops, and books to sustain schooling.
[...] Now students come to me, and they say that
they have problems with allowances and fares.”
—SUC administrator (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024a)

FIGURE 8
Enrollments, AY 2015–2016 to AY 2022–2023

2,500
2,283
2,167
2,054
2,000
1,782
Enrollment (in 1,000s)

1,661
1,606
1,529
1,500 1,413 1,435 1,388
1,329
1,184

1,000

500

0
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2022-23

SUCs/LUCs Private

Source: CHED Website, as cited by Ducanes (forthcoming)

The UAQTEA implementing rules and regulations (IRR) Section 10 stipulates that
funding for free higher education is contingent upon adherence to not exceed the
institutional carrying capacity. To mitigate potential risks to educational quality,
CHED and the UniFAST should conduct a thorough evaluation of current enrollments
against available resources and capacities in state and local universities, and refine
the operationalization of carrying capacity as outlined in the IRR. This will enable the
effective implementation of the Free Higher Education program while maintaining
academic standards and promoting sustainable institutional development.

Despite efforts to accommodate growing enrollment, universal free tuition

significantly strains public finances. With projections of a rising college-age
population, an increasing preference among senior high school graduates for higher
education (Ducanes & Ocampo, 2019), the potential establishment of new higher
education programs in LUCs or new LUCs to tap into the availability of free tuition and
rising demand driven by increasing per capita income, the current scheme remains
fiscally unsustainable (Ducanes, forthcoming).

Implementing socialized tuition could direct more resources toward low-income

students, in line with RA 10931’s mandate to prioritize “academically able students
from low-income families.” However, implementing such a system presents
challenges, including verifying income data, collecting accurate proxy indicators,
 Higher Education 183

and managing administrative costs. These challenges require further analysis, and
the research team working with the Higher Education Subcommittee is prepared to
explore solutions in Year Three.

RA 10931 Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education:

Tertiary Education Subsidies
The Tertiary Education Subsidies, a key component of RA 10931, aims to support
underprivileged Filipino students in higher education financially.

The TES program follows a five-step process flow, as seen in Figure 8, from (1)
application, (2) validation, (3) selection, (4) awarding/disbursement, and (5)
liquidation. Each step has its different process owners and instruments, delivering an
output that will be used in the next step.

FIGURE 9
TES Process Flow

Awarding/
Application Validation Selection Liquidation
Disbursement

CHEDROs to:
Process HEIs
HEIs CHEDROs UniFAST HEIs
Owner DBM
Students

Advice
billing
invoice Receipts
for the
Documents administrative
Online Listahan,
Instruments submitted support cost
Portal PNSL Notice of
by students cash allocation

Signature of
student on the
payroll
Liquidation
report to
Applicant Validated Grantees’
Output CHEDROs
List List List Subsidy
release

Source: Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024b)

EDCOM II has identified critical issues regarding the targeting of TES grants.
Initially, subsidies for poor students were intended to focus on those in private
HEIs to mitigate the adverse impact of the UAQTEA on private education. However,
recognizing that poor students also attend SUCs and LUCs, the TES program
expanded its coverage to include these public institutions.

Under Section 7 of RA 10931 and its IRR, TES beneficiaries are prioritized based on: on
(a) Listahanan (subject to fund availability) and(b) per capita income (for students not
in Listahanan). However, due to budget constraints, UniFAST rarely applies the second
criterion. Furthermore, in PNSLs, students are deemed eligible for TES subsidies
regardless of household financial capacity. This has resulted in a significant increase in
the share of TES grants allocated to PNSL students over time, raising concerns about
the efficient use of limited resources.
184 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The EDCOM II Year One report highlighted a sharp decline in TES grants for the
poorest households, dropping from 74.24% in AY 2018–2019 to 30.74% in AY
2022–2023, while PNSL grantees’ share rose to 69.26%. In response, EDCOM II
recommended a provision in the 2024 General Appropriations Act to prioritize the
most economically disadvantaged 4Ps beneficiaries, increasing their TES share from
0% in AY 2022–2023 to 27% in AY 2023–2024.

Figures 10 to 12 present the TES Availment Paths2,3 for the different types of TES grantees.

For the 4Ps TES grantees, Figure 10 shows that the significant bulk (7,433) of the intake
of new 4Ps TES grantees in AY 2018–2019 and AY 2019–2020 belonged to 4Ps families
compared to only 23 new grantees from this group in AY 2019–2020.. Of these, 2,811—
including grantees who discontinued but eventually renewed the grant to complete by AY
2022–2023—enjoyed the subsidy for 4 academic years. This reflects a 37.70% rate among
4Ps of availing the TES subsidy for 4 years for the 2 academic years. On the other hand,
the discontinuation rate, or the number of TES grantees who availed of TES for less than
4 academic years, for AY 2018–2019 was 25.16% and 13.04%, for AY 2019–2020.
4Ps-SWDI
FIGURE 10 4Ps-SWDI
TES Availment Path for 4Ps TES Grantees
23
23
4
4Ps-SWDI 9
4 17
1,207 9
24 17 2
1,207 2
23 33 2
24 2
4 33
9 1
1,207
2 17 3
1,730 475 7 2
21
24 2 3
NewNew

252 2
7,433 33 7 2
1,730 475
252 14
7,433 1 14
2 17 7 2
3
14
1,730 475
14
New

252
7,433 17
Completed

9
Continuing

14
17 2,765
14 32
3,398 23
Completed

9
Continuing
Continuing

2,765 32
3,398
Completed

4,496 9 23
Continuing

32
Continuing

3,398 2,765 23
Continuing

4,496
4,496

2018
2018 2019
2019 2020
2020 2021
20212024 2024

2018 2019 2020 2021 2024

New Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years

New
Continuing Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
Renewed Completed 4 Years
Continuing
Indeterminable Continuation
New Renewed Completed 4 Years
Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
Indeterminable Continuation
Continuing Renewed Completed 4 Years
Indeterminable Continuation
Note: Data visualization provided by Innovations for Poverty Action (2024)
Source: UniFAST (July 2024)

2 To visually simplify the Sankey diagrams that illustrate the TES availment paths per eligibility criteria, observations
were dropped if their paths were less than 10% of the year with the highest recipients, except when (1) paths ended in
New, Continuing, Discontinued, or Completed 4 Years, or (2) paths originated from New or Discontinued.
3 Indeterminable continuation is operationalized as fourth year or older students availing TES, hence being unable to
determine their continuation or four year completion upon availing TES.
 Higher Education 185

Unlike the 4Ps TES grantees, many Listahanan grantees—excluding the 4Ps who may have
been on the list—were observed across multiple academic years, though the numbers
decreased over time. In 2018–2019, there were 196,801 grantees; in AY 2019–2020, this
dropped to 89,098 grantees; in AY 2020–2021, it dropped further to 15,118 grantees,
and in AY 2021–2022 to just 77 grantees (Figure 11 ).The 4-year TES availment rates
in AY 2021–2022 and AY 2022–2023 were 40.81% and 50.13%, respectively. These
rates include grantees who discontinued but eventually renewed to complete the 4
years. Discontinuation rates for the same 2 academic years were 17.06% and 26.78%,
respectively.
Listahanan
FIGURE 11
Listahanan
TES Availment Path for Listahanan Grantees
441 77
19,402 73
73
77
4Ps-SWDI441
4,806 226
19,402 73
414 73
414
46,645 4,806 226
1,528
23
414
15,118 83 504 414
46,645 4 1,528 504
9 2,689
17 1
1,207 15,118 12,040
83 504
282 504
New

2
196,801 24 12,568
New

2,689 2
89,098 33 8,333
9,128 285 8,050
12,040 1
12,203 282 3
New

1
196,801 12,568
New

89,098 2 3
1,730 475 9,128 7 2
62,515
285 8,050705 8,333
10,814
New

7,433 252
12,203 14 10,106
3
71,724 14 705
17 62,515
Continuing

10,106257
10,814
Continuing

130,754 71,724
Completed

9
Continuing

3,398 99,7482,765 32 44,834 45,091

Continuing

23
257
Continuing
Continuing

79,460
4,496
130,754
99,748 44,834 45,091
79,460

2018 2018 2019 2019 2020 2020

2021 2024 2021 2024

2018 New
2019 2020 2021 2024
Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
ContinuingNew Renewed Discountinued
Completed 4 Years Renewed & Completed 4 Years
Indeterminable Continuation
Continuing Renewed Completed 4 Years
NewIndeterminable Continuation Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
Continuing Renewed Completed 4 Years
Note: Data visualization provided
Indeterminable by Innovations for Poverty Action (2024)
Continuation
Source: UniFAST (July 2024)

Unlike the 4Ps and Listahanan TES grantees, the number of intakes for PNSL increased
steadily from AY 2018-2019 to AY 2021-2022. In 2018, there were only 70,864 new
PNSL TES grantees, which grew to 182,003 in AY 2019-2020, 103,628 in AY 2020-
2021 and 136,966 in AY 2021- 2022, as seen in Figure 12. The four-year TES availment
rate for the AY 2018-2019 PNSL new grantees was abysmally low at 1.83%, including
those who temporarily discontinued but renewed the grant to complete four years.
This low completion rate was coupled with a relatively high discontinuation rate of
62.29%. For new PNSL TES grantees in AY 2019-2020, the completion rate improved
significantly to 43.60%, while the discontinuation rate decreased to 22.95%.
186 EDCOM II Year Two Report

PNSL TES Grantees

FIGURE 12 PNSL TES Grantees
TES Availment Path for PNSL Grantees

and completed
Renewed
550
4Ps-SWDI

4 years
and completed
4 4

Renewed
550

4 years
4 4

Renewed
104
1,245

Renewed
316
3,035
23 104 316
1,245 316
3,035 19,030 316
4
19,030 9 1,559 1,138
24,342
1,207 17 1,559 1,136
1,138
24,342 22,819
24 18 2
2 340
1,136
33 15,058
22,819 18 25
340
43,487 575 15,058
11,255 1 25
76,198 76,563
70,864 2 575 3
New

43,487
1,730 475 7 11,255 2 76,198 76,563
70,864
New

New

7,433 252
103,154
NewNew
14
14 19

NewNew
103,154
17 136,966
19
79,390 79,409
136,966
182,003 79,409
NewNew

79,390

Completed
9
Continuing

2,765 32
182,003 3,398 23
53
Continuing

Continuing

4,496 140,154 16
53
87,001

Continuing
Continuing

16

Discontinued
140,154 136,625
1,757 87,001 153,213

Continuing

Discontinued
1,757 136,625 153,213
16,472
16,472
2018 2019 2020 2021 2024

2018 2019 2020 2021 2024

2018 2019 2020 2021 2024
New Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
Continuing Renewed Completed 4 Years
New
Indeterminable Continuation Discountinued Renewed & Completed 4 Years
New
Continuing Discountinued
Renewed Renewed & Completed
Completed 4 Years 4 Years
Continuing
Indeterminable Continuation Renewed Completed 4 Years
Note: Data visualization provided by Innovations for Poverty Action (2024)
Indeterminable Continuation
Source: UniFAST (July 2024)

To strengthen the targeting of TES grants, EDCOM II underscores the need to prioritize
poor students in both public and private HEIs. While Listahanan identifies households
in geographically poor areas, it includes both poor and nonpoor households.
Therefore, eligibility should be based on estimated household income, not mere
inclusion in the Listahanan. For areas without SUCs or LUCs, prioritization should still
follow the principle of targeting the poorest households; specifically,

1. Guarantee support for the poorest segments (e.g., 4Ps beneficiaries); and,
2. Rank eligible students from near-poor households based on household income
to prioritize those with the greatest financial need.

To improve the targeting of the TES program toward the poor, EDCOM II recommends
that UniFAST coordinate with DepEd and DSWD to identify and guarantee support
to potential 4Ps grantees. As illustrated by Figure 13, in AY 2018–2019, one in 85
monitored 4Ps SHS students received a TES grant for higher education. By 2021, this
figure had dropped significantly to one in 1,014.

This decline, coupled with comparable numbers of total TES grantees and monitored
4Ps SHS students, underscores the urgent need to refine the program’s targeting
mechanism. Enhanced coordination and information dissemination among UniFAST,
DepEd, and DSWD can help guarantee support for monitored 4Ps SHS students,
increasing their likelihood of pursuing higher education and ensuring that TES
benefits reach those who need them most.
 Higher Education 187

FIGURE 13
Monitored 4Ps SHS Students, TES Grantees, and 4Ps TES Grantees
UniFAST (2024), DSWD (received May 2024)

749,204
106 683,822
416,246 463,372 501,704
382,445

409,408 436,113 364,426

275,098 227,371
105
Count (log scale)

No new
application
slots opened

104 7,433
4,518
3,439
2,824

103
495

2017-2018 2018-2019 2019-2020 2020-2021 2021-2022 2022-2023 2023-2024

Academic Year

4Ps SHS TES Grantees 4Ps Grantees

[1] Count of 4Ps, Listahan, & PNSL Grantees in HEIs are lagged a year from its original academic
year. For example, 4Ps grantees in AY 2018-2019 are lagged to 2017-2018 to show that they were
learners from SHS during the lagged year. (i.e. AY 2017-2018_

The categorization and misprioritization of TES grantees have resulted in enrollment

patterns skewed toward private institutions, disrupting the intended complementarity
between public and private HEIs. By definition, PNSL grantees automatically enroll
in private institutions. However, a significant proportion of 4Ps and Listahanan
grantees are observed to prefer public institutions. In AY 2022–2023, 71.1% of 4Ps
and Listahanan students attended SUCs and LUCs. This trend is likely driven by the
combined benefits of FHE and TES programs. When these students enroll in a public
HEI, the TES subsidy functions as an additional allowance, as they already enjoy free
tuition and other school fees under the FHE program.

The issue of complementarity between public and private HEIs is further exacerbated
by UniFAST Memorandum Circular No. 5, 2023 (Section 3: New TES slots for the 1st
semester, AY 2023–2024), which reduced the TES subsidy to Php 10,000 per semester
for students in both private and public HEIs. This change disadvantages students in
private HEIs, as they must allocate the subsidy toward tuition fees, whereas students
in public HEIs can use it as an allowance, given that their tuition and other school
fees are already covered under the FHE program.

Moreover, the reduced TES subsidy significantly limits the number of programs that
can be financed in private HEIs. With a projected 18-unit semester, the Php 10,000 TES
amount can only cover 26.36% of undergraduate programs currently offered by private
institutions, greatly diminishing its utility for private HEI students.
188 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 14
Programs Enrolled by TES Grantees, AY 2022–2023

75

25

Source: UniFAST (2024)

The distribution of programs attended by TES grantees remained relatively stable

from AY 2018–2019 to AY 2018–2019 (see Figure 4). However, notable changes
were observed in specific fields. The share of TES grantees enrolled in business
administration programs, including its various majors, increased by 2.8 percentage
points. Among education programs, there were slight increases in secondary
education and other teacher education programs (e.g., early childhood, technical-
vocational, physical education, and special education teacher education), which grew
by 1.3 and 1.5 percentage points, respectively. In contrast, elementary education saw
a decline, with its share dropping from 13.2% to 11.7%. Criminology experienced a
relatively significant increase, with its share rising from 9.2% to 12.3%.

Specifically, with the new subsidy amount of Php 10,000 per semester, and assuming
TES grantees allocate their entire subsidy toward tuition, they would only be able to
afford five programs: Elementary Education (Php 9,955.62), Technology and Livelihood
Education (Php 8,920.26), Criminology (Php 8,834.40), Industrial Technology (Php
7,866.00), and Technical-Vocational Teacher Education (Php 6,702.48), as shown in
Table 7.
 Higher Education 189

TABLE 7
Average Tuition Fee Projections per Semester

Degree Average Cost/Unit 18 Units 24 Units

(in Php)

Business Administration 726.3 13,073.40 17,431.20

HRM/Hospitality/Tourism 682.79 12,290.22 16,386.96
Accountancy/Accounting Information 711.61 12,808.98 17,078.64
Systems/Management Accounting
Secondary Education 567.39 10,213.02 13,617.36
Elementary Education 553.09 9.955.62 13,274.16
Early Childhood Education 719.78 12,956.04 17,274.72
Technical-Vocational Teacher Education 372.36 6,702.48 8,936.64
Technology and Livelihood Education 495.57 8,920.26 11,893.68
Special Needs Education 831.89 14,974.02 19,965.36
Physical Education 675.3 12,155.40 16,207.20
Civil Engineering 927.25 16,690.50 22,254.00
Industrial Engineering 437 7,866.00 10,488.00
Mechanical Engineering 1,058.96 19,061.28 25,415.04
Criminology 490.8 8,834.40 11,779.20
Information Technology 666.26 11,992.68 15,990.24
Computer Science 742.58 13,366.44 17,821.92
Information System 771.37 13,884.66 18,512.88
Nursing 786.52 14,157.36 18,876.48
Medical Technology 823.76 14,827.68 19,770.24
Medicine 2,547.30 45,851.40 61,135.20
Number of Programs Financeable by Php 10,000 5 1

Note: Cells highlighted in yellow indicate that the projected average total tuition cost exceeds the new TES amount of
Php 10,000, hence unaffordable.
Source: CHED-OPKRM (Received 15 November 2023)

Limiting the TES subsidy reduces the number of programs that students can afford,
disproportionately disadvantages private institutions, and places the burden of
living costs—such as books, dormitories, and other expenses—on students and
their families. This financial strain increases the likelihood of students dropping out
before completing their education.

To address these issues, EDCOM II recommends adjusting the TES subsidy amount
to reflect current realities, including living expenses and tuition fees, especially in
private HEIs. This adjustment would provide a more equitable set of choices for grantees,
enabling them to select programs and institutions based on their preferences rather
than financial limitations. Additionally, the TES subsidy amount should be regularly
reviewed and updated to account for inflation and the increasing costs of education,
ensuring its ongoing effectiveness in supporting students. At the end of Year 2, EDCOM
II Commissioner Senator Loren Legarda has filed the EDCOM II-drafted bill 2905, or the
Enhancing the Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act, which incorporates the
policy recommendations in improving TES targeting, providing guidelines on setting the
TES amount, implementing quality assurance and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.
190 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

Paving the Path of an Educator:

The Story of a Tertiary Education
Subsidy (TES) Scholar in Batangas
In the push for universal access to higher guidance drawn from her own challenges
education, the Tertiary Education Subsidy and experiences.
(TES) has played a pivotal role in enabling
countless Filipinos to achieve their “What I give back is service,” she reflects.
academic aspirations. This grant-in-aid She views teaching as a powerful
program covers the full or partial cost of vocation that shapes the consciousness
tertiary education for priority students. and lives of students. Her philosophy
centers on the belief that education is a
At the Batangas State University (BSU), social responsibility. It’s not just about
one TES scholar’s journey from student reading textbooks or receiving a degree
to educator encapsulates the program’s for the sake of it. “Para sa taumbayan
impact, highlighting its role in shaping talaga. Sila ang dahilan. (It’s for our
not just individual lives, but the future of country’s people. They are the reason),”
education itself. she emphasizes.

Growing up in a financially challenged In a time when STEM fields often

household, this scholar’s story mirros the dominate educational priorities,
reality of many TES grantees. Her family she passionately advocates for the
was part of the Listahanan social welfare humanities, which she enjoys teaching.
programs and the Department of Social “Kailangan talaga ng humanities. STEM is
Welfare and Development’s (DSWD) focused on building . . . pero nawawalan
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program na tayo ng sense ng humanity. It keeps us
(4Ps). Covering her tuition and academic grounded. (We really need the humanities.
needs, the TES scholarship lifted a STEM is focused on building . . . but we are
significant burden, allowing her to focus losing our sense of humanity. It keeps us
on her studies. grounded),” she explains.

“Malaking tulong talaga ’yung TES (TES The scholar’s journey shows the broader
was a really big help),” she says. She significance of programs like TES. They
also credits the support of the BSU, do not only address financial barriers but
which ensured continued access and also form educators who give back to
efficient delivery of the TES funding, their communities. Her commitment to
even and especially during the COVID-19 “enlivening civic participation” through
pandemic. education reflects the lead role that
teachers play in shaping generations of
After earning her bachelor’s degree in Filipinos.
education, she returned to the BSU, as
a lecturer under the College of Teacher Her story is also a reminder of how the
Education. Today she teaches courses vocation of teachers is ultimately that of
in the humanities and social sciences, service—one among many that can be
covering subjects like Ethics, Rizal, encouraged and strengthened through
and World History. She also serves as a comprehensive reforms and solutions in
mentor to current TES scholars, offering the country’s education system.
 Higher Education 191

Issue 2: Enhancing the quality of higher education programs

improving learning outcomes and program relevance)

Public Offerings of Programs

Access to higher education must be complemented by quality learning outcomes and
the relevance of programs for the sector to thrive. Program expansions must cater
not only to constituent demands, but must also be based on industrial, regional, and
national relevance. Local relevance can be seen in the significant program offerings
under Education Science and Teacher Training and Business and Administration and
Related (see Figure 15).

For instance, during a regional roundtable discussion, school administrators in Bohol

shared that they offer hotel and restaurant management and tourism programs
due to the importance of these fields in a tourism hotspot like Bohol. Additionally,
they highlighted their nursing programs, driven by the high global demand for
nurses (Bohol Roundtable Discussion, 30 July 2024). However, for programs such as
Engineering and Technology, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, and Natural Science,
SUCs (main and satellites) offer them more relative to LUCs (Figure 23).

FIGURE 15
Program Offerings of Public HEIs (AY 2022-2023)

100%
Others
262
113 398 Natural Science
65
4 Social and Behavioral
Sciences
134
75% Criminology, Forensic
Science, Police
Administration, and Other
7 252
Civil Security and
48
204 IT-Related Disciplines
303
50% Agriculture, Forestry,
Fisheries
220 337
492 Engineering and Tech

Business Administration and

Related
25% 338
Education Science and
Teacher Training
188 661
418

0%
LUCs SUCs (Main) SUCs (Satellite)

Source: (CHED, 2024)

In SUCs, new programs must be approved by the Board of Regents (BOR).

Administrators conduct feasibility and marketability studies to assess input
requirements, such as human capital and facilities, and the program’s relevance to
local communities and industries. Additionally, administrators emphasize the need for
higher education institutions to supply the basic education sector with human power.
192 EDCOM II Year Two Report

However, program offerings must be strategic and complementary to those already

provided by neighboring institutions to avoid unnecessary competition. In some
cases, SUC administrators ensure their programs align with this principle by checking
if nearby SUCs offer similar programs. This approach fosters complementarity, as
revealed in a regional roundtable discussion. School administrators shared that they
intentionally avoid duplicating programs offered by nearby institutions. This practice
is often formalized through a gentleman’s agreement among administrators (Bohol
Roundtable Discussion, 30 July 2024).

Rather than offering entirely new programs, SUCs have shared that they often merge
existing programs or adopt degree offerings from their constituent units to ensure
they remain relevant to local needs and industry demands (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al.,
2024a).

The Role of Policies, Standards, and Guidelines

in Learning Outcomes and Program Relevance
CHED ensures the quality of programs offered by higher education institutions by
establishing policies, standards, and guidelines (PSGs) developed by technical panels.
According to a survey conducted by the UPSKILL program of USAID (forthcoming),
the review of existing PSGs was shaped by significant educational policies, including
the RA 10533, or the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (K–12); and RA 10968, or
the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF) Act of 2018. Other key factors included
the transition to an outcomes-based education system (CMO 46, s. 2012) and the
reduction of units in the New General Education Curriculum (CMO No. 20, s. 2013),
which decreased from 63 to 36 units.

Despite these efforts, the study indicates inconsistent integration of K–12 and
PQF policies across various programs. For instance, only the Hotel and Restaurant
Management (HRM) and Elementary and Secondary Education programs have
recognized the K–12 and PQF laws into their revisions. The updated PSGs for HRM
(CMO No. 62, s. 2017) outlined differentiated requirements for senior high school
graduates based on their track, with students from the Academic Track for Business
Management (ABM) facing fewer requirements than non-ABM tracks.

The study also revealed an average of 11 years for programs with the highest
enrollments before PSGs are revised/updated. For example, the Nursing PSGs were
updated after eight years, while the PSGs for Teacher Education and Criminology
were revised only after 13 years. Furthermore, internship hours requirements were
observed to vary among programs which can be further studied. Table [x] illustrates
the summary of changes in the PSGs of the top 10 programs in terms of enrollments.
 Higher Education 193

TABLE 8
Summary of Changes in PSGs of the Top 10 Programs

Program Revision History Variance Total GE "Variance Internship Units Total Units
Courses (in Units)"

Existing Previous New Old New Old New Old

PSG PSG
Business 2017 2006 11 years 36 51 (-15) 6 (600 6 122 138
Administration hours)

Criminology 2018 2005 13 years 36 61 (-15) 6 units 6 (540 177 179

hours)
Secondary Education 2017 2004 13 years 36 63 (-27) 6 6 155– 174
65
Hotel and Restautrant 2017 2006 11 years 36 51 (-15) 6 (600 14 137 136–
Management hours) 37

Information 2015 2006 9 years 54 54 0 3 (162– 3 146 140

Technology 486 (162–486
hours) hours)*
Elementary Education 2017 2004 13 years 36 63 (-27) 6 6 152 174
Nursing 2017 2009 8 years 36 87 (-51) 8 (408 10 (540 192 202
hours) hours)
Civil Engineering 2017 2007 10 years 50 53 (+3) 3 (240 Optional 171 200
hours)
Accountancy 2017 2007 10 years 36 51 (-15) 6 3 (160 73 210
hours)
Industrial Technology 2023 NA 36 NA 12 NA 155 NA

Source: (USAID, forthcoming)

Given the presented data, the study raises awareness in reviewing PSGs and
aligning them with existing applicable laws (PQF and K–12). Additionally, flexibility in
determining the minimum number of units required per program can be considered,
depending on the nature of the concentration/major. Moreover, the variance in
internship requirements may also require further probing to determine optimal real
world learning opportunities.

Priority Area 12:

Quality Assurance
Issue 1: Typology-/outcomes-based quality assurance
toward more autonomous and deregulated HEIs for
innovations in teaching, research, and public service

EDCOM I recommended establishing a “typology of tertiary institutions with

corresponding levels of accountability” (pg. 194, 1993). In response, CHED introduced, after
more than ten years, both a horizontal and vertical typology system, as outlined in CMO 46,
s. 2012. The horizontal typology groups HEIs based on their mission and profiles, while the
vertical typology classifies them based on prestige and reputation (Teichler, 2007).
194 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Since 2012, CMO 46 has been implemented minimally. Of the few HEIs that applied
and have been classified, 73.5% are colleges, 12.7% are universities, and 6.3% are
professional institutes (see Figure 16). Among the SUCs systems (i.e. inclusive of
main and satellite campuses), 78 systems are classified as universities and 35 systems
are classified as colleges—there are no SUCs classified as professional institutes.
(see Figure 16). For the private sector, the majority (71.9%) are colleges; 10.7% are
universities and 8.0% are professional institutes (see Figure 16). The low proportion of
professional institutes is misleading because of the very limited number of HEIs that
sought to be classified.

Among private HEIs that applied for vertical classification based on indicators of
academic excellence and institutional sustainability, less than 1% of colleges and 3.27%
of universities attained autonomous status, while 26.16% of universities were classified
as deregulated.

FIGURE 16
Distribution of Horizontal Typologies Based on CMO No. 46, s. 2012

137 232
115

1,342

Source: CHED OIQAG (2025) and OPRKM (2024)

In this typology, 10 SUCs are classified as Level I, 21 SUCs as Level II, 55 SUCs as Level
III, and 20 as Level IV (CMO 12, s. 2018). In terms of equivalency, SUCs at Levels III and
IV are roughly comparable to private HEIs with deregulated and autonomous status,
respectively. This comparison is based on CHED’s listing of such autonomous and
deregulated private HEIs and the recognition of SUC Levels III and IV as automatically
eligible to accept foreign students due to their presumed quality.

Implementing a one-size-fits-all policy in quality assurance has presented significant

challenges, often privileging universities over other institutional types. To address
this, a revised horizontal typology must embrace diversity, as it allows the higher
education system to adapt effectively to the rapidly changing global knowledge
society and respond to the varied needs of students, families, communities,
industries, and other stakeholders. A diverse typology also enhances institutional
effectiveness, fosters innovation, and encourages experimentation (Bernardo,
2024). When coupled with a well-designed incentive and rewards structure, HEIs can
be guided in their evolution toward autonomy, deregulation, and innovation.
 Higher Education 195

Building on efforts from Year One, EDCOM II conducted an empirical study to

recommend a revised classification based on observed characteristics of HEIs. The
following six clusters were derived from a non-random sample of 870 HEIs:

• Cluster 1: Small focused HEIs. These HEIs offer limited bachelor’s programs,
attract few students from local communities, and have faculty members who
mostly lack post-baccalaureate qualifications. They engage in little to no
research or community outreach.
• Cluster 2: Focused HEIs. Similar to Cluster 1, these institutions provide a handful
of post-baccalaureate programs and non-career-focused undergraduate
courses. Their community outreach and research activities are minimal.
• Cluster 3: Comprehensive Undergraduate HEIs. Primarily serving local students,
these institutions have small but notable master’s enrollments. They participate
more in community outreach and international faculty exchanges than Clusters 1
and 2.
• Cluster 4: Comprehensive HEIs (Research and External Focus). These
institutions offer mostly bachelor’s level programs in career-related areas but
with a sizable master’s, and some doctoral programs. They are significantly
involved in community outreach, cultural activities, and internationalization
efforts for students. They also have a strong focus on research, with many
faculty members actively participating.
• Cluster 5: Comprehensive HEIs (Research-Oriented). These institutions
prioritize research with a more positive research growth trajectory,
demonstrating growth in publications and citations. They maintain a small but
sizable master’s and doctoral programs and have fewer outreach activities
compared to Cluster 4.
• Cluster 6: Comprehensive State Universities. These HEIs are distinguished
by their broad program offerings, high enrollment, extensive outreach efforts,
outbound internationalization for faculty, and a significant trajectory for
research growth.

The six clusters were further grouped into three types: focused HEIs, comprehensive
HEIs, and continuous HEIs (see Table 9). The proposed horizontal HEI classification
typology is under review through stakeholder consultations. Additional consultations
in Year Three would help further refine and nuance the aforementioned preliminary
clusterings.

While the national goal is to cultivate a more diversified higher education sector,
Bernardo’s cluster analysis shows limited diversity within the Philippine higher
education landscape. Most institutions primarily offer undergraduate programs that
are largely career- or profession-oriented, with little focus on research and extension
functions, which are either underdeveloped or nonexistent (Bernardo et al., 2024).

EDCOM II reinforces the advocacy put forward by EDCOM I for a policy shift away
from a one-size-fits-all approach to higher education, advocating instead for a
system that embraces diversity to address the unique needs at the local, provincial,
regional, and national levels. To effectively implement the proposed horizontal
typology, both public and private support for HEIs must be aligned and rationalized,
fostering a diversified system that prioritizes relevance and quality tailored to each
institution’s specific typology:

1. Incentive and Reward Structures

Institutional accreditation, grants of autonomy, and deregulation should be
tailored to align with the functional roles of each HEI type. This ensures that HEIs
receive support appropriate to their specific missions and objectives.
196 EDCOM II Year Two Report

2. Program Accreditation
Accreditation processes should be developed to reflect the horizontal typology
of HEIs. For example, an undergraduate biology program at a comprehensive
university—intended as a pathway to medical programs—should be evaluated
differently from a program at a continuous university, which focuses on
preparing graduates for advanced research in the field. This differentiation
ensures that program assessments are aligned with the intended outcomes of
each institution type.
3. CHED Policies and Programs
Regulatory and developmental policies must be rationalized to match each
HEI type, incentivizing institutions to allocate resources toward their specific
functions. CHED’s policies should ensure responsiveness to stakeholder
needs and encourage the growth of HEIs in ways that reflect their typological
classifications.
4. External Quality Assurance Agencies (EQAAs)
Accreditation instruments and quality indicators must be aligned with the
proposed HEI types to assess their core characteristics and targeted outcomes
adequately. This alignment will enable EQAAs to provide more precise and
meaningful evaluations that reflect the diversity of HEIs.

Additionally, CHED’s policies, particularly those related to resource allocation and

support for higher education functions, must be reviewed, refined, and tailored
to align with each horizontal type’s distinct characteristics and functions. This
approach will foster greater acceptance and utilization of the typology by higher
education institutions (HEIs). Key areas requiring refinement include permits for
opening schools and programs at various levels, allocating scholarships, and providing
faculty development grants. Furthermore, support for research and innovation
programs must be enhanced, focusing on initiatives such as open and distance
learning, internationalization efforts, partnerships, consortium agreements, and
joint degree programs. Aligning these policies with each horizontal type’s specific
needs and objectives will ensure that resources are effectively allocated and that
institutions are better equipped to meet their missions.
 Higher Education 197

The Philippines can advance a more diversified and effective higher education system
by adopting these measures. This will ensure that HEIs are better equipped to meet
the diverse needs of their stakeholders and contribute meaningfully to national
development goals.

TABLE 9
Summary of the Proposed Simplified Empirically Based Horizontal Typology

Elements Focused HEIs Comprehensive HEIs Continuous HEIs

Mission Professional skills Professional skills and Specialized technical,

education for regional holistic development professional, and
development needs of 21st century skills scientific skills education
for broad national and for national and
international needs international innovation
systems

Degree Few selected bachelor’s Broad range of bachelor’s Higher proportion of

program programs aligned with programs to develop master’s and doctoral
offerings human resource needs of skilled professional with programs for research
province/region transversal competencies and innovation needs of
aligned with national region and country
and international human
resource needs

Student Proportionately small Proportionately Higher ratio of post-

body enrollment of students larger enrollment of graduate enrollment;
from province and region students from local and students from local and
surrounding regions surrounding regions

Faculty Continuous and recent Relevant professional Post-graduate (doctoral)

profile professional experience experience and/or education, research
in relevant industries disciplinal training experience and outputs

Principal Professional programs Programs linked to Programs with research

academic linked to local industry local industry & other and innovation
degree with strong OJT local organizations, components
programs component with relevant capstone
projects
198 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 13:

Digital Transformation
Issue 1: Digital transformation in Philippine HEIs
Building on its Year One initiatives, EDCOM II researched digital transformation and
educational technologies, specifically focusing on artificial intelligence (AI) to support
under-resourced communities and stakeholder groups in the Philippine education
system, particularly public school teachers. The study by Rodrigo and Talandron-Felipe
(2023) examined how AI could assist teachers in both academic and administrative
tasks, including reducing administrative burdens, and proposed a supportive agenda
for integrating AI into education.

The research revealed that teachers generally had limited knowledge of AI and faced
significant challenges due to insufficient access to software, hardware, and reliable
internet infrastructure. Despite these barriers, teachers expressed optimism about
AI’s potential to improve education and demonstrated a strong willingness to learn
and adopt AI tools (Rodrigo, 2024).

The study identified several key features of current AI applications in education,

including task automation, data collection, and support for diverse teaching
approaches. To enhance AI accessibility in developing countries like the Philippines,
the research recommended specific features that would address local challenges.
These included adapting AI tools to local contexts, enabling offline functionality
to address connectivity issues, facilitating teacher collaboration, managing high
student-to-computer ratios, and ensuring that AI tools require minimal technical skills
for implementation (Rodrigo, 2024).

These findings highlight the transformative potential of AI in addressing educational

challenges in under-resourced settings. They also emphasize the importance of
developing targeted strategies to support the adoption and integration of AI tools
in Philippine HEIs and schools, paving the way for a more equitable and efficient
education system.

Priority Area 14:

Graduate Education,
Research, and Innovation
Issue 1: Underdeveloped research and innovation ecosystem
R&D are critical economic growth and development drivers. Studies demonstrate a
positive correlation between GDP per capita and innovation in both OECD and non-
OECD countries (Ulku, 2004). However, in 2018, the Philippines spent only 0.32% of
its GDP on R&D, significantly below the 1% benchmark recommended by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). To meet this
benchmark, the Philippines must triple its current R&D spending.
 Higher Education 199

HEIs are central to building a robust R&D ecosystem. According to Quitoras and
Abuso (2021), HEIs fulfill three fundamental functions: instruction, research, and
extension. Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff (1997) expand on this by introducing the triple
helix model of innovation, which underscores the synergistic interactions among
government, academia, and industry. In this model, academia generates knowledge
through research, while government and industry provide the necessary funding
and investment. Innovation emerges from dynamic feedback loops, cross-sector
interactions, and the positive externalities generated by these collaborative efforts.

The Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2023–2028 recognizes the importance of R&D,
technology, and innovation in driving long-term economic development, as detailed
in “Chapter 8: Advance Research and Development, Technology, and Innovation.”
However, research productivity in the Philippines lags significantly behind that of
other ASEAN member states. Using Scopus-indexed papers as a proxy for research
output, the Philippines ranks below Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, and
Vietnam and remains significantly below the ASEAN average, as shown in Figure
17. Projections indicate that, at its current pace, the Philippines will continue to fall
behind the ASEAN average forecast (Demeterio III et al., 2024) (see Figure 18).

FIGURE 17
Scopus Papers Production of the ASEAN Countries as of June 2023

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Malaysia
Indonesia
Singapore
Thailand
ASEAN Average
Vietnam
Philippines
Brunei
Cambodia
Myanmar
Laos

Source: Demeterio III et al., 2024

200 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 18
Statistical Forecasts of the ASEAN Average Research
Production and of the Philippines’s Research Production
ASEAN ASEAN Average Forecast
Philippines Philippines Forecast

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
2013 2017 2021 2025 2029 2033 2037 2041 2045 2049

Source: Demeterio III et al. (2024)

The PDP 2023–2028 identifies several critical challenges to advancing R&D,

technology, and innovation in the country. Among these challenges are the
inadequate number of human resources in science, technology, and innovation; an
underdeveloped research culture and low productivity; insufficient investment in R&D;
weak linkages among stakeholders in the R&D ecosystem; limited focus on market
information and user needs; a weak intellectual property culture; and barriers to
fostering an innovative and entrepreneurial mindset.

HEIs play a pivotal role in addressing these challenges. CMO 46, s. 2012 positions
universities as institutions that drive the development of new knowledge and skills
through research, extending from undergraduate to doctoral levels. This emphasis
on research enables HEIs to contribute to nation-building by producing experts,
generating knowledge, and advancing technological innovations essential for long-
term development in a globalized context. The Institutional Sustainability Assessment
(ISA), part of CHED’s indicators for vertical typology, further underscores research
and innovation as key areas under the framework for Quality of Professional Exposure,
Research, and Creative Work.

Additionally, under Section 8(f) of RA 7722, Centers of Excellence (COEs) and

Centers of Development (CODs) within HEIs are designated as leaders in research,
publications, and stakeholder linkages. These departments, supported by grants from
the Higher Education Development Fund (HEDF), are tasked with conducting research
on emerging trends and fostering partnerships with relevant stakeholders. Research
and publication output, accounting for 30% of the evaluation criteria for COE and
COD selection, plays a critical role in accessing funding for developmental projects.
These initiatives aim to strengthen academe-industry collaborations and elevate the
research capabilities of HEIs.

Despite these measures, Demeterio III and colleagues (2024) point out that HEIs in the
Philippines often prioritize teaching over research, signaling the need for functional
research universities. The country has only 172.01 researchers per million inhabitants,
far below ASEAN peers and the World Bank’s benchmark of 322.51 researchers for
 Higher Education 201

lower-middle-income countries in 2021. To achieve its goal of becoming an upper-

middle-income country by 2025, the Philippines must significantly increase its
researcher count. Demeterio III and colleagues recommend fostering partnerships
between first-tier comprehensive research-intensive HEIs—those producing at least
150 Scopus-indexed papers annually—and second-tier SUCs on track to meet this
standard. These collaborations aim to build research capacity, strengthen national
research networks, and enhance productivity through mentor-mentee relationships
and human resource development.

Procurement Policies Revolving Around Research, Development, Technology,

and Innovation
A significant challenge of the Philippine research and innovation ecosystem is
attributed to the regulatory red tape and bureaucratic procurement policies.
According to the US Agency for International Development (RTI International, 2020),
the lagging performance of the Philippines in R&D is closely linked to the complexity
of government regulations, particularly procurement regulations. As a major
component of an enabling environment, procurement issues disincentivize industry
to collaborate with research and development institutes. The procurement-related
challenges include:

1. Limited Suppliers for Specialized Equipment

Highly technical and specialized equipment essential for research and
innovation is difficult to procure, particularly in the local market, as highlighted
in surveys by Navarro and Tanghal (2017) and Querijero et al. (2022).
2. Underutilization of RA 9184 Sec. 53(6)
Section 53(6) of the 2016 IRR of RA 9184 offers an alternative negotiated
procurement process specifically for scientific, academic, and research-related
goods and services. Procurement officers cited the vague language of Sec. 53(6)
as a barrier, particularly the absence of explicit terms like “scientific equipment”
(Querijero et al., 2022). This ambiguity discouraged its use, as procurement
officers feared non-compliance.
3. Lack of Capacity-Building for Procurement Officers
Continuous capacity-building for procurement officers, including members of
the Bids and Awards Committee (BAC), is critical to improving the efficiency of
procurement processes in HEIs and government agencies.

Addressing the challenges in the research and innovation ecosystem entail

reforms that EDCOM II in collaboration with the NAST and the Secretariat of the
National Innovation Council advocated for inclusion in RA 12009 New Government
Procurement Act, authored and sponsored by former EDCOM II Commissioner and
current DepEd Secretary Juan Edgardo Angara.. This legislation introduces critical
provisions designed to support research, development, and innovation more
effectively.

One of the key changes under RA 12009 is the flexibility in intellectual property
rights (IPR) ownership. In the previous framework, IPR defaulted to the procuring
entity, which often discouraged expert suppliers from participating in procurement
processes. RA 12009 allows ownership to remain with the supplier when they make
significant investments in expertise and resources for product development. This
provision aligns with Section 6(a) of RA 10055, the Philippine Technology Transfer Act,
which assigns ownership to research and development institutions if they are better
positioned to identify the economic potential of the intellectual property. By ensuring
that R&D institutions and suppliers are incentivized to innovate, this reform helps
avoid delays in research processes and strengthens the overall innovation ecosystem.
202 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The Act also mandates the NIC, working alongside the Government Procurement
Policy Board (GPPB), to create streamlined procurement policies that eliminate
excessive bureaucratic obstacles. This includes identifying and removing barriers that
hinder growth in R&D, technology, and innovation while allowing flexibility to address
previously unanticipated challenges unique to the research environment. These
provisions aim to create a more adaptive and efficient procurement system, better
suited to support the dynamic needs of research and innovation in the Philippines.

Priority Area 15:

Internationalization
Issue 1: Constraints to internationalization
Internationalization has become a defining feature of the evolving global higher
education landscape. While some regions have seen a resurgence of nationalism, the
globalization of the 1990s brought significant changes that continue to influence
higher education (Hsieh, 2020). Among these are the strengthening of regional blocs
like the European Union and ASEAN, the promotion of student, professional, and labor
mobility across regions, and the establishment of national and regional qualifications
frameworks to build trust in the qualifications of mobile individuals (Bautista, 2016a,
2016b, & 2019; De Wit & Altbach, 2021; Mikulec, 2017). These developments are further
fueled by the aging populations in the Global North, creating a demand for skilled
professionals worldwide.

Internationalization encompasses various strategies to foster global perspectives,

enhance cross-cultural understanding, and facilitate academic collaboration across
borders. The motivations for internationalization are as follows: (1) broadening student
horizons, (2) enhancing educational quality, (3) strengthening institutions, and (4)
contributing to the global society.

The Philippines as a destination for inbound student mobility poses factors that make
it attractive to international students. (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024c) cite factors
such as “English as a second language; richness of the Philippine culture; home of the
world’s budget English teacher; and, relatively low tuition fees, low cost of living, and
(for some overseas markets) good geographical location.”

In terms of student mobility, UNESCO Institute for Statistics reports that the number
of inbound students in the Philippines is increasing from 12,276 in 2017 to 17,337 in
2022, equivalent to a 41.23% increase. However, this figure is lower than its ASEAN
counterparts such as Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, but higher than Indonesia and
Vietnam, as seen in Figure 19.
 Higher Education 203

FIGURE 19
Total International Student Inflows in Select ASEAN Member States

2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

125,000

100,765 100,437
100,000

75,000 63,308

53,204
50,000

27,113
25,000 17,337
12,276
7,763 7,760
4,162
0
Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam

Note: No data for Indonesia 2019-2022, Malaysia 2018, Thailand 2017-2018 and 2021, and Vietnam 2018.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, as cited by Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024c)

Despite a slight decline in inbound foreign student numbers during the pandemic,
CHED reports that the overall trend has been upward since 2017 (see Figure 20). By
2022, the number of inbound foreign students increased by 57.42%, rising from 14,132
in 2017 to 22,247. While the current figures have surpassed pre-pandemic levels, they
remain lower compared to those of the Philippines’ regional counterparts.

FIGURE 20
Number of Inbound Foreign Students in the Philippines
25,000

22,247
Number of International Students

20,000

15,000
14,566
14,132
12,278
10,000 12,174

7,522
5,000

0
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Year

Source: CHED, as cited by Apply Board, 2023

It is important to note that the number of inbound foreign students reported by

CHED to the Apply Board does not align with the number of student visas issued by
the Bureau of Immigration, hence there is a need to align and harmonize the data on
inbound foreign students across agencies.

However, in 2023, the Bureau of Immigration reported a significant surge in the

number of Chinese students granted student visas, increasing from 819 in 2022 to
16,190 in 2023—an almost twenty-fold increase (Table 9).
204 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 10
Top 10 Nationalities Issued a Student Visa in 2023

Nationality Number of student visas issued

16,190

China

5,414

India

945

Nigeria

164

Korea

131

USA

116

Thailand

100

Myanmar

92

Nepal

82

Indonesia

71

Sudan

Source: Bureau of Immigration, received July 2024

As illustrated by Figure 21, the share of inbound foreign students taking programs
under health and welfare has generally been increasing. In AY 2013/2014, the share
of foreign students in health and welfare fields was 28.79%—equivalent to 1,322
students—, and in nine years, this increased to 61.25%, or 10,619 students, hence
increasing in share and in number. Furthermore, In AY 2018–2019, there is a notable
increase in the proportion of inbound foreign students taking programs under
education at 34.71%, which is larger than the proportion of inbound foreign students
taking health and welfare programs at 29.57%.
 Higher Education 205

FIGURE 21
Programs Enrolled by Inbound Foreign Students

2,081
1,653
2,852
1,052 2,765 2,958
596
139 2,828

888 1,465
509 4,219
460 1,055 488
17, 491
281 990
7,537 10,619
374 12,943
336
6,096
4,601
1,322 3,594
1,617 1,845

Others
Social Sciences, Journalism, and Information
Engineering, Manufacturing, and Construction
Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Statistics
Business, Administration, and Law
Education
Health and Welfare

Source: CHED OPSD, as cited by Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024c)

Historically, Indian students have dominated the share of inbound foreign students
in the Philippines, followed by Chinese and Nigerian students, as seen in Figure 22.
Indian students comprise 55.8%, equivalent to 9,673 students in AY 2022. Chinese
and Nigerian students comprise 27.8% (4,815 students) and 4.6% (791 students),
respectively.

Due to the lack of reliable data on the mobility of Filipino students, available figures
from AY 2016–2017 indicate that out of 14,696 Filipino outbound students, the majority
(30.2%; 4,432 students) went to Australia, followed by the United States (20.7%; 3,037
students) and New Zealand (7.5%; 1,105 students) (Figure 38). The most popular Asian
destinations, in decreasing order, were Saudi Arabia (4.7%; 693 students), the United
Arab Emirates (3.1%; 455 students), and South Korea (2.9%; 432 students).
206 EDCOM II Year Two Report Higher Education 207

FIGURE 22
Top Inbound International Students, AY 2022

0.9%

United States China

Nepal 27.8% 0.3% Japan
of America
1.1 % Korea
0.7%
Vietnam
India
0.6% 0.4% 0.9%
Yemeni
Myanmar
Sudan 55.8%
0.7%

Nigeria
Somalia Thailand 1.5%
4.6%

0.2% Papua New

Guinea
0.3%

0.6%

Indonesia

Top inbound

more than 5,000

501 - 5,000

101 - 500

51 - 100

less than 50

Source: CHED OSDS (Feb, 2024), as cited by Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al. (2024c)

208 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 23
Destinations of Outbound Filipino Students, AY 2016–2017
Others
3,216 (21.9%)
Australia
4,432 (30.2%)

Qatar
(1.2%)
Jordan
(1.5%)
Malaysia
371 (2.5%)

Republic of Korea
432 (2.9%)

United Arab Emirates

455 (3.1%)
Italy
561 (3.8%)

Saudi Arabia
693 (4.7%) United States
3,037 (20.7%)
New Zealand
1,105 (7.5%)

Note: The most updated academic year for outbound Filipino students is AY 2016- 2017 in Project Atlas.
Source: Project Atlas

The low levels of student mobility can be attributed to the complex and bureaucratic
immigration and visa requirements (British Council, 2015; SHARE Project Management
Office, 2020). Currently, student visas or special study permits are issued based on the
following conditions:

TABLE 11
Types of Visas for Foreign Students

Student Visa • If in a foreign country: Philippine HEI endorses the foreign student to the
DFA for the issuance of a Student Visa
• If in the Philippines already: Philippine HEI endorses the application for a
change of visa type from a Temporary Visa to Student Visa at the BI
• Validity duration: initially one year; extendable at BI with an endorsement
from the Philippine HEI

Special Study • For foreign students taking up short-term courses

Permit • Validity duration: same as training duration
• Advised to first obtain a Temporary Visitor’s Visa

Internationalization enhances the quality and global competitiveness of higher

education. According to Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al.3, (2024), its benefits include
improved instructional and research capacity, enhanced international standing
and revenue, increased cultural diversity and intercultural understanding, and
the development of soft skills. However, several barriers hinder the expansion of
internationalization. Centralized implementation and bureaucratic processes, local
and national regulations that constrain program innovation and foreign hiring, and
limited funding and support that favors public HEIs are some of the challenges
faced by higher education institutions. Additionally, security concerns and poor
 Higher Education 209

infrastructure in the Philippines also discourage international students from choosing

the country as a study destination. Furthermore, restrictive foreign regulations and the
lack of mutual recognition agreements between the Philippines and foreign partner
countries pose another obstacle to internationalization. Overall, these challenges
need to be addressed in order to fully realize the benefits of internationalization in
higher education.

Engaging dual citizens as faculty, researchers, and administrators of public HEIs

Restrictive immigration policies have been found to be a deterrent to professionals
and experts wishing to teach in the country. Dual citizens are a potential source of
increasing human resources, being naturalized Filipinos in other countries who have
re-acquired their citizenship by virtue of RA 9225 or the Citizenship Retention and Re-
acquisition Act of 2003.

During Year Two, EDCOM II drafted HB 10251/SB 2733 proposing amendments to

RA 9225 to permit Filipino dual citizens to be hired as faculty, researchers, and
administrators in public higher education institutions, which were filed by Congressman
Mark Go in April 2024 and Senators Sherwin T. Gatchalian and Joel Villanueva in August
2024. The amendment aims to increase human resources in public HEIs, particularly
for science-technology-innovation (STI), and R&D. Natural-born Filipino scientists,
engineers, researchers, professors, and administrators can become employed without
renouncing their oath of allegiance to their foreign country of citizenship. Their
knowledge and expertise can enhance the quality of higher education by facilitating
the exchange of knowledge, innovation, and creativity through cross-pollination of
ideas, as well as address the human resource deficiencies in the country’s public higher
education institutions. Should this requirement of law be amended, dual citizens can be
enticed to work for the public education sector, bringing their knowledge and expertise
to the Philippines that can advance excellent education, research, and innovation.
210 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 2: Transnational education issues

Many ASEAN countries have adopted transnational education (TNE) strategies
involving partnerships with reputable international universities to enhance their
education systems, foster international collaboration, and attract foreign investment
in education. In Malaysia for instance, the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2015–2025
spearheaded the development of EduCity Iskandar Malaysia, an education hub
supported by incentives such as tax exemptions on educational equipment, reduced
withholding taxes on royalties to non-resident franchisors, and a special building
allowance. Malaysia has also implemented twinning programs with prestigious
universities, serving as a foundation for establishing branch campuses.

Similarly, Singapore aims to position itself as a global education hub through initiatives
like the World Class University Programme and Global Schoolhouse Programme. It
supports these efforts with direct and indirect subsidies, discounts on land and rent,
streamlined work permit access, and housing for university staff. Singapore has also
invested in strategic partnerships, such as the National University of Singapore-Duke
University medical program, and established joint programs with top-tier universities.

Despite the passage of RA 11448 Transnational Transnational Higher Education Act,

according to the British Council (2015; 2016), the Philippines has the strictest policy on
foreign ownership in the education sector among ASEAN member states. Accordingly,
the 1987 Philippine Constitution imposes a 40% cap on foreign equity ownership in
education institutions under Article XIV, Section 4(2). This cap is deemed to limit
opportunities for international collaboration and investment, posing a significant
barrier to transnational higher education in the country.

The policy question is whether to raise the foreign equity ownership cap or allow
100% foreign ownership to attract reputable foreign institutions. According to
EDCOM II analysis, crafting the policy must consider the substantial benefits other
countries have derived from TNE and the risk of attracting subpar institutions
that could compromise the quality of Philippine higher education. It would entail
a comprehensive strategic plan to advance TNE and internationalization while
safeguarding educational standards.

This plan could target reputable foreign higher education institutions (HEIs) to offer
programs aligned with the country’s faculty development goals and incentives, such as
tax reductions, fiscal and non-fiscal benefits, and streamlined recognition processes.
Policies to enable foreign faculty and researchers to contribute to teaching, research,
and initiatives like Science and Technology Parks and Knowledge Innovation Centers
would further strengthen collaboration. Merely simplifying immigration regulations
for foreign academics, researc hers, and students would go a long way in promoting
institutional mobility and international partnerships.
 Higher Education 211

TABLE 12
Foreign Equity Ownership in ASEAN Member States

Maximum
ASEAN Foreign land
foreign Regulatory environment
Country ownership
investment share

100% Yes Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1995

Requirements include approved application, incorporation
of company, approved registration, approved course(s) of
Malaysia study, and permit to teach for the faculty and staff. Incentives
include Investment Tax Allowance (ITA) and 100% foreign
ownership of equities.

100% No Decree No. 86/2018 ND-CP; Decree No. 99/2018 ND-CP

Strict regulatory requirements against foreign
institutions, such as minimum capital requirement of
Vietnam USD 21.5 million, qualifications of teaching staff, land
area and gross floor area per student, prevent foreign
investment in the education sector. To apply for the
operation license, foreign-owned schools must satisfy
the regulatory requirements within four years.

100% Yes Private Education Act; Private Education Regulations

2009
There are no land ownership restrictions in terms of
Singapore nationality, but high costs dissuade foreign institutions.
The Singaporean government addresses this by
reducing land costs toward high-end higher education
providers. Restrictions in the basic education sector
also apply in the higher education sector.

100% No Notification 7/2018

The private school is at liberty to teach the
curriculum prescribed by the Ministry of Education
Myanmar or an international curriculum. If they adopt the
local curriculum, it is subjected to the government’s
regulatory framework.

100% No Relatively few regulatory barriers exist, which include

approval for curricular offerings, faculty, and facilities by
Foreign ownership target student body and purpose. Various tax incentives
Cambodia of land is to educational providers from early childhood to higher
constitutionally education, as well as technical and vocational training
NOT permitted. centers.

50% Yes Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999); Private

Institution of Higher Education Act B.E. 2546 (2003)
The Thai higher education sector is fairly restrictive.
Thailand A Council of Institution with policy formulating and
supervisory roles over the foreign HEI in Thailand must
be 50% Thai nationals, but ownership of capital need not
be of Thai nationals. In addition, a provider must obtain
a foreign business license or certificate on top of other
requirements.

In addition, a private HEI granted a license is a juristic

person, and the licensee has an obligation to assign
ownership and/or long-term lease of the land to the
private HEI.

0% No Omnibus Law; Law No. 12 of 2012 on Higher Education

The Indonesian With a cooperation requirement, foreign institutions
education sector Land will be under can establish a foreign university through foundations,
Indonesia is non-profit by the ownership of associations, or other non-profit entities that operate a
law. the local partner. university. A notable requirement for the establishment
of a foreign university in Indonesia is that it must be
established in a special economic zone.

Source: Mayer Brown (2021); Zico Law (2020)

 213

TEACHER EDUCATION

From Classroom to
Career: Reducing
Barriers to Expertise
and Leadership

Introduction

The evolution of teacher education in the Philippines reflects a rich history of reforms
and innovations, spanning the establishment of normal schools during the colonial era
to the current network of teacher education institutions (TEIs) offering baccalaureate
and graduate programs (Savellano, 1999).

Key legislative milestones have sought to professionalize and enhance teacher

education, including the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 (RA
7836 as amended), which tasked the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC)
with administering licensure examinations for teachers. In 2017, the development
of the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) followed the shift to a
learner-centered K to 12 curriculum, which emphasized students’ needs and interests
at the core of the teaching-learning process. The PPST defines the competencies
that educators should acquire and continually improve throughout their careers. The
Excellence in Teacher Education Act of 2022 (RA 11713) further bolstered this progress
by strengthening the Teacher Education Council (TEC) to enhance the teaching
workforce.
214 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Despite these advancements, significant challenges remain in teacher education.

EDCOM II’s Year One Report highlights three priority areas critical to addressing these
challenges: (a) Priority Area 16, which focuses on the alignment of key government
agencies involved in teacher education and development, including the TEC; (b)
Priority Area 17, which addresses preservice education, particularly the quality and
performance of TEIs; and (c) Priority Area 18, which emphasizes continuing in-service
training and development, with a strong focus on teacher welfare.

In Year One, EDCOM II particularly focused on addressing the excessive administrative

duties and community service obligations that burden public school teachers in the
Philippines, detracting from their main role of teaching. These demands limit teachers’
time for lesson planning, professional development, and teaching itself, contributing
to burnout and dissatisfaction (EDCOM II Year One Report). The combined effect of
this excessive workload, low salaries, and limited career advancement makes teaching
less attractive.

The findings also indicate that low passing rates in teacher licensure exams have
persisted from 2009 to 2023. This suggests a misalignment between the teacher
education curricula and the exam content, indicating incomplete curriculum reforms
at TEIs or misaligned examination questions (EDCOM II Year One Report).

Furthermore, concerns about the quality and relevance of in-service training programs
persist, despite widespread participation among teachers. Teachers often cite a
lack of focus on subject matter expertise, inadequate guidance in pedagogical
development​, and poor career support through improved salaries or promotions
(EDCOM II, 2024; World Bank, 2023). Teachers also face barriers such as limited
training slots, high fees, and the absence of a computerized tracking system. The
frustration among teachers is exacerbated by the limited number of master teacher
positions, capped since 2004, which restricts career progression and drives qualified
individuals to leave the profession (EDCOM II Year One Report).

Career progression is further hindered by the scarcity of master teacher positions,

capped at 10% of total district roles for elementary schools and only one for every five
to seven positions in secondary schools. The quota system was established under the
Position Classification and Compensation Scheme (PCCS) (DBM Manual on PCCS,
Chapter 6, 2004). This lack of opportunities discourages and frustrates many qualified
teachers, forcing them to leave the profession altogether (EDCOM II, 2023, Oct 26;
EDCOM II, 2024).

School leadership is a crucial factor in educational outcomes and teacher

development. The EDCOM II Year One Report emphasized the need to review and
improve the pipeline for school principals to ensure that leadership roles are filled by
competent individuals who can support both educators and teachers effectively.
 Teacher Education 215

Year One Updates

CHED has implemented stricter policies to address nonperforming institutions
in response to EDCOM II recommendations. CHED approved the Amendment to
Section 25 of CMO Nos. 74 to 80 and 82, series of 2017 – Adopting a Quality Assurance
Mechanism for Pre-service Teacher Education Degree Programs, designed to ensure
the quality of pre-service teacher education in the country. By issuing CMO 10 s. 2024,
CHED can actually impose sanctions, such as program termination and institutional
closure to non-performing TEIs.

Evaluations will be based on the TEI’s Board Licensure Examination for Professional
Teachers (BLEPT) performance in the last three years, specifically for first-time takers,
and the TEI’s compliance with critical quality indicators, such as school leadership,
faculty qualifications, curriculum, facilities, and learning resources. TEIs showing
potential for improvement will receive technical assistance to address deficiencies
and raise program quality (CHED, 2024).

TABLE 1
Status and Performance of Nonperforming TEIs

Total No. of TEI Monitored 169 TEIs

Total No. of Programs 389 Programs

Total No. of Programs that have been

9 Programs
phased out/closed/ceased operation

Total No. of TEIs with deificies (with

318 Programs
ongoing compliance)

Total No. of Programs recommended for 37 Programs from 16 TEIs

phase-out (NCR- 14; VII- 1; X- 1)

Source: CHED, Dec. 18, 2024

DepEd responded swiftly to EDCOM II’s findings on administrative burdens by

issuing DO 2, s. 2024, which aimed to remove all non-teaching tasks from public
school teachers, and to enable them to focus on teaching. DepEd instructed
schools division offices (SDOs) to implement the order within 60 days, transferring
administrative tasks to school heads and nonteaching staff. For schools with
limited non-teaching personnel, clustering up to three schools was mandated, with
administrative support personnel deployed or urgently hired. Schools that could not
be clustered for geographic reasons were assigned administrative support staff under
contract of service. This strategy aims to support school heads in managing these
tasks while hiring dedicated administrative personnel is underway. To bolster this
initiative, the DBM announced the creation of 10,000 new administrative positions for
2025, in addition to 5,000 positions created for 2024.

DepEd followed up in April with DO 5, s. 2024, reiterating that teachers should not
be required to render more than six hours of actual classroom teaching per day. The
order clarified that public school teachers, as civil servants, are subject to the eight-
hour workday rule, as specified in CSC Resolution No. 080096, on Working Hours for
Public School Teachers and consistent with RA 4670 or the Magna Carta for Public
School Teachers. The order further instructs that the additional two hours of work
216 EDCOM II Year Two Report

should be dedicated solely to ancillary tasks, such as preparing lesson plans, creating
instructional materials, grading test papers, and serving as class adviser or reading/
literacy coordinator. Ancillary tasks also include parent-teacher conferences, home
visits, and mentoring fellow teachers. These tasks may be performed either in-school
or remotely, and teachers are no longer required to submit an accomplishment report
on how they spent these two hours of incidental work (DepEd, 2024b).

Challenges in implementing these reforms prompted EDCOM II to convene a

TWG composed of DepEd, DBM, and CSC to review staffing structures, focusing on
school typology and teaching workload, and to establish common staffing and hiring
standards for nonteaching personnel. The TWG will also provide recommendations
on the rationalization of positions, recruitment, selection, and deployment, while
considering long-term budget implications and DepEd’s organizational structure.
These recommendations aim to ensure that DepEd schools are adequately supported
during this transition (Technical Working Group Meeting on DepEd Hiring and Teacher
Ancillary and Administrative Tasks | March 11, 2024).

Efforts to enhance teacher professional development include integrating data from

the electronic School Form 7 (eSF7) into career progression frameworks (EDCOM
II, 2024, August 2). By capturing teacher demographics, years of service, areas of
specialization, and current teaching assignments, the eSF7 will allow DepEd, the
National Educators’ Academy of the Philippines (NEAP), and TEIs to design targeted
interventions that support the professional growth of teachers across different career
stages and geographic locations. As of June 2024, approximately 87% or 39,339 public
schools submitted their eSF7 and were included in the database. These submissions
have accounted for about 78% or 712,698 teachers based on specific parameters.

The eSF7 has been instrumental in identifying teachers who are teaching outside their
specialization areas. This data should be further studied by NEAP to support program
design and address gaps. However it must be emphasized that eSF7 remains a
standalone spreadsheet rather than an online web form that is fully integrated into the
department-wide information management system (DepEd, 2023c).

Data from the eSF7 also confirms EDCOM II findings that more than 80% of elementary
and secondary-level teachers specialize in general education (DepEd, 2024, July 11) (See
Figures 1A–1B). Additionally, many teachers in Teacher 1 positions are in the age brackets
30-39 and 40-49 and have remained in Teacher 1 position for decades, highlighting
barriers to teachers’ promotion and career growth (DepED, 2024, August 14).
 Teacher Education 217

Other key areas that have been highlighted by the eSF7 data include teachers in the
30–39 and 40–49 age groups who remain in Teacher I positions and those who have
been in the Teacher I position for an average of 20 years. Both trends indicate that
promotion and professional growth have been difficult to attain for many teachers
(DepEd, 2024, July 11).

Year Two Overview

In Year Two, EDCOM II continued its probe into the alignment of key agencies
overseeing teacher education including CHED, the PRC, DepEd, and the TEC. The
focus shifted to potential amendments to the PRC Modernization Act of 2000 (RA
8981) and how these could enhance the PRC’s regulatory function over the teaching
profession. Amendments to the Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 (RA 7836
as amended) were also proposed. Proposals included exploring alternative licensing
pathways to broaden access to the profession.

EDCOM II reviewed the initial findings of the EDCOM-Research Institute for Teacher
Quality profiling study and the Philippine Institute for Development Studies’
evaluation of the roles of Centers of Excellence (COEs) in teacher education. These
studies highlight best practices of high-performing TEIs, QA mechanisms for TEIs, and
collaborations between DepEd and TEIs to prepare preservice teachers. EDCOM II also
examined the limitations of the generalist nature of preservice education, emphasizing
the need to shift toward specialization to improve teaching effectiveness.

EDCOM II discussed policies and in-service training programs that influence teachers’
professional development and career advancement, gathering insights to inform and
improve the draft bill on career progression.

In response to teacher workload concerns, EDCOM II worked toward the creation of a

TWG that would help implement DO 2 and DO 5, s. 2024, which removed nonteaching
tasks from teachers. While this order and the addition of administrative personnel
were positive steps, further measures are needed to systematically alleviate the
administrative burden on teachers.

A hearing on the School Heads and Principal Workforce Pipeline highlighted gaps
including a shortage of school principals, delays in hiring, reliance on interim school
heads, and unclear performance evaluation guidelines. The low passing rates and
inconsistent delivery of the National Qualifying Examination for School Heads
(NQESH) were huge concerns in creating the supply of school principals. While the
School Head Development Program (SHDP) under DepEd Memorandum No. 192, s.
2016, provides some support, the absence of a standardized induction program leaves
new principals underprepared for their roles.

Frequent turnover of school heads, driven by a 5-year tenure limit, disrupts leadership
continuity and hinders long-term initiatives. Stakeholders recommend evaluating
school heads based on performance before reassignment and providing extended
tenure to high-performing principals to help institutionalize their innovations and
maximize their impact. Support mechanisms for underperforming school heads were
suggested. A review of policies on school head rotation and succession planning
was also advised to ensure stable leadership and sustained improvements in school
management.
.
218 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 16:

Alignment of CHED, the PRC,
and DepEd (including the TEC)
on Teacher Education and
Development
Since 1994, the PRC has administered the BLEPT as mandated by RA 7836 as
amended. Passing the BLEPT is required for all incoming teachers, ensuring candidates
meet minimum standards of knowledge and competence (Abdallah & Musah, 2021,
as cited in PBEd, 2023; Libman, 2016, as cited in PBEd, 2023). To qualify for the exam,
candidates must complete a bachelor’s degree in education or a related field from a
recognized higher education institution (HEI) and fulfill other qualifications specified
by law.

As such, the BLEPT not only assesses the competence and aptitude of incoming
teachers but is also a measure of the performance of HEIs offering teacher education
programs (PBEd, 2023) (see Figure 1). Under RA 11713, the PRC is required to be
transparent in the conduct of the BLEPT by releasing examination questions and their
corresponding answers, item analyses, and test statistics immediately after each
exam. This feedback mechanism helps HEIs improve Bachelor of Secondary Education
(BSEd) programs.

CHED supervises and monitors HEI and TEI annual performance in the BLEPT and
submits a status report to the TEC, as mandated by RA 11713 (EDCOM II, 2023; RA
11713). This report includes licensure exam results and the development of teacher
education programs.

In 2017, CHED issued the current policies, standards, and guidelines (PSGs) for
preservice teacher education through Memorandum Orders Nos. 74 to 83. These
PSGs, covering programs from the Bachelor of Elementary Education to the
postbaccalaureate diploma in Alternative Learning Systems, intended to align the
teacher education curriculum with the outcomes-based education framework as
stipulated under CMO 46, s. 2012, and to emphasize 21st-century skills.
 Teacher Education 219

FIGURE 1
Performance of Teacher Education Institutions 2019 vs. 2022

56%
700 655
51% % SHARE OF
TEI CATEGORY
580 LET PASSERS
600
Top Performing 75% - 100%
500
Satisfactory
50% - 74.99%
27% Performing
400 26%
295 314 Poor Performing 20% - 49.99%
21%
300
235 15% Worst Performing < 20%
200 175

3% 2%
100 Number of TEIs with 0%
32 24 Passing Rate:
0
2022 - 1
2019 - 15
g

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in ily

m t
g

or or

or s
in

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r f Top

rf or
m or

Po
m
g
m

Pe W
or t
or

rf fac

rf
Pe tis

Pe
Pe

Sa

Includes TEIs which had at least 10 LET takers for each year.
Total Number of TEIs considered for 20 19 is 1,176 and 2022 is 1,134.

Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd)

56%
900 % SHARE OF
813 TEI CATEGORY
LET PASSERS
800
46%
Top Performing 75% - 100%
700 653
39%
Satisfactory
600 558 50% - 74.99%
Performing
500 26% Poor Performing 20% - 49.99%
375
400 Worst Performing < 20%
300 13%
11% 189
200 155 4%
3% Number of TEIs with 0%
100 63 Passing Rate:
41
0 2022 - 2
2019 - 33
g

g
in ily

m t
g

or or

or s
in

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r f Top

rf or
m or

Po
m
g
m

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or t
or

rf fac

rf
Pe tis

Pe
Pe

2019 2022
Sa

Includes TEIs which had at least 10 LET takers for each year.
Total Number of TEIs considered for 20 19 is 1,418 and 2022 is 1,429.

Source: EDCOM II, 2024

220 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Despite BLEPT’s role in certifying teachers, DepEd considers the exam as only one of
several criteria for hiring (DepEd, 2023b). As the largest employer of teachers, with
approximately 900,000 public school teachers as of 2022, DepEd leads the way in
establishing teacher employment guidelines, ensuring that hiring practices adhere
to merit, competence, and equal opportunity principles. DO 7, s. 2023, outlines the
revised criteria for hiring Teacher I positions, where licensure examination scores
account for only 10 points, while PPST-based observable indicators in and out of
the classroom constitute 60 points. This reflects a shift away from relying solely on
licensure examination results towards alternative assessments that could better
capture the competence and capability of teachers.

Issue 1: A nonfunctional TEC exacerbates weak

coordination among education agencies, overlapping
roles in monitoring teaching institutions, and a lack of
transparency and reforms in the licensure examination.
Transforming teacher education to meet the evolving demands of modern classrooms
requires seamless coordination among DepEd, CHED, and the PRC. However, as
highlighted in the Year One Report, substantial progress in aligning these agencies
has been limited, leaving significant gaps in the overall quality of teacher education
and professional development. Persistent poor results in the BLEPT over the past
decade underscore this disconnect, reflecting a misalignment with teacher education
curricula and licensure examination content.

A key issue is the PRC’s failure to update the BLEPT to align with the CHED’s revised
PSG, which currently applies to only two out of the nine education bachelor programs
(EDCOM II, 2023). Meanwhile, there is a need for further review of the integration
of the PPST into the PSG and consequently, a more systematic monitoring of its
implementation in TEIs. These shortcomings have contributed to the low passing rates
in licensure examinations and low graduation rates from teacher education programs
(PBEd, 2023).

Despite the passage of RA 11713, which aimed to strengthen the TEC and resolve these
coordination challenges, the TEC has yet to be fully operationalized. This continued
delay has perpetuated misalignments among key agencies.

EDCOM II has prioritized rationalizing and unifying the disparate roles of CHED,
DepEd, and the PRC in preservice and in-service training, as well as in the governance
of teacher education. A comprehensive systems-thinking approach is critical to
address these interconnected issues and achieve long-term improvements.

Streamlining the overlapping roles of the TEC and CHED’s TPTE remains a critical
challenge following the enactment of RA 11713 (EDCOM II, 2024, April 6). While the
TEC is now mandated to lead teacher education governance, CHED’s continued
management of the Centers of Development (CODs) and COEs creates ambiguity.
EDCOM II has formally urged CHED to clarify these functions and prevent duplication
of efforts.
 Teacher Education 221

The persistently poor results in the BLEPT over the

past decade indicate this disconnect, suggesting
a misalignment between teacher education
curricula and licensure examination content.

Under RA 11713, the TEC has been granted full authority over the development of
teacher education, superseding any or all functions previously assigned to CHED’s
TPTE, including the identification and development of CODs and COEs. However,
this transfer of functions is not explicitly spelled out in the new law (EDCOM II, 2024,
April 6).

One proposed solution is to redefine the TPTE’s role to focus on monitoring CODs
and COE performance, while the TEC primarily takes charge of these centers (EDCOM
II, 2024, April 6). This delineation is especially urgent given PRC’s lack of monitoring
for TEIs, which allows underperforming TEIs to evade accountability and hampers
targeted interventions (Bautista, 2023).

Performance data from 2010 to 2022 underscore these concerns. Over two-thirds
of COEs and CODs recorded BLEPT passing rates below 75%, with elementary and
secondary levels showing particularly alarming underperformance. Specifically, 68%
of COEs and 87% of CODs failed to meet the treshold for elementary education, while
81% of COEs and 91% of CODs fell short at the secondary level (PBEd, 2023) (see
Figure 2).
222 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 2
COEs and CODs with Less Than 75% Overall BLEPT Passing Rates, 2010– 2022

100
91.4
86.7
80.6
80
68.0

60

40

20

0
Elementary Secondar y

COEs with <75% overall passing rate (12-year average)

CODs with <75% overall passing rate (12-year average)

Source: PBEd, 2023

These statistics challenge the credibility of COEs, institutions purportedly recognized

for excellence in teacher preparation. While some COEs and CODs can be considered
low-performing, they do perform better in the BLEPT (Sinsay-Villanueva et al., 2024).
These results have similarly exposed significant weaknesses in CHED’s supervision and
regulation of these institutions (PBEd, 2023).

A steady enrollment in COEs and CODs contrasts with a concerning decline in their
share of graduating education students, raising doubts about their capacity to
consistently produce top-performing graduates (Sinsay-Villanueva et al., 2024). This
issue is compounded by the limited effectiveness of the COE and COD initiatives in
assisting underperforming TEIs. Furthermore, the benefits of being designated as a
COE or COD are not clear or motivating enough for institutions, which may discourage
them to pursue or maintain these titles.

Regional disparities exacerbate these issues. The majority of COEs and CODs are
located in Luzon, particularly in the NCR, leaving Visayas and Mindanao underserved
(see Figure 3). This uneven distribution limits access to quality educational resources
and opportunities for aspiring educators in these regions and contributes to
lower BLEPT performance, particularly in areas such as SOCCSKSARGEN and the
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim MIndanao (BARMM) (Sinsay-Villanueva et
al., 2024).

One proposed solution is to redefine the

TPTE’s role to focus on monitoring CODs and
COE performance, while the TEC primarily
takes charge of these centers.
 Teacher Education 223

FIGURE 3
Regional Distribution of COEs and CODs

Luzon: 25
(69.44%)

NCR: 7
(19.44%)

Visayas: 5
(13.89%)

Mindanao: 6
(16.67%)

Source: Sinsay-Villanueva et al., 2024

To address these challenges, activating clear lines of governance, redistributing

resources, and prioritizing collaboration among agencies and communities will be
essential. Without these steps, the goal of producing high-quality educators across
the Philippines will remain out of reach.

A significant gap in the oversight of the teaching profession persists due to

insufficient monitoring and coordination by CHED and the PRC. Despite their shared
mandate under the PRC Modernization Act of 2000 (RA 8981) to monitor school
performance and teaching conditions, underperforming TEIs continue to operate
despite consistently poor licensure examinations outcomes. Failure to implement an
effective monitoring system limits accountability and undermines efforts to improve
teacher quality. Left unchecked, underperforming TEIs produce graduates who either
struggle to pass the licensure examinations or whose training quality is questioned
due to low examination scores.

Effective teacher education and professional development requires the cohesive

collaboration among the TEC, the PRC, CHED, and NEAP. These agencies must
work together to establish a seamless system that aligns preservice and in-service
education with national professional standards.

Table 2 outlines specific roles of these offices under RA 11713, emphasizing

responsibilities in preservice education, professionalization, curriculum development,
QA, licensure, and professional development. Coordination among these bodies
is critical to standardizing policies and practices across the teacher education
continuum.
224 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 2
Roles of the TEC, the PRC, CHED, and NEAP Based
on the Excellence in Teacher Education Act of 2022 (RA 11713)

Agency Preservice Teacher Education In-Service Teacher Education

TEC Policy Development and Monitoring Strengthening Preservice and In-Service Linkages
• Establish a roadmap for teacher education • Collaborate with NEAP and other stakeholders
aligned with national higher education and to strengthen the connection between
development plans. preservice and in-service teacher education
• Set and monitor basic requirements for programs.
teacher education programs to ensure • Monitor and evaluate the implementation of
compliance with professional standards. professional standards, including in-service
Designation and Quality Assurance of TEIs professional development programs.
• Identify and designate Teacher Education Research and Innovation
COEs and formulate plans to develop COEs • Serve as a central repository of research on
regionally. teacher education and conduct studies to
• Maintain a list of TEIs in coordination with inform policy and planning.
CHED. Collaboration and Coordination
Professionalization and Career Development • Coordinate with CHED, the PRC, DepEd, TESDA,
• Prescribe examinations and assessments and UniFAST to align teacher education policies
to ensure readiness for licensure and and initiatives.
teaching. • Encourage partnerships among public and
• Develop and monitor systems that private TEIs for shared resources and improved
recognize teacher career stages and link programs.
them to professional standards.

PRC Licensure and Assessment Support for Professional Development

• Administer the BLEPT and analyzing its • Align licensure exams with TEC-prescribed
content and results. standards.
• Ensure transparency in licensure exams • Recognize NEAP programs for continuing
through item analyses and results professional development.
publication.
Reporting
• Provide TEC annual reports on licensure
exam results and other relevant data to
improve teacher education programs.

CHED Curriculum Development and Program Standards Collaboration with TEC

• Incorporate the TEC roadmap into the • Develop strategies to attract and recruit top-
national higher education roadmap. performing high school graduates into teacher
• Ensure compliance with TEC-mandated education programs.
standards by TEIs.
Quality Assurance and Regulation
• Supervise, monitor, and regulate Teacher
Education COEs.
• Report annually to the TEC on TEI
performance, curriculum implementation,
and student outcomes.

NEAP Collaboration with TEC and Stakeholders: Professional Development

• Aligning in-service programs with TEC • Design and implement professional
policies to ensure coherence with pre- development programs aligned with
service education. professional standards.
• Coordinating with PRC for recognition or • Monitor NEAP-recognized programs offered by
accreditation of professional development other institutions.
programs. • Provide scholarships and fellowships for
advanced studies in specialized fields.
Resource and System Management
• Develop a professional development
information system to track programs,
providers, and participant achievements.
• Manage resources and funding to support
teacher and school leader development.

Abbreviations: CHED = Commission on Higher Education, COE = Center of Excellence, DepEd = Department of
Education, BLEPT = Board Licensure Examination for Professional Teachers, NEAP = National Educators’ Academy
of the Philippines, PRC = Professional Regulation Commission, TEC = Teacher Education Council, TEI = Teacher
Education Institution, TESDA = Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, UniFAST = Unified Student
Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education
 Teacher Education 225

In Year Two, EDCOM II prioritized the review of RA 7836 as amended to reform the PRC and
improve accountability. This review focuses on restructuring the licensure examination
process, introducing third-party assessments to restore public trust, exploring alternative
teacher accreditation pathways, and ensuring closer coordination between the PRC, CHED,
and the TEC (EDCOM II, 2024, February 9b). Strengthening alignment among these agencies
is critical for updating examination formats and requirements, centralizing regulatory
frameworks, maintaining high institutional accreditation standards, and mapping the
specific skills and competencies required for the regulation of the teaching profession.

Recommendations
CHED should align teacher education policies with the TEC’s and effectively communicate
these across institutions to ensure cohesive sector-wide implementation (EDCOM II,
2024, April 6). RA 11713 mandates the TEC to establish offices that coordinate the nationwide
adoption of best practices in teacher education and ensure compliance with professional
standards. With TEC’s new offices in place, close collaboration between CHED and the TEC is
needed, with the latter possibly funding some of the former’s TPTE activities.

The PRC should undergo reforms to improve coordination with CHED and the TEC and
enhance its regulatory role. The current regulatory framework of the PRC has often been
criticized for its protectionist approach, which focuses heavily on compliance and control
rather than fostering growth and adaptability. This has particularly affected the teaching
profession, where rigid policies have hindered its development and responsiveness to
evolving educational demands. To address these issues, targeted reforms must balance
regulatory oversight with encouraging professional growth.

RA 8981, originally enacted to modernize the PRC’s regulatory functions and enable process
computerization, requires further amendments to enhance its oversight capabilities.
These reforms should improve coordination with CHED and the TEC, create a more flexible
regulatory framework that supports professional development, and align PRC’s functions
with current national education goals to ensure the teaching profession evolves to meet
future needs.

RA 7836, as amended, which tasked the PRC with regulating the teaching profession and
established the Board for Professional Teachers, has been criticized for its protectionist and
unresponsive policies. To make the regulation more supportive of professional growth, the
following reforms are recommended:

Enhancing Transparency and Accountability in Teacher Licensure Exams

• Release examination papers and answer keys within 48 hours after the licensure exam
to enhance transparency and allow Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) to adjust their
curricula accordingly.
• Publicly identify the names of licensure examination makers to reduce conflicts of
interest and build trust in the system.

Third-Party Assessments
• Introduce third-party assessments before and after the administration of licensure
exams to improve validity and reliability, ensuring fairness and accuracy in measuring
competence.
226 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Multiple Accreditation Pathways

• Establish alternative accreditation options such as portfolios, TEI accreditation
(e.g., designation as Centers of Excellence), and competency assessments.
These alternatives address the limitations of current examinations, which cover
only two out of eight teaching disciplines.
• Expand entry pathways for teacher licensure to include noneducation majors
with relevant teaching experience or those who have completed an 18-unit
certificate course in teaching. For instance, the Philippine Science High School
model, where specialized teachers do not need a license to teach their assigned
subjects effectively due to their advanced degrees and regular training, can be
adopted.
• Introduce a separate examination for Early Childhood Education due to its
unique competency requirements.

Tracking and Accountability for TEIs

• Publish the 10-year track record of TEI licensure examination performance in
coordination with CHED. Sanctions will apply to low-performing schools.
• Disaggregate licensure results for education course graduates and
noneducation course graduates (e.g., teaching certificate holders). Results for
noneducation graduates will be credited to the TEI where the certificate was
obtained.

PRC Board Member Selection

• Review the PRC Board member selection process to diversify representation
and ensure transparency.
• Prioritize candidates with strong ethical backgrounds and allow nominees
without endorsements from professional organizations. Endorse seconding full-
time members for the licensure process.

Refresher Courses for Examination Failures

• Require targeted refresher courses for candidates who fail the licensure
examination more than three times, addressing specific areas of weakness
instead of allowing unlimited retakes under the current three-strike rule.

These amendments are included in House Bill No. 9979, which was approved on third
reading on March 19, 2024, and the three Senate bills filed for amending this law.

Fully operationalizing the TEC is urgently needed. The TEC has made progress on
several deliverables based on its powers and functions. One of the key efforts is
establishing a system for identifying and designating Centers of Excellence (COEs) in
Teacher Education, tailored to regional contexts. The TEC has also provided technical
support in reframing the preservice teacher education curriculum, prioritizing
the alignment of educational programs with contemporary needs. In addition, the
TEC is launching a Teacher Education Roadmap to guide the design of innovative,
responsive, and collaborative teacher education programs. As part of its commitment
to ensuring high-quality programs, the TEC has mandated basic requirements for
teacher education institutions (TEIs) and initiated the formation of consortia to
encourage collaboration and improve educational outcomes.

Furthermore, the TEC is establishing a comprehensive quality assurance (QA) system,

including professional development programs for educators. To promote equitable
access to teacher education, the TEC has expanded its scholarship programs,
particularly for underserved areas and foundational education levels, including
early childhood care and development. These scholarships aim to attract talented
individuals into teaching, addressing shortages in critical subject areas and regions.
 Teacher Education 227

The TEC has also supported research in teacher education by funding thirteen priority
research projects in partnership with nine TEIs, underscoring its dedication to
advancing knowledge and improving educational practices.

While CHED and the TEC have started to implement more rigorous monitoring and
evaluation of COEs and CODs, there is a need to focus on long-term outcome and
impact indicators to ensure accountability and continuous improvement, and to
reinforce COE and COD mandates.

The process for obtaining COE and COD designations should be incentivized
to encourage more TEIs to apply. This could include streamlining the application
process, using international incentive models for teachers, offering scholarships
for students and specific programs to promote the quality of learning, and granting
exemptions to certain requirements to elevate learning quality (Sinsay-Villanueva et
al., 2024). By reducing barriers and providing tangible benefits, TEIs would be more
motivated to seek higher standards.

Stronger partnerships and mentoring programs between COEs, CODs, and

underperforming TEIs should be established, with clearly defined roles and
responsibilities to ensure effective collaboration and support. With the enhanced
TEC in place, this should be easier to do. The incentives, coupled with clear roles
and responsibilities, could encourage COEs to be more proactive in fulfilling their
mandates to assist underperforming TEIs through targeted initiatives, such as
curriculum development, professional development for faculty, and resource sharing.
These efforts should be aligned with the specific needs of the institutions they aim to
support.

Addressing regional inequalities in the distribution of COEs and CODs is critical

to improving teacher education across the Philippines. COEs and CODs are heavily
concentrated in Luzon, while regions such as SOCCSKSARGEN and BARMM have
fewer of these institutions, limiting access to quality educational resources and
opportunities for aspiring educators. This uneven distribution not only exacerbates
existing disparities in teacher preparation but also contributes to lower performance
in the BLEPT in underserved regions.

Targeted interventions must be developed to address the unique challenges faced

by these regions, particularly in Visayas and Mindanao. These interventions should
include equitable resource allocation, capacity building for underperforming TEIs,
and tailored support programs to address region-specific needs. Bridging these
gaps will also require enhanced collaboration among government agencies, TEIs, and
community stakeholders to contextualize the implementation of teacher education
programs.

By prioritizing underserved regions, enhancing stakeholder collaboration, and

addressing systemic weaknesses, the Philippines can create a more equitable and
effective teacher education system. These efforts will not only improve teacher
preparation but also produce highly qualified teachers nationwide.
228 EDCOM II Year Two Report Teacher Education 229

Significant regional disparities exist in the

distribution of COEs and CODs for teacher
education across the Philippines, with most
located in Luzon and fewer in Visayas and
Mindanao. This uneven distribution limits
access to quality educational resources
and opportunities for aspiring educators in
underrepresented regions
(Sinsay-Villanueva et al., 2024).
230 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 17:

Preservice Education
Issue 1: There is misalignment between the generalist focus of
preservice education and teacher specialization on one hand
and distribution needs across the regions on the other.
CHED has long recognized the need to realign Philippine education with both national
and international standards. In response to global shifts in the educational paradigm
and the emerging need to become economically competitive in the ASEAN region,
CHED issued CMO 46, s. 2012, adopting an outcomes-based education framework
for higher education programs, including teacher education, which accounts for
the second highest number of enrolled HEI students. This marked a significant shift
from traditional content-based education to a more competency-driven approach,
ensuring that graduates acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to meet the
demands of the new global economy (CHED, 2012).

TABLE 3
Higher Education Enrollment by Discipline Group, Academic Year 2019–2020

Discipline Group SUCs LUCs OGs Private Total % Share

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries 107,337 2,060 446 5,615 115,458 3.39%
Architecture and Town Planning 14,369 462 27,930 42,761 1.25%
Business Administration and Related 287,359 91,673 684 498,945 878,661 25.78%
Education Science and Teacher Training 289,766 66,777 1,321 313,557 671,421 19.70%
Engineering and Tech 259,607 11,086 419 170,952 442,064 12.97%
Fine and Applied Arts 5,859 337 10,713 16,909 0.50%
General 1,637 815 818 2,396 5,666 0.17%
Home Economics 3,279 33 270 3,582 0.11%
Humanities 18,951 3,233 17,218 39,402 1.16%
IT-Related Disciplines 126,996 31,157 166,543 324,696 9.53%
Law ang Jurisprudence 4,694 1,564 20,243 26,501 0.78%
Maritime 5,414 203 80,497 86,114 2.53%
Mass Communication and 11,173 2,511 16,648 30,332 0.89%
Documentation
Mathematics 10,545 577 1,503 12,625 0.37%
Medical and Allied 27,150 8,047 2 00 198,807 234,204 6.87%
Natural Sciences 23,729 498 9,202 33,429 0.98%
Other Disciplines 64,192 15,486 1,220 171,926 252,824 7.42%
Religion and Theology 7,906 7,906 0.23%
Service Trades 18,828 3,573 50,805 73,206 2.15%
Social and Behavioral Sciences 40,479 8,672 61,104 110,255 3.23%
Trade, Craft, and Industrial 409 409 0.01%
Grand Total 1,321,773 248,731 5,141 1,832,780 3,408,425

Abbreviations: IT = information technology, LUCs = local universities and colleges, OGs = other government schools,
SUCs = state universities and colleges
Source: CHED, 2020
 Teacher Education 231

This outcomes-based approach was adopted in the new teacher education curricula
promulgated via CMO 74–82, s. 2017. In particular, these nine new curricula were
developed to align with salient features of the enhanced K–12 curriculum, the PPST,
and the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF), producing educators that are
proficient in 21st-century skills, can demonstrate mastery of subject matter, and
are able to innovate and adapt instructional approaches based on the learning
environment context (CHED, 2017).

To complement this, CHED also issued CMO 17, s. 2022, which strengthened the QA
framework for HEIs. This QA system promotes internal QA mechanisms and external
oversight to ensure alignment with the PQF and other national and ASEAN standards.
This underscores CHED’s commitment to enhance TEIs by mandating continuous
program improvement and rewarding institutions committed to quality (CHED,
2022a).

Despite ongoing efforts, the Year One Report revealed significant gaps in preservice
education, showing poor performance across many Teacher Education Institutions
(TEIs) in licensure exams. In response, EDCOM II has urged CHED to revisit guidelines
for underperforming institutions and recommended phasing out those with BLEPT
scores below 30% over the past three years.

Preservice research studies focused on the following drivers needed to improve

preservice training quality: experiential learning, TEI educator profiles, QA, and
coursework focusing on specialization.

Experiential Learning
A key component of effective preservice teacher training is practice-based training.
TEIs must carefully design their preservice teacher training programs based on what
students need to learn. Beyond subject knowledge, preservice teachers must also
develop pedagogical skills and gain experience in managing classrooms. The quality
and relevance of practicum placements are also critical, as teachers tend to perform
better when their first year of teaching closely resembles their student-teacher
placement experience (World Bank, 2024). Experiential learning opportunities,
such as practicums and internships, allow aspiring teachers to develop essential
classroom management skills and gain real-world experience in interacting with
learners. However, in the Philippines, CHED PSGs require only a minimum of six units
each for Field Studies and Practice Teaching or Teaching Internships, which is among
the shortest practice teaching requirements in the world.

Practicum duration in the Philippines is notably shorter compared to top-performing

education systems worldwide, such as those in Finland and Shanghai, China, where
prospective primary and secondary teachers undergo at least six months of practicum
(IBRC-World Bank, 2019). In many less-developed countries, the absence of a national
policy defining practicum features—including minimum duration, supervision, and
support structures—leaves individual institutions to set their own policies and
standards. This lack of uniformity limits the ability of teacher training centers and
schools to provide consistent high-quality practical experiences.

TEI Educator Profiles

A survey of teacher educators gathered responses from 3,257 teacher educators,
representing 468 out of 1,553 TEIs nationwide (30.13% response rate). Most responses
came from Region VI (397), Region I (379), and Region III (354), while the least came
from Region XIII (46), MIMAROPA (48), and the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR;
64). Among the respondents, 62.85% were female, and the median age was 37. Region
232 EDCOM II Year Two Report

XII had the youngest median age (29), while CAR and the NCR reported the oldest
(44). This survey was part of EDCOM II’s broader National Profiling Study of TEIs and
Teacher Educators, conducted in partnership with the Philippine Normal University
through the Research Institute for Teacher Quality.

Initial results indicate the following:

• Regarding qualifications, 93.43% of teacher educators were Licensed

Professional Teachers, with CAR achieving 100% representation. Conversely,
MIMAROPA, Region IV-A, and BARMM had the highest percentages of
respondents without any professional license. About 74.24% of teacher
educators held at least a master’s degree, with CAR (92.19%) leading, while
Region XII (61.73%), Region XI (44.86%), and BARMM (42.67%) lagged behind.
• Employment data show that 65.54% of teacher educators were regular (tenured)
faculty. MIMAROPA (83.33%), CAR (82.81%), and Region XIII (78.26%) had the
highest rates of tenured faculty, while Region VII (52.66%), Region XII (51.02%),
and BARMM (45.33%) had the lowest.
• Most respondents had teaching experience in secondary education (64.5%),
followed by elementary education (30.09%) and early childhood education
(13.87%).
• Their professional experiences in basic education were largely learner-
oriented, such as teaching basic education learners and developing materials
for these learners, with less involvement in teacher-oriented development
activities.
• Teacher educators generally rated themselves as competent in content
knowledge, pedagogy, the provision of enabling learning environments, the
alignment of curricula with mandates, and the exercise of teacher agency,
though institutional support for teacher agency varied.
• Notably, CAR excelled across most indicators, while BARMM consistently
faced challenges, including low percentages of licensed, graduate-degree-
holding, and tenured faculty, reflecting broader disparities in regional teacher
education performance.

While the TEI and teacher educator study has yet to be finalized, the gathered data will
serve as a basis for identifying research or policy interventions that can help the TEC
and CHED in their mandates to support quality preservice teacher education.

Quality Assurance
According to an EDCOM II-World Bank symposium on teacher preparation held
on June 5, 2024, strong education systems implement QA mechanisms for initial
teacher education to ensure that teacher candidates are well prepared. QA helps
manage training quality and balances the supply and demand for teachers, especially
in the context of teacher shortages.

QA can occur at various levels, including institutional, program, course, and individual
student teacher levels (World Bank, 2024). It can be conducted both internally by
institutions and externally by government or affiliated agencies and encompasses the
following aspects:

• Attracting and selecting candidates for ITE;

• Evaluating training content and processes, including curricula;
• Assessing suitability to the purpose of institutions and programs; and
• Ensuring that training effectively builds the skills and knowledge of student
teachers.
 Teacher Education 233

Experiential learning opportunities, such as

practicums and internships, allow aspiring
teachers to develop essential classroom
management skills and gain real-world
experience in interacting with learners.

In terms of assuring the quality of institutions and programs, in some contexts,

monitoring is sufficient, while in others, regulatory strategies are needed to enforce
alignment to quality standards. Depending on enforcement capacity, institutions
and programs that do not meet quality standards may be shut down, and inadequate
communication efforts may discourage candidates from attending these institutions.

Since Year One, EDCOM II has emphasized the need for stringent monitoring of
underperforming teacher education providers, especially given the Philippines’s
learning crisis and the significant impact of teacher quality on student learning. This
requires heightened vigilance in quality assurance across all TEIs nationwide

In November 2024, CHED approved amendments to Section 25 of CMO 74–80 and

82, s. 2017, establishing a QA mechanism for preservice teacher education programs
to address persistent issues of underperformance among TEIs. Under CMO 10,
2024, TEIs will be assessed based on their board performance (first-time takers from
2021–2023) and compliance with CHED standards, including critical quality indicators
outlined in the relevant CMOs. Nonperforming TEIs may face interventions such as
technical assistance to help them comply with quality standards. Persistent failure
to improve performance will result in program phaseouts, barring these institutions
from admitting new students into their preservice teacher education programs (see
Figure 1 in the PA 16 section). This proactive QA mechanism underscores the urgent
need to address the poor performance of TEIs to elevate the overall quality of teacher
education in the Philippines.

Specialization-Focused Coursework
The generalist nature of preservice education has contributed to low-level content
mastery among teachers in Key Stages 1 and 2, as it fails to equip them with
the specialized subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills necessary to
address the distinct developmental needs of younger learners (EDCOM II, 2024 ,
January 18) (see Figure 4). The Year One Report revealed that many DepEd teachers
are underprepared to effectively deliver core subjects within the K–12 curriculum,
specifically English, Filipino, math, and science. Teachers also lack critical higher-order
thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which are required to foster
deeper learning in students (Year One Report).
234 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 4
Percentage Distribution of Grade 5 Students by Their Teacher’s Specialization

Teacher of another subject 33.7%

Social Studies teacher 6%

Most learners had teachers
who were Generalists who were
Language teacher 11.4% usually expected to teach in all
or most of the key learning areas
in the curriculum.
Mathematics teacher 9.1%

Generalist Grade 5 teacher 38.8%

Note: Teacher of another subject means the teacher is not teaching his/her/their specialization
Source: UNICEF and SEAMEO. (2021).Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics 2019 National Report of the Philippines.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

FIGURE 5
DepEd Key Stages 1 and 2

Source: EDCOM II, January 18, 2024

Key Stage 1 (Kindergarten–Grade 3) and Key Stage 2 (Grades 4–6) represent critical
developmental phases in the K–12 program (DepEd, 2024c). Assessments at the end
of each stage ensure that students meet the developmental and learning outcomes
specific to that stage (DepEd, 2024c). However, consultations regarding the teaching
pipeline for these key stages revealed that teachers are frequently assigned to grade
levels that do not align with their specialization or competency (EDCOM II, 2024,
January 18).
 Teacher Education 235

However, in the
Philippines, CHED
PSGs require only
a minimum of six
units each for
Field Studies and
Practice Teaching
or Teaching
Internships, which is
among the shortest
practice teaching
requirements in
the world.
236 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Although the BEEd program is designed to produce generalists for elementary

education, BEEd graduates are often placed in Key Stage 1 classrooms, where
specialized training in early childhood education, now supposedly provided by the
Bachelor of Early Childhood Education (BECEd) program, is more appropriate (EDCOM
II, 2024, January 18) (See Figure 5). This mismatch is partly due to a lack of clear
distinction between BEEd and BECEd graduates in both licensing and hiring processes.
The BECEd PSG do not align with RA 7836, resulting in BECEd graduates being forced
to take the same licensure examination as BEEd graduates, which may not adequately
assess their specialized competencies. The shortage of BECEd graduates (see Figure
6) has also led to the hiring of BEEd graduates to teach in Key Stage 1, even though the
pedagogical approaches required for this level differ significantly from those needed
for later stages.

The current BECEd degree covers primary education from preschool to Grade 3,
which has raised concerns about how effective the program is for its target students
(Year One Report). However, child development experts advocate this broader scope,
not just because it ensures developmental continuity and consistency, in line with
practices in other countries, but also because focusing on early childhood in this way
enables TEIs to concentrate on developing specializations for Grade 4 and beyond
(EDCOM II, 2024, January 18).

FIGURE 6
Bachelor of Early Childhood Education
Enrollees vs. Graduates by Academic Year

13,977
10,252

10,000
5,467

5,000
2,911
1,290

1,355
1,042
1,126

1,074
1,147

1,154

886

834
836

874

835
669

627

504
545
365
315

224

252
221
169

196

198

221

196

214
197

171

63

0
/11
06

07

08

09

10

/12

/13

/14

/15

/16

/17

/18

/19

/21

/22
/2
10

20
9/

16
11

17
13
12

14
6/
5/

15

18

21
7/

8/

19
20
0

20

20
0

20
20
0

20

20

20
0

20
0

20
20
20
20
20
20
20

20

Enrollees Graduates

Source: EDCOM II, January 18, 2024

 Teacher Education 237

TABLE 4
Policies and Standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum
(CMO 30, s. 2004)

Section 115. Content Course for BEEd

For the BEEd program, students have to complete 57 units of consent courses that
correspond to the various learning areas in the elementary education curriculum.
These courses, which are in addition to the related GE requirements, are distributed as
follows:
Science 12 units

Mathematics 12 units

English 12 units

Filipino 6 units

Social Studies 6 units

Music, Arts, and Physical Education 3 units

Home Economics and Livelihood Education 3 units

Values Education 3 units

For the BEEd program, students may choose 57 units of content courses in two areas
of specialization: Special Education and Pre-school Education

TABLE 5
Policies, Standards, and Guidelines for Bachelor of Elementary Education
(BEEd) (CMO 74, s. 2017)

C. Major / Specialization Courses

SCI Teaching Science in the Elementary Grades (Biology and Chemistry) 3

SCI Teaching Science in the Elementary Grades (Physics, Earth and Space Science) 3
SSC Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary Grades (Philippine History and Government) 3

SSC Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary Grades (Culture and Geography) 3

FIL Pagtuturo ng Filipino sa Elementarya (I) - Estruktura at Gamit ng Wikang Filipino 3

FIL Pagtuturo ng Filipino sa Elementarya (II) - Panitikan ng Pilipinas 3
MATH Teaching Math in the Primary Grades 3
MATH Teaching Math in the Intermediate Grades 3
TLE Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan 3
TLE Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan with Entrepreneurship 3
MUSIC Teaching Music in the Elementary Grades 3
ARTS Teaching Arts in the Elementary Grades 3
PEH Teaching PE and Health in the Elementary Grades 3
ENG Teaching English in the Elementary Grades (Language Arts) 3
ENG Teaching English in the Elementary Grades Through Literature 3
MTB-MLE Content and Pedagogy for the Mother Tongue 3
VED Good Manners and Right Conduct (Edukasyong Pagpapakatao) 3
RES Research in Education 3
TTL Technology for Teaching in the Elementary Grades 3
238 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 7
Comparison of 2004 and 2017 Teacher Education PSGs

Policies & Standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum (CMO No. 30, s.2004)

Values Ed
HE
Science
MAPEH 3
3
12
3

Social
Science 6

6 12
Filipino Math

12

English

Policies, Standards, & Guidelines for Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEEd) (CMO No. 64, s.2017)

Tech
Science
Res

MTB-MLE 3 6
3
Math
3
VE 6
3

TLE ? 6 English

Units were reduced

in these learning
6
3 areas.

6 Filipino
MAPEH

Social Science

HE = Home Economics; MTB-MLE = Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education; Res = Research;

Tech = Technology; VE = Values Ed
 Teacher Education 239

Phasing out nonperforming TEIs or noncompliant

preservice teacher education programs is
consistent with the implementation of the
Excellence in Teacher Education Act (Republic
Act No. 11713), which we passed to improve the
quality of teacher education and training in our
country. Our teachers are the most important
factor in education. We have to make sure that
our TEIs are producing competent and qualified
teachers who have the most crucial role in
reversing our country’s education crisis.
(Sen. Win Gatchalian, 2024)

DepEd’s lack of comprehensive data on teacher supply and demand, particularly

regarding specialization and distribution across the regions, hampers effective
teacher allocation and deployment (EDCOM II, 2024, January 18). Schools often post
generic Teacher I vacancies without specifying the specialization required, leading to
mismatches in assignment. It has been observed that only a few applicants would apply
if job postings required specialization in elementary education, as most teachers are
trained as generalists due to the structure of the BEEd program (see Tables 4 & 5). The
Magna Carta for Public School Teachers also does not mandate specialization when
hiring elementary school teachers, so schools hire based on board examination rankings
rather than specialization needs. However, DepEd has clarified that the CSC Omnibus
Rules on Appointments and Other Human Resource Actions do not preclude the agency
from indicating the specific key stage and other specialization requirements on vacancy
announcements (EDCOM II, 2024, March 11b). DepEd has also reiterated its commitment
to revise its teacher qualification criteria. For instance, while mother tongue may be
indicated for proper notation to indicate an applicant’s proficiency at the language
deemed most appropriate for teaching, it nevertheless would only serve as a guide in
the selection of applicants deemed most fit to the needs of the school (DepEd, 2024,
February 2).

Teacher Vacancies
The shift toward specialization in Key Stage 2 has emerged as a critical
recommendation to improve teaching effectiveness, as teachers who currently
receive generalist training often lack the deep subject knowledge and discipline-
specific pedagogies needed to address the unique learning needs of students
in Grades 4–6 (EDCOM II, 2024, September 26). Key Stage 2 represents a critical
juncture where students require more focused instruction in specific subject areas
such as Math, Science, and English to prepare them for the increasingly complex
curriculum in higher grades. While specialization is already happening to some
degree in schools, such as with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM) courses or in interventions for students with difficulty in specific subjects,
consultations with teachers, school leaders, and other stakeholders point out the need
for improvements to maximize its effectiveness. This may include having more options
for differentiated instruction, providing more access to subject-specific resources,
and exposing students to workshops, field trips, or mentorship programs related to
their specialization.
240 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 8
Educational Background vs Subject Taught

Kinder to Grade 3 (Key Stage 1) Teachers SUBJECT TAUGHT

Agriculture & Fishery Arts - -

Araling Panlipunan 87.88% 11.42% 0.7%

Biological Sciences - -
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

English 87.85% 10.31% 1.84%

Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao 87.82% 12.13% 0.04%

Filipino 87.9% 11.48% 0.62%

Music, Arts, PE & Health 87.88% 11.97% 0.16%

Mathematics 87.89% 11.2% 0.9%

Physical Sciences 88.92% 11.07% 0.01%

Science 86.41% 12.81% 0.79%

Technology & Livelihood Educ 86.94% 11.41% 1.65%

Early Childhood Educ 86.94% 10.01% 0.47%

Grades 4-6 (Key Stage 2) Teachers SUBJECT TAUGHT

Agriculture & Fishery Arts - - -

Araling Panlipunan 83.79% 15.08% 1.13%

Biological Sciences - - -
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

English 83.27% 12.54% 4.19%

ESP 82.94% 17.01% 0.06%

Filipino 84.57% 14.42% 1%

MAPEH 83.83% 15.75% 0.42%

Mathematics 83.45% 12.89% 3.66%

Physical Sciences 79.37% 20.61% 0.02%

Science 82.55% 15.51% 1.94%

Technology & Livelihood Educ 81.25% 16.26% 2.49%

General Education Subject UNRELATED to teacher’s Subject MATCHES teacher’s

educational background educational background
 Teacher Education 241

Grades 7–10 (Key Stage 3)

Teachers (Junior High) SUBJECT TAUGHT

Agriculture & Fishery 0% 50% 50%

Araling Panlipunan 0.97% 51.01% 48.02%

Biological Sciences - - -
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

English 0.82% 18.2% 80.98%

ESP 0.9% 93.64% 5.45%

Filipino 0.99% 42.72% 56.29%

MAPEH 0.96% 67.29% 31.75%

Mathematics 0.79% 17.42% 81.8%

Physical Sciences 0.77% 98.54% 0.69%

Science 0.82% 46.22% 52.96%

Technology & 0.77% 61.79% 37.43%

Livelihood Education

Grades 11–12 (Key Stage 4)

Teachers (Senior High) SUBJECT TAUGHT

Agriculture & Fishery 0.87% 69.95% 29.18%

Araling Panlipunan 0.87% 68.59% 30.55%

Biological Sciences 0.29% 79.62% 20.09%

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

English 0.89% 52.73% 46.37%

ESP 0.97% 93.65% 5.38%

Filipino 1.13% 51.13% 47.74%

MAPEH 0.97% 78.93% 20.1%

Mathematics 0.63% 17.93% 81.45%

Physical Sciences 0.72% 97.55% 1.73%

Science 0.73% 69.82% 29.44%

Technology & 1.04% 82.75% 16.22%

Livelihood Education

General Education Subject UNRELATED to teacher’s Subject MATCHES teacher’s

educational background educational background
242 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Key Stage 2 represents a critical juncture where students

require more focused instruction in specific subject areas
such as Math, Science, and English to prepare them for the
increasingly complex curriculum in higher grades. While
specialization is already happening to some degree in
schools, such as with Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) courses or in interventions for students
with difficulty in specific subjects, consultations with
teachers, school leaders, and other stakeholders point out
the need for improvements to maximize its effectiveness.

Many elementary school teachers start their careers as generalists owing to their
BEEd degree (see Figures 7 & 8) but gradually develop specialized knowledge through
years of teaching experience. As such, some argue that specialization need not be
introduced during preservice education but should rather be considered during
career progression. According to this view, specialization develops naturally over time,
therefore including it in the licensure examination may be unnecessary.

Meanwhile, other advocates suggest that specialization should begin as early

as preservice education, as certain subjects, especially the Arts, Sciences, and
Technology, demand deep content knowledge and discipline-specific methodologies.
Some TEIs, such as the University of the Philippines and the Philippine Normal
University, have already revised their programs to incorporate specialization,
emphasizing that adequately preparing teachers to handle the rigorous academic
demands of these subjects ultimately improve educational outcomes.

The Philippine teacher education system has traditionally trained elementary teachers
to be generalists, with limited opportunities for specialization. Specialization at Key
Stage 2 is now being proposed as a means to improve teaching effectiveness and
deepen teachers’ subject matter expertise. Assigning teachers to subjects based on
their comparative advantage has been shown to improve student learning outcomes
(Cohen et al., 2018, as cited in EDCOM II, 2024, September 26b). Moreover, teaching
the same subject repeatedly can accelerate the development of expertise and boost
teachers’ confidence in the subject matter (Brobst & Markworth, 2019, as cited in
EDCOM II, 2024, September 26b).

However, the TEC needs to study and issue clear guidelines, including concentration
specializations for Key Stage 2 (EDCOM II, 2024, September 26). This addresses the
current oversupply of generalist teachers, making it difficult to fulfill the demand for
Key Stage 2 specialized teachers. Additionally, achieving a balanced distribution of
specialization within schools can be challenging, as this depends on each school’s
focus, mission, and capacity. For instance, specialization may be more difficult to
implement in smaller schools due to limited resources.
 Teacher Education 243

There is a need for more than supply-side discussions about specialization. They must
be matched with on-the-ground practices in teacher hiring and loading subjects for
them to work. This requires the TEC, the Bureau of Human Resources and Organizational
Development (BHROD), and NEAP to work closely, have access to reliable data, monitor
the implementation of programs, and do interventions as needed.

Recommendations
Extend and structure practicum duration. Practicum periods should be lengthened
to provide teacher trainees with meaningful teaching experiences. These experiences
must go beyond mere observation and include active classroom management
and lesson implementation. Additionally, it is important to distinguish between
introductory field experiences and extended teaching practice. Introductory
experiences should focus on familiarizing trainees with the school environment,
while extended teaching practice should emphasize progressively increasing
responsibilities to prepare trainees for real-world classroom challenges (IBRD-World
Bank, 2019; World Bank, 2024).

Embed practicum in curriculum and materials. Ensure that practicum experiences

align closely with the curriculum by incorporating teaching aids and instructional
resources directly into classroom activities, bridging theory with practice, and
ensuring coherence between coursework and teaching contexts already happens in
the beginning of initial teacher education (IBRD-World Bank, 2019; World Bank, 2024).

Mitigate supervision gaps in resource-constrained schools by developing scalable

models of support, such as peer mentoring among trainees, the grouping of trainees
in varied school settings, and digital tools for remote supervision and feedback. To
ensure the effectiveness of Joint CHED-DepEd Memorandum Order No. 1, s. 2021,
which outlines the policies and guidelines on the deployment of preservice teachers
for field study and teaching internship under RA 7722 and RA 9155, the implementation
of field study courses and teaching internships must be monitored and evaluated.
To facilitate this, DepEd regional memoranda provide a monitoring tool to gather
necessary data in developing evidence-based and research-based policies and
strengthening teaching internships at the regional level. DepEd, CHED Regional
Offices, and SDOs share their monitoring and evaluation results.

Recommendations for TEI Educators

Continue a closer and more rigorous monitoring of nonperforming TEIs, considering
the recommendation in the Higher Education chapter on harmonizing approaches
among QA stakeholders to enhance the credibility and impact of accreditation
processes (see the Higher Education discussion on page 122).

Conduct a comprehensive teacher supply and demand study, with a focus on

current teacher distribution, areas of specialization, skills gaps, and professional
development needs. This study should account for projected demand based on
enrollment trends, expected retirements, and other educational requirements across
all regions and levels. By informing curriculum improvement and resource allocation,
this study would help align preservice education with the specific needs of various
grade levels and subjects, particularly in critical areas such as STEM, early childhood,
and special education.
244 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 Teacher Education 245

It’s hard to learn theoretical ideas in isolation,

try to remember them for two years until you
get to student teaching, and then all of sudden
be put in a situation where you’re supposed
to implement something you’ve never seen in
practice. That doesn’t work. That’s the old model
of teacher education.
(Darling-Hammond, 2001)

Accurate and timely data, which may be provided by a well-functioning information

system, would support DepEd and CHED in effectively managing teacher placements,
identifying oversupply or scarcity in specific areas, and refine TEI programs to match
future workforce demands.

High-performing TEIs with established expertise in specialization should mentor other

TEIs that lack the capacity to adequately prepare preservice teachers for specialized
roles. This would leverage the strengths of true COEs to ensure that preservice
teachers across all institutions gain the subject matter knowledge and pedagogical
skills essential for specialized teaching roles.

Address critical supply-side constraints among teachers specializing in STEM,

Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao, and Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health. There
is a need to review the current preservice teacher education program and issues on
alignment with DepEd priorities and needs. Developing alternative pathways to the
BLEPT and career progression framework, including certification and professional
development, is a must (Teacher Ed, 2024) .

High-performing TEIs with specialization expertise should mentor other TEIs to

raise training standards, fulfilling the role of true COEs (see recommendations under
Priority Area 16 on page 184). This collaboration would help ensure that preservice
teachers gain stronger subject matter knowledge and pedagogical skills, preparing
them for specialized teaching roles. Based on studies, there is a need to be proactive
in ensuring quality provision in specific regions.

For instance, the BLEPT elementary and secondary passing rates are lowest in
Mindanao, with an average of 20%–22% point difference from NCR passing rates
(PBEd, 2023). BARMM maintains the lowest overall passing rates among Mindanao
regions, with an overall passing rate of 15.8% for elementary and 12.6% for secondary
passers. A negative relationship exists between the BLEPT passing rate and poverty
incidence rate (Yambot & Cambel, 2020), as evidenced by Mindanao’s high poverty
incidence percentage and low passing rates.

Increased funding, stronger TEI monitoring and supervision, and investment in teacher
education can bridge this gap, ensuring that all regions will have access to quality
education programs, thereby improving the overall performance of teachers nationwide.
246 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 18:

In-Service Training and
Development, Including
Teacher Welfare
The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers or RA 4670, enacted in 1966, sought to
protect the welfare of teachers by establishing fair working conditions, including
limitations on their teaching hours. RA 4670 states that public school teachers are
required to render a maximum of 6 hours of actual classroom teaching per day,
allowing them sufficient time for lesson plan preparation and other incidental duties
without exceeding their regular work hours. However, when necessary, teachers may
be asked to teach for up to eight hours, with compensation for any teaching overload.

Despite protective measures, the workload of public school teachers has significantly
expanded beyond classroom duties. The DepEd’s 2018 Teacher Workload Balance
Study indicates that, in addition to teaching, teachers handle about 50 administrative
and ancillary tasks, which are often more suited for administrative staff (DepEd, 2024a;
EDCOM II, 2024).

These numerous tasks, compounded by inadequate nonteaching staff in schools, have

placed significant strain on teachers, severely affecting their focus and performance
and reducing the time they can devote to lesson planning, student engagement, and,
most importantly, classroom instruction. Many teachers report frequently exceeding
the required eight-hour workday just to complete their responsibilities (EDCOM II,
2024). The burden of these overwhelming tasks has led to widespread dissatisfaction
and has become a major point of concern for educators and stakeholders.

Issue 1: Policies that are not implementable because of

realities on the ground and lack of funding
The chronic shortage of nonteaching personnel in many public schools remains
a major obstacle to effectively reducing the administrative burden on teachers
(EDCOM II, 2024, February 8). Teachers have welcomed the relief promised by the
directive of DO 2, s. 2024, which mandates the immediate removal of administrative
tasks for public school teachers, but they also have expressed concerns about their
schools’ capacity to implement this change without sufficient suport staff. Currently,
there is an uneven distribution of nonteaching personnel across schools; some large
city schools have more administrative staff while many small provincial schools are
severely understaffed or have none at all. This imbalance makes it difficult for many
schools to comply with the new directive to transfer administrative tasks away from
teachers.
 Teacher Education 247

TABLE 6
Inventory of AO II and Project Development Officer I Positions

Inventory of Non-Teaching Personnel

Fiscal Year AO II PDO I

2020 4,973 0

2021 4,840 0

2022 5,000 0

2023 3,500 1,500

2024 5,000 0

SHS 1,196 0

Prior FY 2020 Creation 10 0

Total 24,519 1,500

Note. A total of 24,519 AO II items have been created for schools. DepEd requires 20,680 items to ensure at least one
AO II per school.
Source: DepEd, January 11, 2025

Since 2020, DepEd has allocated AO II personnel in tranches, totaling 24,519 as of

2024. This means that enough items have been created for a 1:1 ratio of AOs to schools.
Research by IDinsight has shown, however, that this remains generally insufficient,
especially for large schools with more than 500 students (2024). Findings from
IDinsight reveal that while administrative officers (AOs) have provided some relief, two
out of three teachers still report working more than 40 hours per week, mostly due to
ancillary tasks (2024). The same study also surfaced how teachers have also expressed
the need for project development officers for program coordination responsibilities.

Administrative personnel are responsible for a wide range of essential tasks at

schools, including managing records and performing clerical functions. However, one
of the most burdensome issues teachers continue to face is the repetitive submission
of paperwork, particularly for systems such as the Learner Information System and the
Enhanced Basic Education Information System (EDCOM II, 2024, February 8). Teachers
are often required to provide the same data multiple times to various DepEd offices,
even though the information has already been submitted. This duplication not only
disrupts instructional time but also adds unnecessary stress to teachers, as they are
frequently pulled away from their classrooms to complete these redundant tasks.

Concerns were also raised about how the current shortage of administrative personnel
would just shift the increased workload onto school principals or onto a single
administrative personnel already struggling to manage tasks for one school (EDCOM
II, 2024, February 8). Under DO 2, s.2004, this burden may simply grow with the
instruction to form a cluster of three schools for those with limited personnel (EDCOM
II, 2024, February 8; DepEd, 2024a). Like teachers, many administrative staff are
dissatisfied with their expanding workload, with some even considering resignation as
they are now expected to handle the administrative load of multiple schools (EDCOM
II, 2024, February 8). Moreover, results of Career Progression TWG consultations
revealed that nonteaching personnel need higher qualifications and capacity building
to be able to prepare the more technical reports that are currently being done by
teachers.
248 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The DBM has committed to funding 5,000 new AO positions annually, starting in
2020, under the Miscellaneous Personnel Benefit Fund (EDCOM II, 2024, February
8). Although the DBM has confirmed the availability of Php 300 million for initial
funding, this was deemed insufficient, with estimates suggesting the need for an
additional PHP 817 million​to cover the budget shortfall (EDCOM II, 2024, March
11b). After a comprehensive review, DepEd adjusted its request to Php 6.8 billion
for the 2025–2026 school year to fund 20,000 AO positions, as the previous
allocation was inadequate to address the actual backlog in public schools (EDCOM
II, 2024, April 30a).

Commitments may have been made for new AO positions, but there have been no
allocations made for project development officer (PDO) positions. While AOs handle
day-to-day operational tasks, PDOs are needed to manage projects and initiatives
that extend beyond regular administrative duties, such as development programs,
community engagement, and external partnerships. Without these roles, the
administrative burden of overseeing both internal operations and external projects,
which is anticipated to continue over the next five years, falls on a small number of
staff (EDCOM II, 2024, April 30a). Moreover, some schools under the clustering model
would need to share administrative personnel across three schools, further straining
the existing workforce. There are also outlier schools that may not be clustered due to
distance and other geographic factors (EDCOM II, 2024, February 8; 2024, April 30a).

The IDinsight study likewise highlights how. many tasks currently handled by teachers.
Many tasks currently handled by teachers fall outside the job description of AO IIs,
indicating that deploying more AO IIs alone will have minimal impact on reducing
school-related workload. Despite the DBM’s allocation of new AO positions under
the Miscellaneous Personnel Benefit Fund, unfilled positions remain a significant
concern (EDCOM II, 2024, February 8; 2024, April 30). Historically, many positions
were left unfilled due to the suspension of hiring under a previous Rationalization
Plan, which left roles tagged as coterminous-to-the-incumbent unaddressed. As of
June 2024, 2,559 out of 5,821 coterminous-to-the-incumbent positions remained
unfilled (EDCOM II, 2024, June 18a). Some of these positions, including janitorial,
maintenance, and security services, were recommended for fulfillment through job
order contracts if elimination was not feasible (EDCOM II, 2024, April 30a). In some
cases, school divisions received these positions, but recruitment stalled due to local-
level delays in notification and processing (EDCOM II, 2024, February 8). These delays
underscore the need to streamline and digitize hiring systems to address staffing gaps
more efficiently.

At present, DepEd lacks a centralized system to manage the hiring process, resulting
in fragmented and incomplete data on school staffing, vacancies, and budget
allocations. This lack of comprehensive and timely information makes it difficult to
accurately assess the full scope of staffing issues.
 Teacher Education 249

The lack of coordination among DepEd, the DBM, and the CSC complicates the
hiring process, resulting in a fragmented system with multiple steps and agencies,
creating bottlenecks at various stages. For instance, schools must obtain a Notice
of Organization, Staffing, and Compensation Action from regional DBM offices
before recruitment can begin, adding an extra step to filling positions (EDCOM
II, 2024, February 8). Inefficiencies in paperwork and approvals further slow the
process. Notifications from the Human Resource Management Office, which
oversees job postings, applicant assessments, and final appointments requiring
CSC attestation, involve redundant steps that frequently delay the onboarding of
new nonteaching staff.

DBM representatives suggest the hiring process could take about a week, but delays
at DepEd and CSC often extend it to 6 months or more for a single position (EDCOM
II, 2024, February 8). The slow hiring pace has drawn criticism, calling the 60-day
deadline for transferring administrative tasks unrealistic.

Findings from TWG consultations underscore the need to clean and rationalize
DepEd’s database of plantilla positions, some of which have not been updated since
the pre-EDCOM I era. DepEd’s efforts to address these findings have resulted in
savings of Php 590,489,538.00, demonstrating the value of continued housekeeping
practices.

A Teacher Forms Survey conducted in

August 2024 revealed that 42 out of 124
respondents spent 4–8 hours per week just
to fill in or create forms.

There is also a need to reduce and improve the efficiency of school forms required
from teachers. A Teacher Forms Survey conducted in August 2024 revealed that
42 out of 124 respondents spent 4–8 hours per week just to fill in or create forms.
Respondents identified various forms, such as school records and daily lesson logs,
but had different opinions on which were particularly tedious and time-consuming.
These findings highlight the need for DepEd to review and rationalize these
requirements and leverage technology to reduce teachers’ administrative workload,
allowing them to focus more on lesson preparation (Rodrigo & Talandron-Felipe,
2024).
250 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
Fast-track the implementation of a system to centralize data collection and minimize
the need for repetitive paperwork submissions. Expanding the use of electronic
forms such as eSF7, which automates tasks such as teaching load calculations, will
further streamline processes, as demonstrated by the successful implementation in
Tarlac’s Learning Management System (EDCOM II, 2024, February 8).

Update and modernize the 1997 DBM Organization and Staffing Standards and
DepEd DO 52, s. 2015. These updates should relieve teachers of nonteaching
responsibilities, enabling them to focus fully on teaching, while addressing the
growing complexity of school operations. The updated framework should emphasize
the need for key nonteaching roles, such as counselors, librarians, ICT coordinators,
and registrars, which are crucial for students’ holistic development. A thorough review
of support programs should identify funds that can be redirected toward hiring
essential support staff.
 Teacher Education 251

Issue 2: Limited opportunities for career advancement

force teachers into administrative roles.

A major question for governments is how to transform teaching into an attractive

career choice. Countries worldwide are grappling with poor working conditions and
dwindling retention rates, significantly impacting the teaching profession (Tournier et
al., 2019). In this context, teacher career reforms have been identified as a potentially
powerful lever. Many governments actively seek ways to diversify teacher career
structures and widen career advancement opportunities to attract and retain high-
performing teachers.

In the Philippines, teacher promotions occur at an alarmingly slow rate, with data
indicating that it takes an average of 15 years to progress from Teacher I to Teacher III
(EDCOM II, 2024, April 6) (see Tables 7 & 8). This sluggish advancement is exacerbated
by the fact that most new hires are assigned as Teacher I despite their potential
to begin their careers at more advanced levels based on their competencies or
experience. Before the release of DO 20, s. 2024, hiring policies in DepEd allowed
original appointments for Teacher II and Master Teacher positions only in senior
high school (SHS). In elementary and junior high schools, where most new hires
were assigned, teachers began at Teacher I, slowing career progression. DO 20, s.
2024 introduced changes permitting original appointments for Teacher II and Master
Teacher at these levels, aiming to accelerate career growth.

TABLE 7
Teachers’ Position by Years of Service

Position Less than 1–5 Years 5–10 11–20 21-30 31 Years

1 Year Years Years Years and
Above

TI 0.03% 13.99% 15.17% 7.34% 1.61% 0.35%

197 97033 105230 50908 1179 2399

T II 0.01% 2.52% 5.85% 5.10% 2.46% 0.90%

38 17472 40581 35359 17035 6237

T III 0.001% 0.85% 8.71% 14.20% 7.44% 2.60%

7 5877 60437 98476 51582 18019

MT I 0.0007% 0.0558% 0.3111% 1.9259% 1.9328% 0.98%

5 387 2158 13358 13406 6771

MT II 0.0169% 0.0918% 0.4787% 0.8054% 0.58%

117 637 3320 5586 4039

MT III 0.0016% 0.0014% 0.0102% 0.0254% 0.0189%

11 10 71 176 131

MT IV 0.0003% 0.0001%
8 1

Source: DepEd, June 5, 2024

252 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 8
Teachers’ Position by Age

Position 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60 and

above

TI 9.226% 16.9% 2.83% 8.56% 0.504%

66896 122887 20517 62095 3654

T II 1.490% 5.846% 3.247% 5.071% 0.865%

10806 42386 23543 36766 6272

T III 1.133% 9.489% 8.540% 12.087% 2.014%

8215 72138 61923 87641 14604

MT I 0.026% 0.679% 2.225% 1.818% 0.532%

185 4926 16130 13181 3860

MT II 0.005% 0.135% 1.044% 0.554% 0.283%

7 981 7570 4016 2049

MT III 0.0041% 0.003% 0.034% 0.015% 0.007%

3 2 246 108 51

MT IV 0.00014% 0.00028%
1 2

Source: DepEd, June 5, 2024

Career progression in teaching should encompass both positional advancements

(e.g., from Teacher I to Teacher III) and development through career stages (e.g., from
beginner to proficient levels). Professional development, led by NEAP, supports this
growth. However, teachers at higher proficiency levels face a dilemma: remain in
teaching or move into administrative roles. Limited career advancement opportunities
push many teachers toward administrative roles for better pay, as classroom-based
promotions are scarce. Master Teacher roles are few, and becoming a school head
is the only significant promotion path, requiring extensive training and added
responsibilities. Consequently, few teachers achieve distinguished statuses or
principal roles, leaving many stuck at lower levels unless they leave teaching. This
hinders the development of instructional expertise and contributes to a shortage of
experienced classroom educators.

Significant progress has been made through DO No. 20, s. 2024, and the Career
Progression System IRR under EO No. 174, s. 2022, which established the Expanded
Career Progression System for Public School Teachers signed in July 2024. By
creating new teaching positions and career pathways (see Table 9), EO 174 allows
educators to grow within the classroom without being forced into administrative
roles, thus retaining talented teachers where they are most needed (EDCOM II, 2024).
Furthermore, under Senate Bill No. 2827, there is a proposal that enables teachers to
pursue career progression and professional growth through one of three designated
strands or career lines: Teaching, School Administration, and Supervision. The HB
and SB share the Teaching and School Admin career lines, while the SB is the only one
proposing for the Supervisory career line.

In addition to the IRR, DepEd submitted revised Qualification Standards for Teaching
and School Administration Positions to the CSC (Public Hearing of the Senate
Subcommittee on Career Progression System for Public School Teachers last October
22, 2024). These competency-based standards replace position-based requirements,
enabling external applicants to qualify for higher teaching positions if they meet the
necessary qualifications.
 Teacher Education 253

TABLE 9
Positions for Classroom Teaching and School Administration Career Lines

CT Career Line SA Career Line SG Level

Master Teacher V School Principal IV 22

Master Teacher IV School Principal III 21

Master Teacher III School Principal II 20

Master Teacher II School Principal I 19

Master Teacher I 18

Teacher VII 17

Teacher VI 16

Teacher V 15

Teacher IV 14

Teacher III 13

Teacher II 12

Teacher I 11

Source: DBM et al., 2022a

Finally, the House of Representatives approved the Career Progression for Public
School Teachers Act on the Third Reading on September 5, 2024. At the Senate,
the TWG concluded its meetings on November 28, 2024, advancing the legislative
process.

Recommendations
Releasing the IRR of EO 174 is a significant step toward establishing a supportive and
rewarding career framework for public school teachers. However, this initiative must
be institutionalized through legislation to fully achieve its goals of expanding career
progression, promoting professional growth, and recognizing excellence in teaching,
leadership, and administration.

All the legislative initiatives of the EDCOM II commissioners include the following key
recommendations:

• Institutionalize career progression for public school teachers.

• Expand career opportunities by creating new teaching positions (Teacher
IV–VII and Master Teacher V), ensuring alignment in salaries, benefits, and
privileges across different career lines.
• Establish clear and rationalized career paths, enabling teachers to pursue
alternative career trajectories after reaching Master Teacher I.
• Harmonize qualification standards and assessments.
• Integrate standards-based assessments to ensure quality in career
progression.
• Emphasize continuous professional development and support, including
targeted programs for teachers who do not meet performance standards,
fostering their growth and retention.
254 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• Promote merit-based and flexible career progression.

• Implement promotion and reclassification systems based on merit and
competency, allowing teachers to advance at their own pace through faster
reclassification processes.
• Ensure that no teacher retires at the entry-level position by creating robust
pathways for advancement in teaching and administrative roles.

These measures aim to attract, retain, and reward highly competent educators by
institutionalizing career progression and aligning it with quality teaching standards.
Thus, they aim to strengthen the quality of education in the Philippines.

With limited opportunities for career

advancement, many teachers feel compelled
to move into administrative roles to secure
higher pay rather than progressing through
classroom-based positions

Issue 3: NEAP’s lack of strategic framework and top-down

approaches for continuing professional development
programs impede continuous professional development of
teachers.
The new career progression system emphasizes teachers’ professional development
and continuous learning through standards of competencies and performance
aligned with the PQF and other international standards (EO 174, s. 2022). EO 174 also
harmonizes the roles of DepEd, the CSC, the DBM, and the PRC in implementing this
new system, including the establishment of a comprehensive information system that
collects and tracks data on teacher qualifications.

RA 11713 institutionalized NEAP to provide high-quality in-service training programs

for teachers and school leaders. First established in 1985 as the National Education
Learning Center, NEAP has undergone several reforms aimed at strengthening the
delivery of teacher education (DepEd, 2024). In 2019, DepEd issued DO 11, s. 2019, to
create a more responsive system that caters to teachers’ diverse needs and establish
clear linkages between teacher education and career progression (Prudente et al.,
2024). The order also sought to improve the quality and effectiveness of school-based
learning action cells (LACs), which were introduced under DO 35, s. 2016, following the
implementation of the K–12 curriculum (Prudente et al., 2024). LACs are an important
vehicle for improving teachers’ competence through communities of collaborative
learning and reflective practice, as the majority of teacher training occurs at the
school level (Prudente et al., 2024; World Bank, 2016, as cited in Year One Report).

Another key framework guiding the professional development system is the

Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST), which outlines seven
domains of teacher practice, further defined through 37 strands and proficiency
indicators. The PPST serves as the foundation for evaluating teacher performance
through the Results-Based Performance Management System (RPMS), originally
established in 2015 by DepEd and later amended by DO 8, s. 2023, to integrate
 Teacher Education 255

professional development into performance evaluations. By aligning teacher

performance with all 37 strands of the PPST, RPMS data can help identify individual
learning needs and guide the creation of targeted training interventions (DepEd, 2023,
as cited in EDCOM II, 2024, July 11).

While these reforms laid a strong foundation for enhancing teachers’ continuous
professional development, the Year One Report highlighted the need for an urgent
review of the weaknesses that continue to impact teacher education. Access to high-
quality training remained uneven across regions, with many teachers raising concerns
about redundancy and relevance, as most training programs did not fully address their
specific needs or subject specializations (EDCOM II, 2024).

NEAP’s transformation into an effective professional development institution has

been stalled by a lack of strategic framework, clear priorities, and monitoring and
evaluation (EDCOM II, 2024, August 2). Although the transformation was mandated
in 2019 under DO 11, s. 2019, and an interim organizational structure was adopted
in 2020, change management at NEAP only began in 2023. This effort includes the
adoption of a three-year roadmap, the rationalization of office and job functions, and
the upskilling of existing workforce.

The review of preservice programs for Key Stages 1 and 2 has clearly illustrated the
need for in-service training tailored to the unique requirements of educating younger
children, which differ significantly from the specialized needs of teaching in higher
grade levels (EDCOM II, 2024, January 18) (see Figure 9). In-service training is also
more costly than preservice education, and there are not enough training providers
due to the lengthy PRC process of accrediting continuing professional development
(CPD) programs . According to RA 10912, or the CPD Act of 2016, teachers must
complete 15 CPD credit units annually to renew their teaching license. As the primary
agency responsible for CPD, NEAP is tasked with resolving these challenges. While
NEAP has reached out to the PRC to streamline the process and reduce bureaucratic
delays in CPD accreditation, no final outcome has been reported (EDCOM II, 2024,
January 18).

FIGURE 9
Percentage Distribution of Grade 5 Students by Their Teacher’s Training

No training has been received 17.2% Mathematics

Language
18.9%

Yes, during both preservice 38.1%

and in-service training
33.6%

Yes, during in-service 38.5%

training only
45.1%

6.2%
Yes, during preservice
training only 2.4%

Source: UNICEF and SEAMEO. (2021).Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics 2019 National Report of the Philippines.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
256 EDCOM II Year Two Report

EDCOM II recommended the establishment of a Professional Development

Information System (PDIS) to profile and track the continuing education of teachers
and to determine specific needs at every stage of their career (EDCOM II, 2024). The
PDIS will serve as a powerful instrument to identify, design, and plan relevant and
targeted in-service trainings that align with career progression, make these training
sessions accessible to all, and rapidly assess the impact of these interventions on a
national scale. EDCOM II also proposed a review of Human Resource Development
Fund allocation and utilization to assist NEAP in developing a functional PDIS.
However, based on several meetings between EDCOM II and NEAP in 2024, there
has been little progress in developing the PDIS and an unclear timeline for its
completion and implementation. NEAP also has yet to properly utilize new eSF7 data
for addressing issues in teacher development, such as subject-level mismatch among
graduates.

Top-down approaches still predominate many aspects of CPD, even as bottom-up

approaches such as LACs have proven effective in enhancing both subject-specific
knowledge and instructional practices (Prudente et al., 2024). Teachers are motivated
to participate in in-service training and CPD programs when activities provide content
and methodologies that address the practical needs of classrooms (Prudente et
al., 2024). Among these, the communal aspect of CPD programs, as demonstrated
by LACs, plays a uniquely vital role by offering teachers a support system and
collaborative space to share challenges, co-construct knowledge, and gain inspiration
from peers. Despite their essential role, LACs face logistical challenges, such as
scheduling variations, resource limitations, and a lack of standardized evaluation tools,
which contribute to the uneven adoption of LACs across schools (Vega, 2020, as
cited in Prudente et al., 2024). In addition, the consistent participation of teachers in
LACs is also hindered by teachers’ heavy academic workload (Verbo, 2020, as cited in
Prudente et al., 2024).

Recommendations
Accelerate a centralized human resource information system (HRIS) platform
that includes eSF7 data, enabling the real-time monitoring of teacher profiles and
professional development needs. A centralized HRIS and PDIS platform should
consolidate demographic and professional data for a comprehensive view of the
teaching workforce, enabling targeted CPD interventions based on regional and
individual needs. It would identify CPD disparities across regions, address barriers in
underserved areas, and guide resource allocation and program planning. The platform
can also assist in projecting plantilla positions under the Career Progression System.
Transitioning eSF7 to an online, integrated system would improve data accessibility,
automate collection, and streamline reporting for DepEd, NEAP, and division offices.

As NEAP’s transformation is long overdue, it must begin implementing in-service

programs that genuinely support and nurture teachers. NEAP should develop more
mandatory professional development programs that emphasize collaborative learning
(through LAC sessions), mentoring, and blended learning approaches. It also needs to
align these professional development programs with career progression and ensure
that professional development is integral to the promotion process.

Since the approval of NEAP’s structure as an attached agency remains pending

with the DBM, NEAP should explore alternative strategies to move forward with
its transformation. Clear communication with the DBM on expected timelines for
structure approval should be built.
 Teacher Education 257

NEAP should also focus on finalizing its professional development framework

and setting clear timelines for its implementation. This framework should spell out
training priorities for teaching and teaching-related personnel. In parallel, progress
on the PDIS must continue, and interim solutions should be in place to prioritize
professional development needs until the system is fully operational. NEAP must plan
to integrate eSF7 data into its decision-making process, leveraging insights from
the data to tailor teacher development programs, such as addressing subject or level
mismatches. Moreover, NEAP should monitor and evaluate training outcomes and see
whether the strategy on LACs in the MATATAG curriculum has worked.

Issue 4: Despite its criticality in bringing about school-

level reforms, little attention is placed in recruiting,
appointing, and fully supporting competent school heads
and principals.
FIGURE 10
OPTION 2
SCHOOL HEADS IN THE DEPED SYSTEMS, SY 2023–2024
Source: Source: Basic Education Information System End Of School Year Data for SY 2023 - 2024
SCHOOL HEADS IN THE DEPED SYSTEM
45,199 DepEd Schools

WITH Principal WITHOUT Principal

20,381 schools 24,916 schools

OIC only
2,337

Head Teacher only TIC only Undefined

13,332 8,916 193

(Retrieved in July 2024)

School Head Position and Allocation

DO 77, s. 2010, defines school heads as individuals occupying the plantilla positions
of School Principal (I–IV) and Head Teacher (I–VI). The policy states that a school
principal plantilla item is to be assigned to every complete school with at least nine
teachers and every cluster of three schools with at least nine teachers. Additionally,
Head Teacher plantilla positions are to be provided to schools with at least six
teachers and every cluster of three schools with at least six teachers. Despite these
guidelines, DepEd’s Basic Education Information System End Of School Year Data
for SY 2023–2024 shows that only 20,283 out of 45,199 public schools (45%) have a
school principal as school head (see Figure 10).
258 EDCOM II Year Two Report

EDCOM II and IDinsight collaborated to analyze DepEd databases containing

information on school head plantilla positions and teacher data to assess policy
compliance within the DepEd system. Despite data inconsistencies due to varying
collection times, our analysis revealed significant strategic deployment issues.
Notably, there was low alignment and compliance with the policy on principal and
head teacher allocations. Of the 20,381 public schools with school principals, only
18,744 had the corresponding plantilla item (see Table 10). Approximately 1,381 schools
with principal plantilla positions were instead led by head teachers, teachers in charge
(TICs), or officers in charge (OICs), underscoring challenges in adhering to policy
guidelines.

There were also widespread inconsistencies in the allocation of school heads, with
about 12,057 schools with incorrect school head items. This issue was especially
prevalent among elementary schools, with 8,533 pure elementary schools and 639
schools offering both elementary and junior high levels failing to comply with DepEd
policies.

Furthermore, only 16,437 of the 24,481 schools eligible for a principal had one assigned
(see Table 11), a problem highlighted during an EDCOM II site visit to Naic, Cavite.

At Ciudad Nuevo de Naic National High School, which had 34 teachers and 3,324
students, a significant misalignment in leadership roles was observed. The school was
managed by an assistant school principal whose plantilla item was officially allocated
to a nearby integrated high school.

Although eligible for a school principal position, Ciudad Nuevo de Naic only had a
head teacher position allocated to it. According to DO 19, s. 2016, assistant school
principals are designated for large SHSs (those with 841–1,240 students) with an
existing school principal plantilla position. This policy, along with DO 77, s. 2010, was
not adhered to in Ciudad Nuevo de Naic, highlighting the flaws in the current school
head allocation and deployment system.

TABLE 10
Listed Plantilla Position vs. School Head Designation, All Schools

SCHOOL HEAD DESIGNATION TOTAL

PLANTILLA
POSITION Principal Head Teacher in Officer in Undefined
Teacher Charge Charge

None 1,169 1,279 8,153 1,235 161 11,997

Head Teacher 468 11,560 417 600 15 13,060

Principal 15,873 300 313 411 10 16,907

Both Head Teacher 2,871 193 33 131 7 3,235

and Principal

Total 20,381 13,332 8,916 2,377 193 45,199

* Highlighted in red are incorrectly deployed school heads based on policy.

* Data for this analysis were sourced from three different datasets (Notice to Proceed, Basic Education Information
System, and Government Manpower Information System) because there is no centralized data system that
encompasses all school head plantilla items, such as school principals, school heads, TICs, and OICs, along with their
respective school IDs. Additionally, plantilla items for elementary school and SHS in the Notice to Proceed dataset
have been allocated to the SDOs to provide flexibility. This means that the SDOs have the discretion to deploy the
principal plantilla items.
 Teacher Education 259

Sa 45,198 DepEd schools…ang meron lang

principal, is only 20,718…kulang na kulang
tayo sa principals…are you not panicking?
-Rep. Roman Romulo, 2024

TABLE 11
Listed Plantilla Position vs. School Head Designation,
Schools with Nine or More Teachers

SCHOOL HEAD DESIGNATION TOTAL

PLANTILLA
POSITION Principal Head Teacher in Officer in Undefined
Teacher Charge Charge

None 485 357 1,414 441 103 2,800

Head Teacher 346 4,157 147 286 6 4,942

Principal 12,750 222 209 341 7 13,529

Both Head Teacher 2,856 185 33 129 7 3,210

and Principal

Total 16,437 4,921 1,803 1,197 123 24,481

* Highlighted in red are incorrectly deployed School Heads based on policy.

* Locally funded teachers are excluded from the policy governing the allocation of school head plantilla positions. In
accordance with the law, locally funded teachers were not included in this count.

Compounding these issues are gaps in data; notably, 193 schools lack recorded school
head data, with 65% (126 schools) of these being purely elementary (see Table 12).
This absence of data poses significant challenges, as it may indicate that there are no
allocated school heads in those schools.
260 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 12
Undefined School and Type of School

School Head Type Count Percentage

All Offering 5 2.60

Elementary School and Junior High School 6 3.13

Junior High School with Senior High School 42 21.88

Purely Elementary School 126 65.53

Purely Junior High School 9 4.69

Purely Senior High School 4 2.08

Analysis revealed multiple entries for school head positions per school in the
database, suggesting potential issues with DepEd’s data collection system. These may
stem from outdated systems or errors made by those entering data at local schools
and divisional levels. Additionally, compiling the number of TICs, OICs, principals,
and head teachers across public schools involved merging several DepEd databases,
which led to inconsistencies across the datasets. Therefore, establishing a centralized
data entry system is critical to accurately capturing the true distribution of school
head positions and developing an effective deployment system for school heads
within DepEd.

Overall, existing DepEd policies governing

school head allocation are not being
adequately enforced. The observed
inconsistencies in the deployment and
designation of school heads across various
schools highlight a critical need for DepEd
to reevaluate and refine its strategies for
assigning school leaders.

This reassessment should aim to establish more robust mechanisms that ensure
policies are consistently applied and effectively address the unique needs of
each school. Implementing such improvements could significantly enhance the
effectiveness of school leadership, ultimately benefiting the entire educational
ecosystem.

Teachers in Charge and Officers in Charge as Fillers

To address these vacancies, division offices have interim school heads designated as
TICs to fill principal roles temporarily in schools without an appointed head.

According to DO 42, s. 2007, TICs are solely designated by the Schools Division
Superintendent (SDS) to assume school head responsibilities. Thus, this policy relies
on individual SDSs to select and delegate personnel to run a school without a school
head. Currently, due to the lack of policies outlining their distinction, OICs are used
 Teacher Education 261

synonymously to TICs, with the sole difference of whether their plantilla positions are
teaching-related or non-teaching-related. In school year 2023–2024, about 8,924 TICs
and 2,423 OICs held school head positions (see Figure 10).

A PBed Decentralization Roundtable Discussion conducted on September 24, 2024, in

Bacolod City, highlighted the plight of many TICs. It was noted that many TICs had held
their roles for over a year, with some serving for more than three years. Additionally,
despite their contributions, TICs often do not receive compensation commensurate
with their responsibilities and lack a structured professional development track to
build their administrative skills, aside from occasional training in their respective
divisions. This reliance on TICs highlights a need for more sustainable staffing
solutions to support school leadership and track potential leaders to become school
principals and school heads.

Alignment of Standards in the Workforce Pipeline

Sections VI and VII of DO 24, s. 2020 state that DepEd-BHROD is responsible for the
implementation and integration of the Philippine Professional Standards for School
Head (PPSSH) throughout the human resources system, including policies, guidelines,
and processes relating to the selection, hiring, performance, appraisal, and promotion
and talent management of school heads. Additionally, NEAP is tasked with ensuring
that the PPSSH aligns with the development and implementation of professional
development interventions and programs for school heads.

However, it is unclear whether this has been implemented throughout the current
system. EDCOM II has found that there are no explicit guidelines stating that
the performance evaluation for schools heads must be aligned with the PPSSH.
Currently, the performance review for school heads is governed by DO 2, s. 2015,
which outlines the Guidelines on the Establishment and Implementation of the
Results-Based Performance Management System. This policy predates the PPSSH
and creates a disconnect between the competencies for evaluating school heads as
outlined in the PPSSH and those used under the previous system.

Some regional offices have done this step on their own, deviating from the norm
by aligning their performance evaluations based on the PPSSH. As an example of a
positive deviant, Region V has created a contextualized RPMS system based on the
competencies illustrated by the PPSSH. Through a regional memorandum (DepEd
Memorandum No. 277, s. 2023, known as the Results-Based Performance Management
System for School Heads), they took the initiative to combine both policies of the
RPMS and PPSSH in their evaluation cycle. Understanding their process and sharing
their practices can be a great starting point for the development of regional alignment
in performance reviews.

Burdens and Barriers for Aspiring Principals

One of the main barriers and burdens for aspiring principals is the NQESH, or
Principals’ Test. One of the main issues is its low passing rate, which restricts the
pool of qualified candidates. In 2021, only 36.93% of examinees moved forward in the
Principal I selection process, and in 2018, the passing rate was only 0.64%, with just 148
out of 23,000 candidates passing nationwide (see Table 13). These low passing rates
suggest that the exam may be excessively challenging, potentially deterring capable
candidates from advancing in their careers.
262 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 13
Historical NQESH Results

Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021* 2022 2023**

Passing Rate 2.22% 24.75% 0.68% 36% 26%

Number of Passers 388 5,111 148 No exam No exam 2,203 No exam 5,753
administered administered administered
Assessment Standards NCBSSH PPSSH PPSSH

*Administered in FY 2022 due to procurement delay; online remote modality

*Administered in FY 2024 due to procurement delay
Abbreviations: NCBSSH = National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads, NQESH = National Qualifying Examination for
School Heads, PPSSH = Philippine Professional Standards for School Heads

The fluctuating passing rates of the NQESH raise concerns about its effectiveness as a
measure of the competencies desired in school principals. Since the 2021 assessment
developed by the Research Center for Teacher Quality and the University of New
England’s SiMERR, the NQESH has been aligned with various indicators in the PPSSH.
However, the low passing rates in the most recent exams (2021 and 2023) reflect a gap
in training for aspiring candidates that aligns with the PPSSH.

An RTD held by PBEd with school heads revealed that the irregular administration of
the NQESH disrupts the leadership pipeline, causing delays in filling key positions.
This particularly affects TICs seeking school principal roles. The NQESH was not
administered in 2019, 2020, and 2022, as shown in Table 15. These delays, combined
with historically low passing rates, create bottlenecks that hinder career progression
and the timely filling of essential leadership roles in schools. Consequently, many
schools face extended periods without formal leadership, impacting continuity in
school management and undermining the support necessary for schools to thrive. This
situation may contribute to the current unfulfilled principal plantilla positions.

The absence of a formalized succession planning system for school leaders exacerbates
existing challenges. Currently, DepEd lacks a structured succession plan to ensure a
consistent pipeline of qualified principals ready to assume leadership roles as they become
available. This gap in school leadership continuity is problematic, as there is no established
system to identify and prepare future leaders in advance, complicating the process of
addressing immediate leadership needs in schools. The newly proposed Expanded Career
Progression System, established by EO 174, s. 2022, offers a potential solution to this gap.
This restructured pathway enables teachers to transition into administrative and leadership
roles, preparing both aspiring and acting school heads for to enter the pool of required
school principals through targeted development programs and resources.

Nevertheless, the NQESH is just one of the many requirements for aspiring principals,
adding to the overall burden of the qualification process. Combined with the lack of
succession planning, these barriers create a substantial gap in the principal pipeline,
potentially discouraging capable individuals from pursuing school leadership roles.

Lack of Support and Development Opportunities

for Current School Heads and Principals
School heads and principals face significant gaps in support and development
opportunities, hindering effective leadership development and career progression.
Current training programs are often one-size-fits-all, lacking customization for leaders
at various career stages. This standardized approach limits the impact of professional
development, as new principals, experienced principals, and TICs each require
different types of support to succeed in their roles.
 Teacher Education 263

There is also a noticeable absence of a coaching and mentoring culture within DepEd,
particularly at the SDO and school levels. Without a strong mentorship system, school
leaders miss out on the valuable guidance and feedback essential for navigating
challenges and improving their leadership skills. Additionally, limited access to
professional development mechanisms, such as scholarships and fellowships, further
restricts principals’ opportunities to engage in advanced learning, which would help
them grow as educational leaders.

Another issue is the absence of a formal induction program for new principals since
2018, when NEAP last implemented the SHDP. Created through DepEd Memorandum
No. 192, s. 2016, the SHDP was to support and train newly qualified school heads
with the competencies established by the National Competency Based Standards
For School Heads. However, without a standardized induction process, newly
appointed school heads were often left to adjust to their roles without the structured
support they needed. Addressing these gaps through a targeted, flexible approach
to professional development and reintroducing an induction program would better
equip school heads to focus on instructional leadership, ultimately strengthening the
quality of education across the country.

Some regions have taken matters into their own hands and developed programs
to train school leaders. DepEd-Region X of Northern Mindanao has initiated Project
CELLS (Comprehensive Education and Leadership Learning System) to strengthen
the competencies of school principals and school heads, distinguishing itself as a
positive deviant among regions in the Philippines. While many other regions struggle
to provide tailored, practical training for school leaders, Region X has proactively
developed this project to fill critical gaps in leadership development. Project CELLS
offers a structured professional development program that focuses on building the
PPSSH outline competencies for school heads. This initiative serves as a model for
other regions, demonstrating the transformative potential of targeted competency-
based development for school heads.

Lastly, DepEd DO 7, s. 1999, states that the appointment of district supervisors and
principals for both elementary and secondary levels shall be division-specific and
not school-specific. The policy also states that the reassignment and transfer of SDSs
and principals are to be done every five years. This means that SDSs and principals
may be transferred to any school district within the division when the need arises. A
recent study shows that the continuous change of principals and school heads has
been a barrier for some schools in terms of continuity in sustaining and scaling up
effective school innovations (Hechanova & Yusay, 2024). Consultations with principals
show that this policy has not been strictly followed, with some principals having
stayed in their schools for more than five years.
However, it would be advisable to distinguish the difference between systematic
rotation and rotation itself, where the latter is a mandatory rotation of principals at
predetermined intervals instead of an optional rotation (Aquila, 1988). Conversely,
the rotation of principals can still be valuable at times. In Singapore, experienced
principals are rotated every 5–7 years so that senior principals can gain experience in
different school cultures and contexts (Dimmock & Tan, 2012). Thus, an evaluation of
our policy on rotation needs to be reassessed and studied to identify a proper formula
to determine the adequate duration a principal should be in their respective schools.
264 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
To address the significant gaps for school heads in the Philippine public school
system, it is recommended that a principal plantilla position be allocated to every
school, ensuring that each institution has a dedicated leader to oversee academic
performance, teacher support, and community engagement. In its ongoing review
of the 1997 School Organizational Standards and Structure Study, DepEd must
prioritize updating and finding resources for the allocation of school principals given
their critical role in school-level reform. Additionally, recruitment, selection, and
appointment processes must be streamlined, ensuring the rapid and transparent
filling of these positions.

Interim leaders, such as TICs and OICs, play a critical role in maintaining school
operations and leadership continuity during transitions. To support their
effectiveness and career growth, it is essential to provide them with fair
compensation that recognizes their expanded responsibilities. Additionally, a
structured succession plan should be implemented to prepare these interim leaders
for permanent roles as school principals, ensuring a seamless transition and sustained
school leadership. The PPSSH should serve as the foundation for designing targeted
professional development programs for aspiring school heads, equipping them with
the necessary skills, competencies, and confidence to excel in their leadership roles.

The revision of DO 42, s. 2007, can help create a clear distinction between TICs
and OICs and establish specific qualifications for their respective designations.
Currently, the roles and responsibilities of TICs and OICs are often conflated, leading
to inconsistencies in their appointment and expectations. By clearly defining these
roles, the revised policy can ensure that TICs are designated as interim school
heads with specific academic and administrative qualifications, while OICs serve
in a temporary capacity during unforeseen vacancies. This distinction will promote
better accountability, streamline school management, and ensure that both roles are
appropriately aligned with the needs of the schools they serve.

An induction program aligned with the PPSSH should be established to support

new school heads in navigating their roles effectively. This program should be
reinforced through clear regulations and policies to ensure consistent implementation
nationwide. Beyond instructional leadership, the induction program must emphasize
the development of critical management skills, equipping school heads to address
both academic and operational challenges. Research highlights the importance of
incorporating mentorship and opportunities for collaboration into training programs,
fostering a supportive environment where new principals can learn from experienced
leaders and build networks that enhance their professional growth (GSL, n.d.).

The creation of a school head tool kit and resource center is essential to streamline
administrative processes and allow school leaders to focus more on teaching and
leading. This tool kit would guide schools in reviewing and redesigning their practices
to reduce time spent on nonteaching and nonleading tasks. Developed in consultation
with educators, it would ensure practicality, adaptability, and relevance across
different jurisdictions and sectors. Additionally, the resource center would simplify
access to policies related to reporting, funding, school improvement plans, and other
key responsibilities, reducing the learning curve for school heads. Drawing inspiration
from the United Kingdom’s Department for Education’s Reducing School Workload
Toolkit, the initiative could provide a model for cutting red tape in Philippine
schools, enhancing efficiency, and empowering school leaders to focus on improving
educational outcomes.
 Teacher Education 265

Appropriate policies and the management

of teacher careers are critical to achieving
quality teaching and learning and to
addressing teacher scarcity.
(Tournier et al., 2019)

Amend the existing policy to introduce a more flexible and strategic approach to
the rotation of school heads. DepEd should amend the existing rotation policy to
introduce an optional rotation system. This new approach would not solely rely on the
discretion of SDSs but be governed by clear systematic criteria that take into account
factors such as tenure, school performance, leadership needs, and the professional
growth goals of principals. Furthermore, the policy should include a standardized
mechanism for assessing the effectiveness of rotations, similar to practices in
Singapore where principals are rotated every 5–7 years to gain diverse experiences
in different school contexts. Additionally, a framework should be established to limit
the discretion of SDSs in the rotation process, ensuring that decisions are based on
transparent criteria and involve stakeholder input. Regular reviews and updates to
the policy should be mandated to ensure that it adapts to the evolving needs of the
education sector and remains grounded in empirical evidence and educational best
practices. This comprehensive approach will enhance leadership continuity across
schools, support principal development, and ultimately lead to improved educational
outcomes.

To address the database of school head allocation and designations, it is

recommended that DepEd develop a centralized data system for school personnel.
This system would serve as a comprehensive repository of accurate and up-to-date
information on school leadership positions. The implementation of a centralized
system should be accompanied by the establishment of robust assurance and
accountability measures. These measures would include regular audits, clear
guidelines for data entry, and rigorous training programs for division or regional
personnel responsible for updating and maintaining the data. Such a system would
not only streamline the process of assigning school leaders but guarantee that
deployments are made transparently and aligned with policy guidelines.
266 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

A Higher Calling: From Teaching

Children to Teaching Teachers

Harold Naputo taught English and North Hill is fortunate to have a dedicated
campus journalism for seven years in administrative officer, along with a clerk
public elementary and ten years in private and bookkeeper.
school before being appointed as school
head in 2019 at Old Kawayan Elementary, However, average class sizes at a huge
a last-mile school set in an idyllic seaside school like North Hill remain high. Harold
barangay in northern Tacloban City. This estimates that he needs at least three
transition to a leadership role marked a additional elementary teachers to adhere
significant milestone in his career, as he to the new DepEd guidelines without
moved from directly teaching students to overburdening his current teaching
guiding fellow educators. staff. In some grades, teachers juggle
up to eight classes each day. “Even if we
At Old Kawayan, Harold led a close-knit squeeze lessons into shorter periods to
team of eight teachers serving close to fit within the mandated hours, this will
a hundred students. Today, however, as still leave them feeling stretched and
the school head of North Hill Arbours strained,” Harold declares.
Integrated, Harold leads a diverse team of
42 educators responsible for over 1,300 Harold has taken steps to ease their
students from resettlement communities workloads by requesting extra teachers
affected by Typhoon Yolanda. from the division office. In the meantime,
he has arranged for teachers from other
Managing such a large school demands grade levels to temporarily cover classes
a uniquely careful balance between the with high student numbers. Working
needs of students and teachers. Drawing with his master teachers, he has also
from his five years of leadership and introduced the clustering of subjects,
nearly two decades worth of teaching assigning teachers specialized in one
experience, Harold rises to this challenge, subject, such as Araling Panlipunan,
nurturing the academic progress of a to cover related classes in MAPEH or
sprawling student body while supporting Filipino.
the professional growth and well-being of
his teachers. Learning Action Cells as Lifeline
When Harold received his new teachers
Balancing Teacher Workload and at the start of the school year, he put
Welfare them to work right away, knowing how
In early 2024, DepEd issued two every teacher in North Hill is essential
directives to lighten teachers’ workloads from day one. Yet, he also recognized the
by removing all administrative duties and importance of familiarizing them with
capping ancillary tasks at two hours daily, the school’s culture, expectations, and
ensuring teachers devote six full hours to routines for a smoother transition.
classroom instruction. Harold welcomed
the change, pleased that his teachers Central to this process is the weekly
would now be relieved of nonteaching Learning Action Cell (LAC), which Harold
tasks like preparing presentations for utilized to ease new teachers into the
division reports. Unlike smaller schools, school environment and support their
 Teacher Education 267

adjustment. Introduced by DepEd as part A Legacy Beyond Teaching

of a lifelong professional development Harold’s dedication to supporting the
initiative, LACs offer a collaborative development of his teachers extends
space for teachers to discuss classroom beyond the LAC sessions. This year, North
challenges and share teaching strategies. Hill hosted an English literacy program
Simply put, LACs enable teachers to learn twice for Key Stage 1 teachers, focusing
from one another. on essentials like oral reading, fluency,
and vocabulary. Recognizing its broader
At North Hill, these LAC sessions create value, Harold invited Key Stage 2 and
opportunities for teachers to pool their junior high teachers to join, knowing they
expertise, as demonstrated when Harold’s also encounter students needing help
new Filipino teacher shared methods with reading comprehension.
for teaching the language with other
colleagues, especially in junior high where “When students are confident in reading
skilled Filipino teachers are much needed. early on, it becomes easier to teach at
higher grade levels,” he explains.
Held every Friday after classes, each
LAC session is tailored to address One of Harold’s most successful
specific needs. For instance, sessions initiatives is the peer-led Reading
on using free Google apps for reporting Warriors program, where older students
or conducting effective parent mentor younger ones who struggle with
engagements involve the entire staff. reading. These weekly peer tutoring have
Others target specific groups, such as boosted literacy and fostered a sense of
newly hired teachers learning protocols pride and community among students,
on periodical exams or Grade VI teachers building confidence, social skills, and
discussing document submission. camaraderie.
Occasionally, sessions respond to urgent
concerns that arise within the week, such To tackle the issue of student retention,
as the appropriate handling of students Harold and his team have turned the
who choose to leave school due to school into a vibrant hub of activity.
sensitive circumstances. Monthly singing contests, quiz bees,
and writing competitions fill the air with
LACs are an invaluable resource for excitement. These activities showcase
finding solutions, harmonizing processes, the students’ talents and strengthen
refining teaching tools, and exchanging their connection to the school, in fun,
best practices. But for Harold, they are meaningful ways.
also an opportunity to connect and
mutually inspire one another. Reflecting on his role, Harold says, “North
Hill is a school where students come from
“LACs could just be a simple displaced communities. We do our best
kumustahan,” he shares. “North Hill is a to create a space where students and
big school, and we rarely get to see each teachers alike feel valued and motivated.”
other. It’s just nice to see everyone smile
at the end of a work week.”
 269

TECHNICAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING & LIFELONG LEARNING

Bridging Gaps:
Enhancing Industry
Involvement in TVET
to Build Tomorrow’s
Workforce

Introduction
Technical-vocational education and training (TVET) programs tailored to industry
and labor market needs significantly improve outcomes for trainees, businesses,
and the economy. Republic Act (RA) No. 7796 (Technical Education and Skills
Development Act of 1994) established TESDA to develop a skilled middle-level
workforce. Complementary laws, such as RA 7686 (Dual Training System [DTS] Act of
1994) and RA 10647 (Ladderized Education Act of 2014), fostered enterprise-based
learning and strengthened the integration of TVET with higher education. Additional
measures, including RA 10931 (Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act of
2016) and RA 11230 (Tulong-Trabaho Act of 2018), expanded access to free training
and enhanced workforce qualifications. Scholarship programs like the Training for
Work Scholarship Program (TWSP), Special Training for Employment Program (STEP),
and the Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education further
supported marginalized learners, ensuring broader participation in TVET.

From 1991 to 2018, TVET enrollment grew substantially, peaking at 2.3 million. However,
enterprise-based training (EBT) accounted for only 4.5% of total enrollment between
2014 and 2022, falling far short of reskilling and upskilling the estimated 35 million
Filipinos in need (National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan [NTESDP]
2023–2028).
270 EDCOM II Year Two Report

In 2015, the Philippines had 4,687 technical-vocational education and training (TVET)
providers, comprising 4,251 (91%) privately owned and 436 public or government-run
technical-vocational institutions (TVIs). However, from 2016 onward, the number of TVIs
saw a noticeable decline, reflecting challenges in sustaining and expanding the sector.
By 2022, the number of TVIs rebounded to near-2015 levels, with 4,631 institutions
reported, of which private institutions accounted for 4,197 (90%) (TESDA Annual
Reports, 2017–2023).

Despite this recovery, significant challenges persist in aligning TVI programs with
industry standards and labor market demands. As of 2022, only 16% of TVI programs
were aligned with training regulations that award National Certificates (NC),
vital credentials for skills recognition and employability. Moreover, 64% of these
certifications were concentrated at lower skill levels (NC I and NC II), which typically
lead to entry-level roles with limited opportunities for income growth. In contrast,
certifications at higher levels (NC III and NC IV), which are increasingly in demand due to
advancements in technology and industry practices, remained underrepresented. These
advanced certifications offer greater potential for career advancement and improved
earnings, underscoring the need for targeted reforms to enhance the quality, relevance,
and accessibility of technical-vocational education in the Philippines.

The urgency to align TVET with evolving industry needs is growing as businesses
adapt to economic and environmental changes. Reskilling and upskilling are critical
for Filipino workers to remain competitive in both national and global labor markets.
To achieve this, challenges such as fragmented implementation, delayed regulatory
updates, misaligned policies, and uncoordinated labor market data must be addressed.
Strengthening partnerships between TVIs and enterprises is essential to enable
practical, workplace-oriented training that meets the demands of the modern economy.

The shifting dynamics of the labor market further emphasize the need to enhance
EBT. Despite its potential to address workforce demands, EBT continues to lag behind
other TVET programs due to fragmented implementation, regulatory delays, and policy
misalignment. These issues hinder the adoption of timely training innovations, limit
scholarships for disadvantaged learners, and exacerbate difficulties in addressing
skills gaps caused by uncoordinated labor market data. Additionally, weak partnerships
between training institutions and enterprises restrict opportunities for reskilling
and upskilling through practical, workplace-based learning, further impeding the full
realization of EBT’s benefits.

Year One Updates

EDCOM II zeroed in on EBT during its first year, particularly on streamlining its
numerous definitions and creating incentives to boost industry participation. These
efforts culminated in the enactment of the new Enterprise-Based Education and
Training (EBET) Framework Act (RA 12063), which was signed on November 7, 2024,
and took effect 15 days after its publication.

The TESDA, in consultation with relevant stakeholders, has been diligently working
on the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) for the new law. The IRR is scheduled
for release on February 21, 2025, marking a critical milestone in operationalizing the
provisions of this landmark legislation.
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 271

EBET Framework Act (RA 12063)

Key Objectives
RA 12063 aims to enhance Filipino workers’ skills and competencies to advance
their careers and meet the demands of a rapidly evolving labor market. The law
promotes public-private partnerships to develop and implement training modules
and competency standards, ensuring alignment with industry needs. It also seeks
to rationalize apprenticeship, learnership, and dual training systems under the EBET
framework, prioritizing trainees’ safety, rights, and equitable treatment.

Overview
The EBET framework institutionalizes enterprise-led TVET programs guided by
Industry TVET Boards (ITBs). These programs include theoretical instruction and are
categorized into three main modalities:

• General Training, which lasts up to 6 months, focuses on low- to mid-level skills

(NC I/II);
• Apprenticeships covering advanced skills (NC III and above) and emphasizing
on-the-job training, enabling seamless transitions from trainee to employee;
and
• Upskilling programs catering to employees seeking to enhance their skills
regardless of their NC level.

Administration and Governance

TESDA, in collaboration with ITBs, is responsible for registering EBET programs,
developing competency standards, and facilitating stakeholder engagement. To
support micro and small enterprises, TESDA organizes a regional network of EBET
support integrators who assist with program development, technical requirements,
and labor market analysis. In sectors with critical labor shortages, the President may
mandate compulsory EBET programs.

Trainee Rights and Obligations

EBET trainees are not considered employees unless explicitly specified. However,
if hired during the program, their training agreement is automatically terminated.
All trainees undergo competency assessments, earning an NCor Certificate of
Competency upon successful completion. Programs must adhere to the Safe Spaces
Act (RA 11313) and the Occupational Safety and Health Standards (RA 11058), ensuring
trainees’ rights and welfare are upheld.

Incentives for Enterprises

Enterprises implementing registered EBET programs are eligible for tax incentives,
including deductions of 50%–75% of training costs, subject to certain caps. TESDA’s
EBET Incentives One-Stop Shop provides online assistance for enterprises seeking
to access these benefits. Companies registered with investment promotion agencies
can choose between EBET incentives and other fiscal benefits but cannot avail of both
simultaneously.

Training Allowances and Scholarships

Trainees in general EBET programs receive allowances covering transportation,
meals, and other expenses; while apprentices earn at least 75% of the minimum wage,
with annual increases for programs lasting over a year. Upskilling programs ensure
employees retain their full wages and benefits. Scholarships, such as those under
the Tulong-Trabaho Act (RA 11230), are available to eligible trainees to encourage
participation in EBET programs.
272 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Program Duration and Agreements

EBET programs are limited to a maximum of three (3) years. Enterprises and trainees
must enter into formal agreements outlining the training plan, duration, allowances,
and other terms. Enterprises exceeding the 20% trainee cap relative to their regular
workforce must obtain TESDA approval. Repeated consecutive training of the same
individual without employment converts their status to a regular employee.

Repeals and Integration

RA 12063 repeals the Dual Training System (DTS) Act of 1994 (RA 7686) and sections
of the Labor Code and other laws inconsistent with its provisions. It incorporates the
salient features of these repealed laws, streamlining and updating training policies to
align with current industry and labor needs.

RA 12063 bridges the gap between education and industry by institutionalizing the
EBET framework. It empowers Filipino workers to thrive in a competitive labor market
while providing enterprises with incentives to support workforce development.
Through this framework, the Philippines strengthens its commitment to an adaptable
and highly skilled workforce.

Year Two Overview

Year Two examined policies, mechanisms, resources, and other requirements
for ensuring the delivery of high-quality EBT programs that lead to improved job
outcomes, with the goal of fostering a more favorable ecosystem for increased
engagement and investment in TVET.

EDCOM II also looked into the fragmented labor market data from TESDA, DOLE, PSA,
DepEd, CHED, and other agencies, pushing for the development of a more integrated
Labor Market Information System (LMIS) to improve skill matching and forecasts of the
labor market.

To address challenges related to TVET employment and wage outcomes, PIDS

recommended greater involvement of the private sector in training provision,
curriculum development, certification processes, and regular review and revisions of
training programs to align them with industry standards. (Generalao, et al. 2024)
EDCOM II discussed key issues that EBT faces because of overlapping and unclear
policies, including unimplemented policies of the DTS Law. It also recommended
TESDA, the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), and other relevant agencies to streamline
their processes for availing tax benefits and incentives.

Limited Industry TVET Boards (ITBs) across sectors hinder the effective
implementation of EBT programs. EDCOM II highlighted that ITBs are still not
fully functional, and operationalizing them remains challenging. To address this,
it proposed expanding the coverage of national ITBs across priority industries,
establishing clear and measurable performance indicators, and differentiating the
roles of ITBs to better meet the specific needs of local contexts.

TESDA has previously proposed creating and Office of Apprenticeship to consolidate all
EBT-related activities and streamline the administration of EBT programs. However this
remains for consideration. In the meantime, EDCOM II recommends that TESDA assess
its capacity to assign EBT personnel at the regional and provincial levels and consider
devolving direct training functions to industries and local government units (LGUs).
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 273

Lastly, EDCOM II studied the operationalization of the Philippine Qualifications

Framework (PQF) within the context of lifelong learning in TVET, highlighting the
need to establish a permanent secretariat, revise level descriptors to match industry
standards, and integrate the PQF with the Philippine Skills Framework (PSF).

Priority Area 19:

Needs-Based System Projecting
the Demands in Workers’ Upskilling
Issue 1: Labor Market Information (LMI) remains fragmented
across various government agencies, making it difficult to
align training programs with the evolving industry needs.

The issue of job-skills mismatch was raised as a top concern in TVET during an
EDCOM II meeting, citing a 2021 Asian Development Bank (ADB) study that found
nearly two-thirds of TVET graduates were employed in occupations unrelated to the
expected outcomes of their training programs (EDCOM II website, 2023).

Mismatch occurs when the skills available in the workforce do not align with the
skills demanded by employers (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2020, as
cited in Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024). The prevalence of hard-to-fill jobs in DOLE
and PSA annual labor force surveys suggests a skills shortage in the job market
(ADB, 2021). Meanwhile, around one-third of college graduates are employed in jobs
designed specifically for those with noncollege education (Epetia, 2018, as cited
in ADB, 2021). These mismatches result in lower wages and job dissatisfaction for
workers, diminished productivity and higher business turnover rates, and increased
unemployment and decreased economic competitiveness (Rihova, 2016).

“The labor force and also the market demand

is very dynamic. In fact, it changes very rapidly
with the onset of technology, with the onset of
new skills, and it is important that we devise a
mechanism in which we minimize the mismatch.
Of course, there will never be parity on both
sides because of the continuous evolution. But
at least we minimize it so that we also don’t
waste government funds in upskilling and
reskilling our workforce.”
—Sen. Win Gatchalian, Hearing on the Labor Market
Information processes in the Philippines, June 25, 2024
274 EDCOM II Year Two Report

In 2021, ADB reviewed the effectiveness of TVET implementation in the Philippines.

The review showed that while training-job matching rates increased from 2013 to
2017, only about one-third of employed TVET graduates were matched with the
expected occupation of the training program they completed. TVET programs
focusing on low-paying, nonroutine manual skills had the highest matching rates
between graduates and their expected post-training occupations. Most TVET
graduates are considered employed in occupations requiring higher skills than what
they are trained for. However, the study noted that some of the underskilled students
included highly educated college graduates who took TVET to acquire practical skills
or to earn credentials for in-demand overseas work.

FIGURE 1
Share of Trainees Matched, Overskilled, or Underskilled,
2013, 2014, 2017

2017 21.3 36.0 42.7

2014 19.4 36.0 45.1

2013 29.6 32.3 38.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Overskilled (surplus) Matched Underskilled (shortage)

Source: ADB, 2021

The informal sector has higher participation and employment rates than those with
degrees, except for those in the postgraduate level. However, they also have high
underemployment rates: 69.1% for those with no formal education and 41.2% for those
with high school units but have not graduated from senior high school (SHS) (Bersales,
2024).

In October 2022, TVET graduates in the Philippines demonstrated labor force

participation and employment rates comparable to college graduates, underscoring
the effectiveness of technical-vocational education in equipping individuals with
workforce-ready skills. Despite this, TVET graduates experienced the highest
underemployment rate among all educational groups, suggesting that many
are employed in roles that underutilize their skills or fail to meet their income
expectations.

Senior high school graduates, in contrast, faced significant challenges, with the lowest
labor force participation rate—less than half that of TVET and college graduates—
and the highest unemployment rate, including a double-digit figure. This disparity
highlights the critical role of TVET in bridging the skills gap and providing better
employment opportunities compared to senior high school education.

The data reinforces the need for targeted reforms to enhance the alignment of TVET
programs with industry demands, reduce underemployment, and improve job quality,
thereby maximizing the economic and professional potential of TVET graduates.
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 275

TABLE 1
Labor Force Indicators by Educational Attainment, Philippines,
October 2022 (in Percentage)

No Formal Elem Senior HS TVET College College Post-

Indicator Total
Schooling and HS Graduate Graduate Units Graduate college

Labor Force
70.3 72.9 71.1 41.9 85.8 53.0 85.8 96.2
Participation

Employed 95.5 98.6 96.8 84.1 93.0 94.8 93.0 96.7

Unemployed 4.5 1.4 3.2 15.9 7.0 5.2 7.0 3.3

Underemployed 15.2 19.0 17.6 13.4 20.5 12.1 8.6 7.9

Abbreviations: Elem = Elementary, HS = High School, TVET = Technical-Vocational Education and Training
Source: Bersales, 2024

TABLE 2
Percentage Employed by Educational Attainment and Class of Worker, 2021–2022

Wage and Employer in Own

Educational Informal
Salary Family-Operated Remarks
Attainment Sector
Workers Farm or Business

Total 62.3 2.3 35.4

No Formal 54.2% Self-employed without any paid employee

28.5 2.4 69.1
Education and 15.9% unpaid family worker paid employee

Elementary and High

56.7 2.1 41.2 32.9% Self-employed without any paid employee
School Units

Senior High School 71.5 0.3 28.2 20.3% Unpaid family worker

TVET Graduate 66.8 2.9 30.3 26.9% Self-employed without any paid employee

College Units 62.9 2.5 34.6 25.4% Self-employed without any paid employee

College Graduate 80.2 3.0 16.7

Postgraduate
90.5 2.8 6.7
Underemployed

Source: Bersales, 2024

TVET graduates demonstrate a relatively strong presence in the workforce, with 66.8%
employed as wage and salary workers. This figure is close to the performance of
college graduates and significantly higher than individuals with no formal education
or those who only completed elementary and high school units. This suggests that
TVET programs effectively equip graduates with skills relevant for wage employment
opportunities.

However, TVET graduates also exhibit a notable presence in the informal sector, with
30.3% engaged in informal employment. Additionally, 26.9% of TVET graduates are
self-employed without any paid employees, highlighting a reliance on entrepreneurial
276 EDCOM II Year Two Report

or freelance activities, likely due to limited opportunities in the formal sector or

challenges in securing jobs aligned with their training.

These trends highlight a longstanding disconnect between skills supply and demand,
a challenge that has persisted since the 1970s (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).
Addressing these mismatches will not only enhance employability, but also improve
job quality, promote social mobility, and foster inclusion. This indicates the need for a
well-functioning LMIS built through collaboration among stakeholders from industry,
government, academia, and civil society.

The Year One Report recommended that TESDA establish a centralized management
information system to track training programs’ creation, delivery, and outcomes,
including enrollment, completion rates, and overall effectiveness. Expanding labor
force surveys to include TVET-related information will further support this effort (ADB,
2021). A high-quality LMIS will significantly improve TVET’s capacity to align with
industry needs and evaluate the effectiveness of current programs. It will also help
anticipate emerging industry needs, equipping graduates with future-proof skills that
match upcoming jobs or remain relevant amid rapid technological changes. Since
LMIS data comes from different government agencies, they should all work together to
develop this system.

Skills needs anticipation is a key component of an LMIS (ILO, 2015, as cited in Bayudan-
Dacuycuy et al., 2024). It identifies how labor markets, skills, and learning needs are
changing and helps policymakers and training providers align them accordingly.
Better matching can be promoted with an LMIS that equips stakeholders with the
information necessary to address gaps proactively (Rihova, 2016).

An LMIS is a network of institutions, people, and information, each with distinct roles
in producing, storing, disseminating, and using LMI and outcomes (ILO, 2023). LMI
refers to any quantitative or qualitative data on the labor market that can assist in
formulating and implementing decisions, policies, and programs (Schmillen, 2019).

A high-quality LMIS is critical for aligning TVET with industry needs, evaluating
program effectiveness, and anticipating future labor market demands. By integrating
data from various sources, an LMIS enables policymakers and training providers to
design programs that prepare graduates for high-impact changes like automation and
emerging industries. Such a system ensures workers develop future-proof skills that
are increasingly valued over traditional technical skills.

An LMIS serves as a network of institutions, data sources, and stakeholders, producing,

storing, and analyzing LMI for decision-making. Current Philippine LMIS efforts involve
multiple government agencies, including the PSA, DOLE, and TESDA, which collect
and disseminate data through initiatives like the LFS, PhilJobNet, and TESDA’s Labor
Market Intelligence Reports. However, these data sources remain fragmented and
lack interoperability, reducing their utility for designing targeted training programs.
Effective use of LMI requires harmonization, granularity, and future-oriented
projections to address skills mismatches and labor market disruptions.

To align labor supply and demand, EDCOM I recommended enhancing the country’s
education statistics by establishing a National Education Statistics Office under what
is now the PSA and drafting a national employment plan through an Employment
Planning Board (EPB) under DOLE (EDCOM I, 1993). The EPB was intended to generate
LMI as well as inform the education and training plans of CHED and TESDA. However,
despite EDCOM I’s recommendation, the EPB was never formed.
Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 277
“Marami po tayong existing
LMI and LMIS initiatives. So for
example, ’yung DOLE, labor markets,
mayroon. Mayroon din po tayong LMI,
’yung PhilJobNet and yung PESO
employment information system.
So yung PhilJobNet, I think this is
an initiative of the DOLE. So this is
a platform that facilitates online job
matching. Ang issue lang po dito,
iyon nga, representativeness.”
—Dr. Dacuycuy, Presentation of PIDS study on Inputs
to the Philippine Labor Market Information
System and TESDA’s Skills Anticipation
and Prioritization of Skills Requirements
Framework, June 25, 2024
278 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 2
Proposed organizational
Proposed Organizational structure
Structure and
and institutional
Institutional system
System for
for philippine
Philippine education
Education

Cabinet

Department of Fededation of ACCR IHLS

Basic Education Associations

Center for Nonformal

Education

National Educational
Assessment &
Testing Services

Office of Instructional
Planning Service Materials
Council
Financial
Program
Financial &
Basic Education Administrative
Program Services
Administrative
Program

Bureau of
Elementary Education

Bureau of Regional
Secondary Education Divisions
Coordination Office

Bureau of
PE & School Sports Schools
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 279

tion

National Council
National
for Education
Council for Education Congress Congress

Employment Employment
Planning Board
Planning Board

Commission on
Commission on HED Technical Education
Technical Education
HED TVET TVET
Higher Education
Higher EducationFund & Skills Development
& Skills Development
Fund Fund Fund
Authority Authority

Policies/ Policies/
Programs Programs

Research Research
Planning Planning

Standards & Standards &

Technical Panels
Technical Panels

Resource Resource
Administrative
Administrative
Development Development

Planning Planning TVET TVET

& Policies & Policies Programs Programs

Regional Regional Regional Regional

Offices Offices Offices Offices

AdministrativeAdministrative
Linkages/ Linkages/
Lines of Authority
Lines of Authority TVET TVET
Institutions Institutions
Coordinative Lingkages
Coordinative Lingkages

Abbreviations: ACCR: Accrediting, HEd: Higher Education Fund, IHLS: Institutions of Higher Learning
Source: EDCOM I Report, 1993
280 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Data is fragmented across multiple government agencies, which significantly

impedes the programming of trainings that align with industry needs. A recent
PIDS study showed that LMIS-relevant data is widely available and utilized by various
government agencies through their respective LMI systems and initiatives (Bayudan-
Dacuycuy et al., 2024). PSA’s monthly Labor Force Survey (LFS) releases national and
regional employment estimates based on demographics such as age, sex, marital
status, and education. DOLE’s annual Labor Market Profile provides a national overview
of labor supply and demand conditions. Labor Market Trends offers an in-depth
analysis of special topics relevant to the labor market during the year. The Jobs and
Labor Market Forecast projects the state of the labor market for the next few years
and identifies emerging industries, key employment-generating sectors, and in-
demand occupations (Bureau of Local Employment [BLE], web, 2024). The PEIS is an
enhanced skills registry that provides locality-specific data on job vacancies and job
seeker profiles. PhilJobNet, an online job-matching platform, holds information on the
workforce needs of employers (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).

FIGURE 3
System Interaction Map for the Labor Market Information System

PSA DOLE

Labor
Market
Employment Trends Job
& Wage (macro-level) Matching
Stats & Forecasting

Integrated
Labor Market
Information
(ideal)
Skills Job Demand
Stats & Skills
& Occupation Matching
Data

Skills Needs
& Emerging
Skills

TESDA
Notes:

• PSA (left orange circle) provides employment and wage statistics through sources like the Labor Force
Survey and the Occupational Wages Survey.
• DOLE (right green circle) focuses on job matching, labor market profiling, and forecasting using
platforms like PhilJobNet and the Jobs & Labor Market Forecast.
• TESDA (bottom purple circle) centers on skills needs, prioritization, and emerging skills through the Skills
Anticipation and Prioritization of Skills Requirements (SAPSR) framework and the National Skills Map.

Overlapping Areas:

• PSA + DOLE: Macro-level labor market trends.

• DOLE + TESDA: Job demand and skills matching.
• PSA + TESDA: Skills statistics integrated with occupational classifications.
• All three agencies (center): Ideal integration where labor, skills, and employment data converge to
provide comprehensive labor market insights.

Source: Data taken from Bayudan-Dacuycuy, C. B., Epetia, M. C. F., Vargas, A. R. P., & Ocbina, J. J. S. (2024). Inputs
to the Philippine Labor Market Information System and TESDA’s Skills Anticipation and Prioritization of Skills
Requirements Framework (Discussion Paper Series No. 2024-06). Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 281

TESDA’s Labor Market Intelligence Report analyzes trends and issues in the local and
international labor markets, informing the agency’s training regulations and program
development. Since 2014, the yearly Study on the Employment of TVET Graduates (SETG)
contains data on the profile of graduates, competency assessment and certification rates,
employment rates, and monthly income. TESDA’s Workplace Skills and Satisfaction Survey
provides data on emerging sector-specific skills and their future workforce requirements
(TESDA website, 2024). By consolidating information from development plans and reports of
key national government offices, TESDA created a Skills Map identifying emerging skills and
soft skills per sector and their respective training regulations (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).

FIGURE 4
Results from TESDA’s Workplace Skills and Satisfaction Survey

Skills Need Anticipation - Workforce Skills Survey

In Demand Hard-to-Fill Skills;

Emergency Skills
Critical Occupations

• Game Development/Artist • Digital Fluency (including Data

• 2D Cutout Animation Analytics and Digital Solutions)
• 3D Animation • Business and Data Storytelling/
• Medical Claims & Medical Coding Data Visualization
& Bidding • Cybersecurity
• Software Development • Machine Learning
IT-BPM
• Managing Remotely

• Heavy Equipment Operator • Robotic Installation

• Heavy Equipment Mechanic • Digital Skills
- BIM Manager • Digital Cost
- Foreman • Management (5D BIM)
- Quantity Surveying • Project Management
Construction • Green Construction

• Truck Driver • Robotics

• Welder • Artificial Intelligence
• Mechanic • Internet of Things
• Forklift Operator/Driver • Virtual Reality/Augmented Reality
• Heavy Equipment Operator • Analytics Source: The use of LMI
Logistics for skills matching
and anticipation:
• Agricultural Machinist/Technician • Sensing Technologies The Philippine TVET
- Agricultural Resource Communication Systems experience, a slide
Specialist/Natural Resource • Robotics, Automated presentation by TESDA
Technician GPS/GIS Modeling Facilities/Equipment
Specialists • Agricultural Drones
Agriculture - Cacao Grower/Farmer • Geo Mapping and Geo Tagging
• Nursery Operator Abbreviations: BIM =
building information
modeling, GIS =
• Graphic Artist • Telehealth/Telemedicine/
- Staff Nurse Teleconsultation geographic information
• Nursing Attendant/Assistant • Psychological First Aid system, GPS = global
▪ Medical Technologist • Electronic Medical Records positioning system,
▪ Emergency Medical Management
Specialist - Advanced • Health Information System
IT-BPM = Information
Navigation Technology and Business
Health
• Robotics Process Management

The sector-specific PSF of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) focuses on emerging
competencies to guide skills development based on 21st-century skills (Lopez, 2021). DTI has
released PSFs in five priority sectors: supply chain and logistics, human capital development,
digital art and animation, game development, and Business development (TESDA, 2022).

Meanwhile, the Department of Information and Communications Technology completed five

more PSFs in the fields of data analytics and AI, software development and security, contact
center and business process management, and health information management (ICT Industry
Development Bureau, 2024). More skills frameworks are forthcoming in priority sectors
in agriculture, tourism, and manufacturing as the PSF initiative also involves several more
agencies like the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Tourism (DTI website,
2021).
282 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 3
Potential Data Sources for Skills Needs Anticipation in the Philippines

Standard Statistics
Source: Categories Are from
Rihova (2016), Augmented by Integrated Study on the
Labor
the Authors Education Occupational Survey on Employment
LFS Turnover
Statistics Wages Survey Labor and of TVET
Statistics
Employment Graduates

Structure of employment by sector

Structure of employment by
occupation
Demand

Structure of sectors/occupations by
age

Vacancies

Labor turnover by subsector

Age structure of population or labor

force

Structure of population/ labor force

Supply

by education

Structure of graduates

Participation of adults in education

and training

Unemployment rate by education

level

Proportions of unemployed vs.

employed at each
education level
Mismatch

Wage dynamics by occupation

Hard-to-fill/skills-shortage
vacancies

Skill gaps reported by employers

Subjective mismatch reported by

workers/ graduates
Emerging
Skills

Emerging skills

Abbreviation: LFS = Labor Force Survey

Source: EDCOM II, based on Bayudan-Dacuycuy, et al., 2024
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 283

Skills-Specific Data Sources

Development Online job

Workplace skills
Enterprise Tracer Plans, Qualitative PhilJobNet vacancies,
TVET Statistics and satisfaction
Survey Survey Roadmaps, Data Sources and PEIS** jobseekers’
survey
Policies, Laws credentials**

By sector By occupation
284 EDCOM II Year Two Report

While these numerous sources show that

data exists to develop TVET programs aligned
with industry needs, these data sources are
fragmented and not systematically shared.

Administrative data on students and graduates, when collected in a comprehensive

register that tracks individuals throughout their education, provide the most valuable
information on skills supply flows. DepEd provides the number of SHS students who
enroll and graduate in the technical-vocational-livelihood track and other tracks per
school year. CHED maintains information on enrolled and graduating tertiary students
by discipline and discipline group. The Professional Regulation Commission has been
collecting data on the number of takers and passers of licensure examinations since
2011. Every year, TESDA releases statistics on the number of enrollees and graduates of
training programs per sector and region (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).

While these numerous sources show that data exist to develop TVET programs aligned
with industry needs, these data sources are fragmented and not systematically shared.

This, despite TESDA and DOLE belonging to the PSA’s Interagency Committee on
Labor and Productivity Statistics, the PQF, the PSF, and the Interagency Council for
Development and Competitiveness of the Philippine Digital Workforce (EDCOM II, 25
Jun 2024).

To address this, the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) and the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) signed a Joint Memorandum
Circular (JMC) in November 2024. This initiative aims to establish an integrated
approach to employment facilitation, skills development, and labor market intelligence
(LMI), enhancing coordination in data collection, analysis, and program delivery.

FIGURE 5
How DepEd Identifies Priority Technical-Vocational-Livelihood Specializations

Learners’ National & Regional

Preference Priorities
Intersection of
the four data sets

Local SDO & School’s

Priorities Capacity

Abbreviation: SDO = schools division office

Source: DepEd Order No. 54, s. 2022
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 285

Establishing a strong institutional framework based on a common skills standard

and classification is crucial for building a reliable, effective, and sustainable LMIS.
This can help unify labor market data sources and ensure consistent data standards
throughout. It is a vital precondition in planning an LMIS, facilitating coordination
and collaboration conducive to data sharing, analysis, and decision-making among
different stakeholders.

FIGURE 6
Skills Anticipation and Prioritization of Skills Requirements Framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

National Skills Map Sectoral Consultation Prioritized Qualification

for TR Development

Secondary Data Prioritization of the

TESDA Board Recommended
• Philippine Dev’t Plan Programs for CS
• Industry Roadmaps Development
• Philippine Skills
Framework
• JobsFit Recommended
• Studies/LMIR Programs for TR Review
• Overseas
Requirements
Existing TR Identified
Area-Based, as Industry Priority
Demand-Driven
TVET
(Results of the Provincial/
Regional Skills Mapping)

SNA: Workspace
Skills & Satisfaction
Survey

Work/ASEAN Skills
Competition

National Policy/Laws

Emerging Skills
Requirements
(not included in the
National Skills Map) Source: The use of LMI for skills matching and anticipation:
The Philippine TVET experience, a slide presentation by TESDA

Labor market information must be presented in a clear, standardized way to ensure it

is relevant and accessible to all users (Rihova, 2016). A unified skills taxonomy, aligning
skills with occupational and industry classifications like the Philippine Standard
Occupational Classification (PSOC), improves job-skills matching and promotes fairer
hiring practices, focusing on skills over formal education (World Economic Forum, 2021).

A national skills taxonomy is essential for initiatives like the LMIS. It provides a
structured framework for data collection, enhances labor surveys, ensures reliable
data, and aids in workforce forecasting (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).

TESDA’s Skills Map, built on strategic plans and industry needs, serves as a
cornerstone of this taxonomy, encompassing skills, job categories, knowledge areas,
and descriptors. Similarly, the DTI’s Skills Frameworks offer detailed job descriptions
and competencies but are limited to priority sectors. Aligning TESDA’s Skills Map and
DTI’s frameworks with the PSOC and the PQF is vital for a cohesive national taxonomy.

Currently, the PSOC is outdated and misaligned with modern labor demands and the
PQF. It is based on the 2008 International Standard Classification of Occupations
and has not been revised since 2012, despite efforts by DOLE and the BLE to update it
(EDCOM II, 2024; PSA Resolution 12, 2022).
286 EDCOM II Year Two Report

A unified skills taxonomy, aligning skills with occupational

and industry classifications like the PSOC improves job-skills
matching and promotes fairer hiring practices, focusing on
skills over formal education (World Economic Forum, 2021).

In contrast, the Philippine Standard Classification of Education (PSCED) aligns with

the PQF, which ensures that TVET graduates’ qualifications meet employment or
higher education standards. CHED is piloting credit transfer guidelines for TESDA
qualifications in fields like agricultural engineering, dentistry, and tourism to support
this alignment (EDCOM II, June 25, 2024).

Recommendations
The Philippine government must consolidate fragmented labor market data from
different government agencies into a unified, interoperable LMIS. A central system
should enable real-time data sharing and analysis. Integration will allow for more robust
skills forecasting, reduce duplicative efforts, and streamline training program design.
This harmonized data can be further enhanced by incorporating real-time big data from
job platforms like LinkedIn and Jobstreet (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024), enriching
insights into job-skills mismatches, projecting future labor market demands, and
identifying critical skills shortages.

By leveraging data science and AI methodologies, the system will empower TESDA’s
capacity to identify and prioritize skills needs. Predictive analytics should inform
training program design, ensuring alignment with high-growth sectors like information
technology (IT), health care, and green technologies. These tools can also track the
effectiveness of TVET programs in improving graduate employability. DepEd’s Learner
Reference Number may also be used to monitor a student’s progress from basic
education through to employment (EDCOM II, 2024, Jun 25).

Harmonize and standardize data-sharing protocols across government agencies by

developing a standardized skills taxonomy aligned with PSOC and PQF to improve
skills mapping and matching. This taxonomy should classify skills into categories
relevant to current and emerging industries, enabling precise identification of skills
shortages and surpluses (EDCOM II, 2024, Jun 25). Regular updates, incorporating input
from industry stakeholders, will ensure the taxonomy remains relevant in the face of
technological advancements and changing labor demands.

DOLE should take the lead in overseeing the LMIS, given its mandate to address
labor issues and its involvement in interagency bodies like the PSA’s Interagency
Committee on Labor and Productivity Statistics (Bayudan-Dacuycuy et al., 2024).
DOLE should facilitate institutional arrangements, establish data-sharing protocols,
and standardize methodologies for collecting and analyzing labor market data. Close
collaboration with other stakeholders is vital for creating a cohesive system.

Stronger partnerships with industry stakeholders are needed to refine skills

forecasting and program alignment. Initiatives like TESDA’s Skills Anticipation and
Prioritization of Skills Requirements Framework should be expanded to include regular
industry consultations and updated skills maps based on market trends (Bayudan-
Dacuycuy et al., 2024).
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 287

LMI should have an enhanced data granularity to be more useful to stakeholders. Labor
market data must provide detailed insights, including disaggregation by geographic
location, specific occupations, and industries, to guide decisions by policymakers,
employers, and students. The LMIS should also offer future-oriented projections to help
students choose relevant courses and guide employers’ workforce planning.

The LMIS must be user-friendly and accessible to all stakeholders, including students,
job seekers, employers, and policymakers. A centralized online platform should serve
as a one-stop resource for labor market data, offering tools for skills assessment, job
matching, and training program selection.

Issue 2: TVET graduates face persistent challenges in

securing quality employment and competitive wages.

Labor Force Participation and Employment Rates

In terms of employment effects, TVET positively influences labor force participation,
particularly among women and youth. However, it does not significantly enhance the
probability of securing employment or quality jobs, especially for males and young
people. Generalao et al. (2024) emphasize that although TVET graduates often secure
employment, they face higher rates of underemployment, indicating a mismatch
between their skills and the labor market demands. In addition, in the study of Generalao
et al. (2024), it shows that TVET graduates are less likely to be employed in precarious
jobs compared to non-TVET workers. This was also confirmed by Bersales (2024).

FIGURE 7
Quality of Employment of TVET Vis-a-Vis Non-TVET Graduates, April 2023

40.0
36.5 36.3
35.0
31.4
30.0
26.9 26.8
25.2
25.0

20.0
17.2 17.4
15.7 15.7
15.0 12.7 12.9

10.0

5.0

0.0

Underemployed Working Precarious Vulnerable

excessive hours employment employment

TVET graduate Non-TVET graduate All

Source: Generalao, 2024 Dec 10

Data from the Labor Force Surveys (2021–2022) highlights this disparity. The figure
below from Bersales (2024) illustrates that while TVET graduates have a labor
force participation rate of 79.0%, their employment rate is only 91.0%, with an
underemployment rate of 22.6%. This underemployment rate is significantly higher
than that of college graduates, reflecting the persistent challenges faced by TVET
graduates in finding quality jobs.
288 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 4
Labor Force Indicators of Graduates of Senior High School, Postsecondary Programs,
College Programs, With TVET, Without TVET, in Percentage, 2021–2022

Senior High Post With Post-

College With Without
Labor Force Indicator Total School Secondary Graduate
Graduate TVET TVET
Graduate Graduate Degree

Labor Force Participation 62.4 38.6 75.8 78.1 79.6 79.0 61.7

Employment Rate 93.2 78.5 91.3 91.2 98.0 91.0 93.4

Unemployment Rate 6.6 21.5 8.7 8.8 2.0 9.0 6.6

Underemployment Rate 16.8 16.1 16.4 9.7 8.5 22.6 16.5

Note: Computations done by Bersales (2024)

Source: Labor Force Surveys, 2021–2022

TVET and the Informal Economy

TVET also plays a role in reducing participation in the informal economy, particularly
among young men without formal schooling. Bersales (2024) found that the likelihood
of being employed in the informal sector decreases for those with TVET qualifications,
although this effect varies by gender and age. Women, for instance, remain highly
vulnerable to informal employment regardless of TVET training, often due to
socioeconomic constraints and traditional gender roles.

This finding aligns with Generalao et al. (2024), who note that women often prioritize
family responsibilities over employment, limiting their ability to leverage TVET training
effectively. Addressing these gender-specific barriers through tailored interventions
could improve the employability of women in formal sectors.

FIGURE 8
Labor Force Status of TVET Vis-a-Vis Non-TVET Graduates by Sex,
April 2023

100

90

80
52.2
70 62.2 61.7
71.3 65.6
76.0
60 82.4
50 2.2

40 2.9 2.9
2.9
30 3.5
4.9
6.1 45.6
20
34.9 35.4 31.5
25.2
10 19.1
11.5
0
TVET Non-TVET TVET Non-TVET TVET Non-TVET
Sample graduates graduates graduates graduates graduates graduates

ALL MALE FEMALE

Not part of the labor force Unemployed Employed

Source: Source: Labor Force Surveys, 2021–2022

 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 289

Wage Outcomes
Contrary to expectations, TVET graduates do not consistently earn higher wages
than their non-TVET counterparts. A PDIS study on wage outcomes compared wages
and the likelihood of low-paid employment between TVET and non-TVET graduates.
Preliminary results indicate no significant wage differences between the two groups,
though factors such as training modality and program registration significantly
influence wages for TVET graduates (Generalao, 2024 Dec 10). Bersales (2024) also
notes that TVET graduates’ earnings often do not reflect the skills and effort invested
in their training.

FIGURE 9
Wage Levels (Average Daily Basic Pay) of Workers in Private Establishments
by TVET Completion Status Across Various Demographic Characteristics, April

855.5
900.0

708.7
800.0
595.3

578.0

550.0
550.0
556.2

540.4

551.6
700.0
537.0

528.7
532.2
526.8
536.1
519.0

514.2

483.9

460.7
459.3
481.1
452.6
464.1

430.2

425.8
600.0

405.3
413.0
389.4

384.8
391.7

352.8
400.0
300.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
Male

Female

Youth (15–24)

PRime (25–54)

Past Prime (55+)

Below JHS

JHS Undergrad

JHS Grad

SHS Undergrad

SHS Grad

Postsecondary
Undergrad

Postsecondary
Grad

Undergrad

& Beyond
College

All Sex Age Group Highest Educational Attainment College Grad

TVET graduate Non-TVET graduate

Source: Generalao, 2024 Dec 10

Recommendations
Increase private sector involvement in the design, provision, and certification
processes of training programs to ensure alignment with industry needs.
Decentralizing the development of training programs and certification systems to the
private sector will foster innovation and responsiveness to labor market demands.
Regularly revisiting program designs with industry stakeholders will ensure a focus on
better-paying occupations and future workforce requirements.

Regularly monitor the employability of TVET graduates and the effectiveness of

training programs to ensure they meet labor market expectations. Utilizing advanced
analysis methods, including innovative techniques to estimate outcomes and address
hidden influences, will improve the accuracy and usefulness of findings. These insights
will support continuous improvement in program delivery and outcomes.

Standardize definitions across datasets to improve data consistency, and to ease

comparability of TVET and non-TVET graduate outcomes. TESDA should integrate
labor market data from sources like the LFS, the TESDA Training Management
290 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Information System, the Special Training for Employment Program, and skills surveys
to provide a holistic view of TVET outcomes. This effort will ensure reliable and
actionable insights for policy and program adjustments.

Focus on specific groups, such as high school graduates, to provide targeted

insights and clearer comparisons of TVET’s impact on different populations.
This can be done by gathering data on program costs, certification expenses, and
wage outcomes that will allow TESDA to assess the returns to TVET using rate of
return methodologies. This approach will help refine programs to maximize their
effectiveness for key demographics.

Identify and expand programs that demonstrate positive employment outcomes to

ensure they benefit a wider range of participants. Adapting these programs based on
robust data insights will enable TESDA to replicate success in various contexts while
addressing local labor market needs. This ensures the scalability and relevance of
effective training initiatives.

Address biases against TVET graduates through strategic marketing campaigns

and system enhancements that highlight their value. Showcasing the employability,
earning potential, and career success of TVET graduates will improve public
perceptions and attract more participants. These efforts are vital for building
confidence in TVET as a career pathway.

Priority Area 20:

Industry Involvement and
Investment in Upskilling
Issue 1: Despite TVET’s contributions to workforce
development, challenges persist in aligning with labor
market shifts, declining sector participation, and improving
job quality amid post-pandemic recovery.
TVET has long been recognized as a cornerstone of the Philippine economy, driving
growth and enhancing competitiveness by producing skilled workers vital to various
industries, including overseas employment. In 2021, eight out of 10 TVET graduates
secured employment within a year, with most qualifications concentrated in the
agriculture, forestry, fishery, tourism, and automotive sectors (NTESDP 2023–2028;
TESDA, 2023). In 2023, over 970,000 graduates were certified as skilled workers, a 15%
increase from the previous year. Region VIII, the National Capital Region, and Region VII
recorded the highest number of certifications. The numbers of TVET learners enrolling,
graduating, and obtaining certification have been steadily rising, after dropping in 2020
due to COVID-19 (TESDA statistics, 2019–2023).

This recovery in TVET participation is evident in sectors such as agriculture, forestry,

and fisheries. Since 2015, the number of graduates in these fields has been gradually
increasing, nearly doubling between 2020 and 2021, and now accounting for around
20% of all graduates. This significant growth can be attributed to the resilience of the
agriculture sector during the pandemic, which maintained employment levels due to
its essential and low-contact nature (Debuque-Gonzales et al., 2023, as cited in Epetia
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 291

& Villena, 2023). Many city workers also returned to the provinces and relied on farming
as a source of income, further increasing the demand for agricultural training (Lucero,
2021, as cited in Epetia & Villena, 2023). In contrast, tourism, which was previously the
top sector for TVET graduates, saw a steep decline in graduate numbers, dropping from
over 500,000 in 2019 to just over 100,000 in 2020. ICT, which once ranked second
to tourism, experienced a steady decrease and now ranks 10th among TVET sectors

5
(TESDA statistics, 2015–2023). These shifts illustrate how TVET both responds to and
reflects changes in the labor market.

FIGURE 10
Number of TVET Graduates by Sector, 2015–2023

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Agriculture, Forestry & Fishery Information & Communication Technology

Electrical & Electronics Construction
Tourism (Hotel& Restaurant) Social, Community Dev’t & Other Services Source: TESDA Statistics,
Automotive & Land Transportation 2015–2023

A comparative analysis of enrollment trends in TVET programs between 2020

and 2023 reveals that in 2020, Driving NC II and Bread and Pastry Production NC
II emerged as the leading qualifications, capturing 15.01% and 14.00% of total
enrollments, respectively. By 2023, Bread and Pastry Production NC II experienced
a marked increase, securing 20.33% of enrollments, while Driving NC II retained
its relevance with 17.76%. This upward trend highlights the sustained demand for
qualifications tied to workforce-ready industries such as food preparation and
transportation. Notably, programs such as Electrical Installation and Maintenance,
Shielded Metal Arc Welding, and Caregiving exhibited significant growth, signaling an
expansion in occupational diversity within TVET offerings. The total enrollment nearly
doubled from 134,453 in 2020 to 283,727 in 2023, reflecting a growing recognition of
TVET as a viable pathway for skill acquisition.

A comparative analysis of enrollment trends in TVET

programs between 2020 and 2023 reveals that in 2020,
Driving NC II and Bread and Pastry Production NC II
emerged as the leading qualifications, capturing 15.01%
and 14.00% of total enrollments, respectively.
292 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 5
Top TVET Programs, 2020 and 2023

2020

Qualification Enrollees %

Driving II 20,188 15.01%

Bread and Pastry Production II 18,829 14.00%

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) II 17,121 12.73%

Organic Agriculture Production II 16,855 12.54%

Electrical Installation & Maintenance II 15,388 11.44%

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) I 13,058 9.71%

Computer Systems Servicing II 9,602 7.14%

Cookery II 9,461 7.04%

Contact Center Services II 7,654 5.69%

Dressmaking II 6,297 4.68%

TOTAL 134,453 100.00%

2023

Qualification Enrollees %

Bread and Pastry Production II 57,690 20.33%

Driving II 50,403 17,76%

Electrical Installation & Maintenance II 27,406 9.66%

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) II 25,922 9.14%

Caregiving II 24,877 8.77%

Cookery II 23,340 8.23%

Computer Systems Servicing II 20,956 7.39%

Organic Agriculture Production II 20,273 7.15%

Contact Center Services II 18,256 6.43%

Food & Beverage Services II 14,604 5.15%

TOTAL 283,727 100.00%

Although the pandemic slowed growth and introduced new challenges to the labor
market, annual gross domestic product (GDP) has shown positive growth over the last
3 years. In the second quarter of 2024, GDP per capita increased to 5.4%, surpassing
pre-pandemic levels (Balisacan, 2024). Year-on-year growth in the industry and services
sectors were strong, at 7.7% and 6.8%, respectively; while the agriculture sector declined
to 2.3%. The GDP growth was primarily driven by significant investments in construction
(16%); wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles (5.8%); and
financial and insurance activities (8.2%) (PSA, 2024).

According to PSA, employment growth mirrored the trends in these industries, with
construction contributing 938,000 new jobs; wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor
vehicles and motorcycles adding 527,000; and accommodation and food services
adding 396,000 more positions. However, agriculture and forestry jobs declined by
916,000; public administration and defense, compulsory social security dropped by
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 293

340,000; and fishing and aquaculture saw a decrease of 81,000 jobs. As of June 2024,
the services sector still held the largest share of the 50.28 million total employed, at
58.7%; while agriculture and industry accounted for 21.1% and 20.2%, respectively (PSA,
2024).

Overall, unemployment fell significantly to 3.1% in June 2024, the lowest rate in nearly
2 decades. Underemployment increased slightly to 12.1%, suggesting more workers are
seeking additional hours or jobs. The labor force, defined as the number of individuals
aged 15 and above who are either employed or unemployed, grew by 730,000 from June
2023, reaching 51.9 million, with a labor force participation rate of 66% (PSA, 2024).
While these figures suggest improvements in the labor market since the pandemic,
other indicators highlight the need for continued efforts to improve job quality (BLE,
2024).

Issue 2: EBET policies and programs are unclear and

overlapping leading to challenges in implementation
Despite increasing enrollment in EBT since the pandemic, participation rates remain
low compared to other TVET modalities. The number of EBT graduates has jumped by
12% in 2023 from the previous year, surpassing the 5% target in the NTESDP 2023–2028.
EBT enrollment is steadily increasing and has exceeded pre-pandemic levels. However,
it remains significantly lower compared to institution-based and community-based
training programs.

EBT is primarily conducted within the workplace but may also be delivered by external
training providers. Institution-based training, on the other hand, is delivered through
TESDA regional and provincial training centers, private TVIs, higher education
institutions, and training centers established by LGUs. Community-based training
focuses on serving poor and marginalized groups who are often excluded from
formal training programs, and is given directly in informal or formal settings by LGUs,
ongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and other TVET providers. Monitored training
includes skills programs conducted by national government agencies other than TESDA
(TESDA, 2022).

While TESDA serves as the main regulatory authority overseeing all forms of TVET
in the Philippines, the agency engages in direct training in all modalities through its
technology institutions, which is composed of training centers and administered
schools. TESDA operates 178 technology institutions, including 17 regional training
centers, 99 provincial training centers, 57 administered schools, and five specialized
training centers such as the TESDA Women’s Center, the Language Skills Institute,
and the Korea-Philippines IT Training Centers (EDCOM II, 2023, May 11). In EBT the
participation of TESDA training institutions is mainly in provision of theoretical and
soft skills in a DTS partnership with a private enterprise that has registered its training
program with TESDA.

As the labor market evolves and industries demand more specialized skills, EBT has
emerged as a valuable component of TVET. Unlike community-based and classroom-
based training, EBT places trainees directly in real-world work environments, where they
gain practical, hands-on experience guided by industry professionals. This approach
ensures that graduates are not only equipped with theoretical knowledge but also
possess practical skills that align closely with the requirements of employers, improving
employability, work readiness, and job security. For example, EBT accounted for the
highest employment rate, at 85.22%, among all TVET graduates in 2021 (SETG, 2022).
294 EDCOM II Year Two Report

EBT also enables learners to gain expertise in the latest technologies and develop
specific work attitudes, making them more prepared for real-world challenges
(Hansson, 2009, as cited in Generalao, 2024). For businesses, EBT offers long-term
benefits such as access to a skilled labor pool, opportunities to screen potential
employees during training, and alignment of training with company-specific
competencies (Flake, 2017, as cited in Generalao et al., 2024).These advantages have
been shown to increase productivity, provide seasonal benefits, and reduce costs
associated with hiring and onboarding new employees (Mapa et al., 2016, as cited in
Generalao et al., 2024).

Despite its potential, Year One findings reveal that industry participation in EBT
programs remains relatively low, due in part to perceived costs and administrative
burdens on companies, along with other challenges such as unclear policies,
inaccessible incentives, and coordination issues. Enterprises have expressed concerns
about the added responsibilities placed on supervisors, who are often tasked with
designing training modules and overseeing trainee progress. The lack of sufficient
personnel to manage these tasks further discourages companies from participating in
EBT programs. Moreover, the complex and fragmented policies surrounding EBT, which
include multiple training forms, have made it difficult for businesses to navigate the
system efficiently (Year One Report, 2023).

In response to the Year One recommendation to rationalize policies on EBT, EDCOM II

led several meetings, focus groups, and site consultations with relevant stakeholders
and industry partners to clarify EBT and its several variations at present. These dialogues
and consultations have resulted in the changes proposed by EDCOM II in the EBET Law.

Many policies to implement the DTS law were unimplemented, and unchecked
3 decades later. Despite available tax deductions, exemptions, and financial aid,
enterprises have struggled to access these benefits since 1996 due to unclear,
cumbersome processes and the lack of digitalization, as noted in the Year One Report.
The one-size-fits-all incentive framework further fails to address the diverse needs of
industries.

According to the BIR, no company has filed an application for tax deduction or
exemption since BIR Revenue Regulation No. 10-96, series (s.) 1996, was issued
to implement provisions of the DTS Act of 1994. TESDA confirmed that it has not
recommended any applications for exemption under this regulation (EDCOM II, 2024,
Feb 21). However, a list provided by the Department of Finance (DOF) showed that 12
applications for import tax and duty exemptions by six TVIs were filed between 2012 and
2017 (EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 25). No further exemption applications have been received
by the DOF after 2017. Notably, this list includes the Porsche sports cars donation to
Don Bosco Technical Institute, which took several months to process, demonstrating
the lengthy approval process that stakeholders have criticized (EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21).

“There’s not just a lack of incentives but also a lot of

disincentives. The process that the institutions must go
through is disincentivizing already. Perhaps a refinement
that could be considered is whether the incentives cut
across all enterprises.”
—Mr. Montero (APAC), Consultation on EBT Incentives, February 21, 2024
Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 295

“In the case of Monark Foundation,

the program that we offer is
industry driven.So it’s enterprise,
the demand of the enterprise. So
we train our scholars under the DTS
program. I think the lack of interest
coming from the enterprises is
that they pay for that 75% of the
minimum wage as the training
allowance for the scholars, while
they are not sure if the students
will work for them after the training
because the training is 14 months
for the heavy equipment servicing
or being the technician of heavy
equipment. Also, they (enterprises)
are not aware of the processes
involved in applying for the 50%
tax incentive.”

—Maria Cecilia Valencia, Executive

Director, Monark Foundation,
Consultation on EBT Incentives, February
21, 2024
296 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 11
Process for Obtaining a Certificate for Tax Exemption

Certificate of Tax Exemption to nonstock, nonprofit corporations and associations

under Section 30 of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1997, as amended:
nonstock, nonprofit educational institutions

EXEMPTION FROM TAXES, DUTIES FOR IMPORTATION

Requirements for tax exemption incentives

File an application for exemption

with the Revenue Office,
Department of Finance, Manila.
Applicant
The application must be duly signed Submission
by the head of the accredited dual
training educational institution or
an authorized representative.
Verify that the importer is an
REQUIRED DOCUMENTS accredited dual training
educational institution.
Bill of lading, airway bill,
parcel post/notice, and Include a recommendation
other shipping documents that the importation is
Commercial invoice and Obtain necessary for the dual training
packing list TESDA system.
Certification
Other relevant documents
concerning the shipment No accrediation is given
foreign companies.
In the Hearing last February
21, BIR said that the bureau
is currently drafting a
State that the imported items revenue regulation to
are essential and will be used Submit streamline the documentary
exclusively for the dual training Affidavit/ requirements. But to date,
system. Statement no new such regulation has
been issued.

NO list has been submitted

by TESDA to the BIR. TESDA
Provide a copy of the charter
said that the list is in every
or certificate of registration
training regulation, but the
of the educational institution
Provide BIR said that there should be
with the Securities and
Charter/ one list that should be
Exchange Commission
Registration submitted.
or equivalent evidence of its
Proof
character.

*or appropriate agency,

stating that the items are not
locally available in sufficient
Secure quantity or comparable
Certification quality at reasonable prices.
of Availability
from DTI*
The BIR was asked why DTI is
the one who will issue this
Submit a sworn statement list, when it is TESDA who is
ensuring the items will not be the authority. According to
sold, transferred, or disposed of TESDA, no application has
without prior approval from the Submit been made through them for
Department of Finance. Affidavit this one—zero since the
on Usage and implementation of the law.
Mark the items as "TAX AND DUTY Marking
FREE UNDER RA 7686."
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 297

EXEMPTION FROM TAXES, DUTIES FOR IMPORTATION

Availment of incentives and allowable deduction

To avail of the incentives related to donation and

allowable deduction, the concerned enterprise
must submit the following documents to the
Applicant Revenue District Office (RDO) of their principal People in the
Submission place of business: RDO do not
inform the
1. Letter of Application enterprises how
Duly signed by the appropriate authority of the to avail of these
agricultural, industrial, or business incentives.
establishment participating in the Dual Training
System (DTS)

2. Memorandum of Agreement
Signed by the accredited DTS establishment,
the educational/training institution, and the
trainee

3. Accreditation Proof
Certification of the dual training educational
institution's accreditation by the appropriate
authority

4. Affidavit from the Educational Institution

Statement under oath regarding the actual
amount received for the trainee(s) and official
receipts for contributions/donations

5. Affidavit from the Participating Establishment

Statement under oath regarding the actual
amount donated/contributed to the accredited
educational institution for DTS operations and
official receipts

6. Financial Statement
For the year when the tax exemption/incentive
is being claimed

7. Securities and Exchange Commission /

Department of Trade and Industry Registration
Certificate
of the participating establishment

8. Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws

or other documents showing the nature of the
business of the concerned establishment.

These documents substantiate the claim and

ensure(BOC)
The Bureau of Customs compliance with
claims the
that itincentive
typicallyprogram's
takes 1.2 hours to process the
requirements.
release of donations or imports, provided all documentary requirements are complete.
However, it can take up to 6 days if certain requirements need certifications from
other offices. According to the BOC, the DOF is the main agency responsible for
approving all applications for duty and tax exemptions on donations and imports.
Under BIR Revenue Regulation No. 10-96, the DOF may also conduct inspections
before or after approval of any tax and duty exemptions to ensure compliance. The
DOF, in turn, requires endorsements from other government agencies to process
approvals, including a certification from TESDA that the donated equipment and
materials are essential to training (EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 25).
298 EDCOM II Year Two Report

According to the BIR, no company has filed an application

for tax deduction or exemption since BIR Revenue
Regulation No. 10-96, s. 1996, was issued to implement
provisions of the DTS Act of 1994.

FIGURE 12
Process Flow
Process and
Flow and Procedure:
Procedure Regular Lane
Regular Lane (Customs and Tariff Division & Internal Revenue Division)
(Customs and Tariff Division & Internal Revenue Division)

45 mins 15 mins 30 mins 1 hour 30 mins

START
ADMIN ASSISTANT
APPLICANT APPLICANT DIVISION CHIEF
Encode the Submit the Assign
File the tax exemption
required entries application at the RO the application
application
in the e-TES LITE
1

Applicant, APPLICANT
RECEIVING OFFICER, RO
Admin Present the tax
Assistant System assignment
exemption
of application
application
to respective
divisions

OFFICER OF THE DAY

A
YES
Are the documents
complete?

NO

OFFICER OF THE DAY

Return the
application

END

ACTION OFFICER

A Evaluate the
application 12 hours
4 hours (4 hours per level
of review)

ACTION OFFICER ACTION OFFICER

ACTION OFFICER DIVISION CHIEF,
Are the YES Is the submitted YES DIRECTOR III, DIRECTOR IV
documents document Prepare the draft
Review the proposed
complete? correct? [?] TEI
action on the
application
NO NO

ACTION OFFICER ACTION OFFICER

Notify the applicant Prepare a formal
of any deficiency compliance
letter
B

8 hours 2 hours 8 hours, 12 minutes

DIRECTOR IV
Is there a need NO REVIEW TEAM, ROG ADMIN ASSISTANT, ROG ADMIN OFFICER, CRMD
B for appropriate Review the Notify the Release the
action/ application applicant endorsement
verification?

END
YES
ASST. SECRETARY,
UNDERSECRETARY YES
Is the application
approved?

2 NO

Director IV
A

Abbreviations: CRMD: Central

Records Management Division,
e-TES: Enhanced Tax Exemption
System, TEI: Tax Exemption
Indorsement, RO: Revenue Office,
ROG: Revenue Operations Group
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 299

The DTS Act mandates TESDA, the DTI, and

the BIR to jointly create a list of essential
training equipment and materials, but no
such list exists. The BIR questioned its role,
suggesting TESDA, as the training authority,
should lead the effort. TESDA stated that
relevant materials are included in its training
regulations but have not been consolidated
or submitted to the BIR or the BOC
(EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21).

The DTS Act mandates TESDA, the DTI, and the BIR to jointly create a list of essential
training equipment and materials, but no such list exists. During the hearing
conducted by EDCOM, the BIR questioned its role, suggesting TESDA, as the training
authority, should lead the effort. TESDA stated that relevant materials are included in
its training regulations but have not been consolidated or submitted to the BIR or the
BOC (EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21).

Under the DTS Act, private enterprises can deduct 50% of trainee expenses from
their taxes and up to 3% of income tax for donations or financial aid to DTS programs.
Full deductions apply to contributions supporting National Priority Programs of
the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), such as dairy cattle
production and food animal welfare initiatives in 2024 (EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 25).
However, many enterprises are unaware of these incentives or find the process too
complex due to extensive documentation and administrative hurdles. Additionally,
the incentive structure exposes businesses to financial risks, as they bear training and
wage costs without assurance that trainees will join their workforce (EDCOM II, 2024,
Feb 21).

The DTS Act and the Adopt-A-School Act of 1998 (RA 8525) provide exemptions from
donor taxes, value-added tax, excise tax, and import duties for training donations.
However, enterprises and TVIs rarely utilize these exemptions due to excessive
paperwork and bureaucratic red tape, which donors also find frustrating. Smaller TVIs
feel particularly disadvantaged, perceiving the process as favoring larger institutions.
Although the Adopt-A-School Act designates TESDA’s budget to cover value-
added and excise taxes, this provision has not been included in TESDA’s general
appropriations (EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21).
300 EDCOM II Year Two Report

“The incentives become so restrictive. It

seems that we need a shift in mindset
that assumes good faith. These additional
requirements were required to protect the
interest of the government, but now, no
one is interested in availing because of the
sheer magnitude of the requirements.”
—Cong. P. J. Garcia, Consultations on EBT Incentives, February 21, 2024

Concerns have been raised about the lack of competition and transparency in the
accreditation process managed by the Philippine Council for NGO Certification
(PCNC), the sole accreditor for TVIs and organizations seeking DTS Act incentives. The
BIR, which oversees tax incentives, relies on PCNC accreditation, adding complexity
(EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21). The process, which can take up to 3 months, requires 19
documents and includes organizational and operational tests to ensure compliance
with governance and management standards. The lengthy process discourages some
nonprofit organizations from accessing the benefits provided by the DTS Act.

FIGURE 13
Accreditation Process

3
1 2
PCNC Board
Application Evaluation
Deliberation

~ 3 months

6 5 4

Issuance by Endorsement Issuance of

BIR of COR to BIR PCNC COA

Abbreviations: COA = Certificate of Accreditation, COR = Certificate of Registration

 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 301

TABLE 6
Table of EBT-Related Incentives by Agency

Relavant
Applicable
Law Incentive Agency / Terms and Conditions
to
Policy

Dual Training Enterprise 50% deduction BIR • Deduction limited to 5% of direct labor
System (DTS) for actual RR 10-96, expenses, not exceeding Php 25 million a
Act (RA 7686) expenses RMC 15-
incurred on 2020 year
DTS trainee • Requires submission of (1) letter of
application, (2) MOA, (3) accreditation
of DTS institution, (4) affidavit of actual
amounts received for training, (5) affidavit
of actual amounts donated, (6) financial
statements, (7) business registration, and
(8) articles of incorporation

Dual Training Enterprise 3% deduction BIR, NEDA • Donations are deductible from business
System (DTS) for donations RR 10-96, income
Act (RA 7686) made to DTS RMC 15-
programs 2020 • If DTS program is listed under NEDA’s
NEDA National Priority Programs, deduction is
Circular 01- 100% from taxable income
1991

Dual Training Private Exemption BIR, TESDA • Donor tax exemption for DTS
System (DTS) entity from donor’s RR 10-96, contributions, provided that no more
Act (RA 7686) tax RMC 15-
2020 than 30% is used for administrative
RA 7686 purposes
Sec. 9 and • Certification of accreditation from TESDA
18
is required

Dual Training Public TVI Exemption BIR, DOF, • Requires submission of (1) application
System (DTS) Private TVI from VAT TESDA for exemption with DOF, (2) bill of lading,
Act (RA 7686) and excise RR 10-96,
tax and duty RMC 15- (3) commercial invoice, (4) packing list,
on imported 2020 (5) TESDA certification, (6) affidavit
training that imported articles are essential, (7)
equipment and
materials
Charter or SEC registration certificate,
(8) BOI certification of nonavailability
of items in the local market​, and (9)
affidavit that items will not be sold or
transferred without DOF approval
• If NGO, a PCNC accreditation is required
• List of training essentials for exemption
jointly formed by BIR, DTI, and TESDA

Adopt-A- Public TVI Exemption BIR, TESDA • No input VAT so long as donee is final
School Act from VAT for RR 10-2003 consumer/end-user and donation is
(RA 8525) local donations
considered as a sales transaction
• VAT exempt if transfer of goods is not
considered as a sales transaction
302 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Relavant
Applicable
Law Incentive Agency / Terms and Conditions
to
Policy

Adopt-a- Private Deduction of BIR, TESDA • Donation is directly and exclusively

School Act entity local donations RR 10-2003 incurred for the program
(RA 8525) from taxable
income • Additional amount equivalent to 50% of
contribution provided there is evidence,
Exemption endorsement from national secretariat,
from donor’s
tax
and application filed with RDO
• Deduction availed within taxable year
when paid/incurred

Adopt-a- Private Exemption BIR, TESDA • Exemption assumed by TESDA except

School Act entity from VAT RR 10-2003 when importation is exempt from Tax
(RA 8525) for foreign
donations Code
• Import VAT automatically considered
as government expenditure under the
General Appropriations Act (GAA)​

Adopt-a- Private Exemption BIR, TESDA • Subject to VAT

School Act entity from VAT for RR 10-2003 • Input VAT may be claimed but subject to
(RA 8525) local donations
allocation rules on taxable sales, zero-
rated sales, and exempt sales

Corporate Public TVI 50% BIR, TESDA • Available for training expenses incurred in
Recovery deduction on public TVIs, capped at 10% of direct labor
and Tax labor training
wages
Incentives for expenses
Enterprises • Requires certifications from TESDA
(CREATE) Act
(RA 11534)

National Private Limited BIR, PCNC • Donations must be made within taxable
Internal entity deductibility RR No. 13- year to an accredited nonstock, nonprofit,
Revenue for donations 98
with limit on the percentage of donations
Code (RA to accredited
8424) NGOs (10% for allowable as deductions from taxable income
individuals, • Evidence or receipt detailing donation is
5% for required
corporations)

National Private Full BIR, PCNC • Donations made within taxable year to an
Internal entity deductibility RR No. 13- accredited nonstock, nonprofit
Revenue for donations 98
• Donation used by the 15th day of the third
Code (RA to accredited
8424 NGOs month after close of taxable year
as amended) • Administrative expenses must not exceed
30% annually

National Private Exemption BIR, PCNC • Donations made to an accredited non-stock,

Internal entity from donor’s RR No. 13- non-profit organization
Revenue tax 98
• Not more than 30% of donations and gifts to
Code (RA
8424 be used for administrative purposes
as amended) • Evidence or receipt detailing donation is
required
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 303

Adopt-Adapt Framework
Consultations reveal that the development, implementation, and certification of
training regulations (TRs) could take from 6 months to 2 years, limiting the capability
of training programs to respond to the rapidly changing needs of industry (Year
One Report, 2024). In an effort to expedite the development of TRs, TESDA released
Circular No. 009, s. 2024,in February 2024, on Implementing Guidelines on Adopt-
Adapt Strategies for Competency/Training Regulations Review and Development.

The Adopt-Adapt framework allows industries to acquire local or international

competency standards and TRs through the integration of existing industry best
practices and the application of various adopt-adapt strategies. This not only shortens
the time needed to develop new TRs but also reduces the risk of implementing
ineffective or inefficient ones.

Strategies of benchmarking (comparing an organization’s regulations with leaders

in the industry) and referencing (incorporating established industry standards and
practices) ensure that industries stay competitive. Meanwhile, industry exposure
and partnership agreements encourage industries to support each other and check
if adapted regulations are relevant and practical. However, since its implementation
in February 2024, only 1 Adopt-Adapt TR has been fully implemented (TESDA Plenary
Budget Hearing, 2024).

FIGURE 14
Adopt-Adapt Framework

Nat’l Registry
Industry World Skills Quality
of Certified
Standards (ASEAN & National) TVET
Workers

International Country
Specifics
Adoption

Testing &
Enterprise Assessment
Certification
Based Country
Specifics
Priority Micro-
National credentials
Skills
Country
Adaption

Local/Area Specifics Career

Based TVET Progression
Provision
Others
Emerging

Abbreviations: NC-
National Certificate
Research,
Compentency COC - Certificate of
Functional Analysis, Support NC, COC,
Stacking/ Competencies
Unpacking, Benchmarking & Enabling Other Award/
Competency
& Referencing, Mechanism RPL
Standards Bank CS - Competency
Industry Consultation
Standards

RPL - Recognition of
Prior Learning
Identify Acquisition-Adopt-Adapt
Priority Skills Development of CS & TRS Implementation of CS/TRS TR - Training Regulations
(Acquisition & Development) Source: TESDA Circular
009, s. 2024
304 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Recommendations
TESDA, the BIR, and other relevant agencies should simplify and streamline the
lengthy processes associated with tax benefits and EBT-related incentives.
The current bureaucratic hurdles deter companies and training institutions from
utilizing these incentives effectively. Implementing a digital platform to consolidate
documentary requirements and enable real-time application tracking would enhance
efficiency, transparency, and accessibility, minimizing delays and encouraging broader
industry participation in EBT programs. This initiative can be pursued under the EBET
Framework Act (RA 12063).

TESDA should ramp up implementation of its Adopt-Adapt Strategies following

the steps outlined in TESDA released Circular No. 009, s.2024. Capability-building
programs funded through scholarship programs can also be conducted to train target
clientele in the application of adopt-adapt strategies in developing competency
standards for TRs.

Additionally, to enhance industry acceptance of certifications and strengthen industry

participation in TESD governance (as emphasized in TESDA Circular No. 041, s. 2024),
it is recommended that TESDA proactively promote and implement the updated
Guidelines on the Adoption of the Industry-Based Assessment and Certification
System (IBACS), released on June 28, 2024. This will foster greater alignment between
training outcomes and industry requirements.

Priority Area 21:

Ensuring Quality in
the Provision of TVET
Issue 1: Most TVIs and TRs are concentrated on lower skill
programs (NC 1 and 2)
According to RA 7796, TESDA is the lead authority responsible for technical education
and skills development in the country. To uphold quality in all TVET programs, TESDA
operates based on a framework anchored on competency standards developed by
industry experts. This framework is informed by various government plans, policies,
and priorities, aligning national economic and labor market needs while providing
opportunities for employment, social inclusion, and personal advancement. Quality
TVET is delivered through a system that adheres to the principles of lifelong learning and
the recognition of prior learning achieved through formal and nonformal means (PQF
website, 2024). This system adapts to technological changes and emerging risks that
may impact the growth and quality of TVET. TESDA’s commitment to high-quality TVET is
guided by the Quality Assured Technical Education and Skills Development Framework,
which provides standards and measures for competency, training delivery, and learning
outcomes (NTESDP 2023–2028).

TVET programs are delivered through a network of 4,536 TVIs, which include TESDA
Technology Institutions (TTIs) at national, regional, and provincial levels, as well as local
and state universities and colleges, other government agencies with skills development
programs, and private institutions. Approximately 90% of TVIs are privately operated,
while TTIs represent 4% of TVET providers. However, in 2023, TTIs accounted for nearly
30% of total enrollment.
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 305

“The growth [in the programs that TESDA offers] will be

attuned to the requirements of industries both local and
national, and even global. The goal is not in numbers,
the goal is to grow it with quality. That way we will also
be targeted in offering our programs and scholarships.”
—Sen. Win Gatchalian, EDCOM II Co-Chairperson

FIGURE 15
Distribution of TVET Enrollment and TVI Types, 2017–2023

100%

90%

80%

70%
838,694

818,074

1,165,431
581,624
1,938,865

2,160,501
2,122,106

60%
4,098

4,102
4,197
3,977
3,971
3,866
3,625

50%

40%

30%

20%
442,170
401,405

466,962
172,090
359,879

261,094

10%
328,421

220 231 235 227 246 250 256

121 122 142 202 199 184 178
0%
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

TESDA TTI Enrolled TESDA TTI

Source: TESDA Annual
Public TVI Enrolled Public/Private TVI
Reports, 2017 - 2023
Private TVI

Training programs are developed based on TESDA’s TRs,which outline qualifications,

competency standards, training guidelines, assessment processes, and certification
arrangements for specific sectors. These TRs form the foundation for the development
of curricula, instructional materials, registration, and the delivery of training programs.
Approved by the TESDA Board, these regulations are promulgated for nationwide
implementation (TESDA, 2022). Competency standards, organized into units of basic,
common, and core competencies, define the specific performance criteria, knowledge,
and skills required for each qualification corresponding to various occupations. These
qualifications range from NC I to NC IV, reflecting increasing levels of ability and
competence.

Under the Philippine TVET Competency Assessment and Certification System, an NC

is given after a learner passes an assessment that demonstrates adequate knowledge
and expertise in the chosen field. In addition to NC I to NC IV, there is an NC V, which
is equivalent to a diploma and represents qualifications at the interface between TVET
306 EDCOM II Year Two Report

and higher education. NC V is comparable to a diploma or an associate degree in higher

education (NTESDP 2023–2028). However, according to the Year One Report, which
thoroughly discussed the process of developing and registering TRs, no regulations
have yet been established for NC V. All of these NCs are aligned with specific levels in
Quality Assured Philippine Technical Education System
FIGURE 16
Quality Assured Technical Education and Skills Development Framework

Development Plans / Government Policies / Public Investment

Early School Leavers Basic Education Graduates

(Dropouts) Higher Education Graduates

Wage / Self-Employed Disadvantaged Groups /

Workers Informal Sector

PTCACS

Development Development of
Stakeholders of Competency Assessment Standards
Consultation Standards &
Development of
Program Standards
Assessment Instrument

UTPRAS Competency
Development
of Curriculum Assessment
Framework &
Learning Package
Program Exemplars
Accreditation Award
within the of National
Philippine TVET Certificate
Quality Awards Program
Incentives: Registration
Platinum, Gold, under UTPRAS
Award
Silver, & Bronze
of Certificate
Awards
of Competency

Training Delivery

Management of the Employment &

Technical Education System Productivity Enhancement
Recognition of Prior Learning / Promotion of
Equivalency Scheme / Lifelong Learning Technical Education

Abbreviations: PTCACS = Philippine TVET Competency Assessment and Certification System, UTPRAS = Unified TVET
Program Registration and Accreditation System

Source: NTESDP 2023–2028

The Year One Report also highlighted that less than 15% of TESDA’s training programs
result in an NC, as only 315 out of 1,888 training programs have corresponding TRs.
Most of these programs focus on lower-level skills, such as NC I and NC II, which
have shown minimal impact on increasing graduates’ incomes. In fact, graduates
with college-level education experienced income declines after obtaining lower-
level certifications. However, NC III and NC IV have demonstrated significant income
improvements, particularly for learners with limited or basic education. Unfortunately,
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 307

only a third of TESDA’s TRs target these higher-skill levels, highlighting a mismatch
between training offerings and potential socioeconomic benefits. Furthermore, the TR
development process is incredibly slow, taking between 6 months and 2 years, which
limits the TVET system’s ability to adapt to the fast-changing demands of industry.

Issue 2: There is a severe lack of industry boards in key sectors.

As of June 2024, the total number of ITBs has risen to 63, with the addition of a national
industry board in the creative sector, four regional boards, and 13 provincial boards.
New ITBs have been established at the regional and provincial levels for sectors such as
health, wholesale and retail trade, and metalworks. However, critical sectors like energy
and transportation have few or no industry boards. In some sectors with an existing
PSF, ITBs are still lacking (EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25). The Year One Report identified 40
ITBs across all levels that are concentrated in only eight sectors. However, these sectors
represent industries with the most TRs (Year One Report, 2023). Previously, EDCOM
allocated P22.8 million for the establishment and operationalization of industry boards
to support EBET but it was removed from the 2025 GAA.

TABLE 7
Number of Industry Boards, 2024

Sector National Regional Provincial Total

Agriculture 1 7 11 19

Tourism 1 0 8 9

Construction 1 1 3 5

Information and
2 5 5 12
Communications Technology

Manufacturing 1 3 5 9

Transport and Logistics 0 2 0 2

Creatives and Design 1 1 1 3

Health and Wellness 0 1 0 1

Wholesale and Retail Trade 0 1 0 1

Metalworks Sector 0 0 1 1

Weaving 0 0 1 1

Source: TESDA, September 2024

Industry associations nominate experts to assist in the formulation of competency

standards and qualifications, enabling industry involvement in developing TRs. However,
the Year One Report did not clearly indicate whether these TESDA-formed industry
bodies directly contributed to formulating TRs. Some national industry associations
that have been certified to act as industry boards have been instrumental in developing
regulations for their respective sectors during the implementation of the Training
for Work Scholarship Program. For instance, the IT and Business Process Association
of the Philippines developed 19 TRs for the ICT sector, the Semiconductors and
Electronics Industry in the Philippines formulated five TRs for manufacturing, and the
Philippine Society of Plumbing Engineers created three TRs for plumbing (ILO and the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD].
308 EDCOM II Year Two Report

This highlights the critical role of ITBs in bridging the gap between industry needs and
workforce upskilling. Composed of key industry players and experts, these boards
act as a voice for industries in the design and development of training programs,
ensuring that they remain relevant to current market needs and overall sector growth.
By identifying functional and enabling skills required for various occupations, ITBs help
ensure that the workforce is both employable and equipped with the right skills to
meet specific sector demands.

TESDA is mandated by law to create industry boards (RA 7796), and in 2019, it
launched the Recognition of Industry Bodies program to encourage private sector
involvement in TVET. This program was discontinued in 2021, with the release of
TESDA Circular No. 17, s.2021, due to concerns about inadequate representation
from the labor sector and academe, leading to challenges in translating labor
market information into training programs. The new circular called for an ITB that is
quadripartite, requiring representation not just from employers or their associations,
but also from labor, learning institutions, and government. This circular also identified
five priority sectors (agri-fishery, construction, IT, health, and logistics), while outlining
the boards’ roles in labor market intelligence, area-based skills mapping, skills needs
forecasting, and inputs to training regulations and learning content. However, many of
these boards, despite signing memorandums of agreement with TESDA, are still not
fully functional (EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25). There remains a challenge to operationalize
ITBs, as most do not have set goals and mandates.

The ITBs are also central to the implementation of TESDA’s Industry-Based

Assessment and Certification System (IBACS), introduced in TESDA Circular No. 041,
s. 2024, as addendum to the original 2021 guidelines. IBACS is designed to enhance
the alignment of TVET with industry standards by allowing industries to manage their
own certification processes. This ensures that assessments are attuned to sector-
specific needs, offering alternative certification pathways beyond traditional training
regulations. For example, in industries like the business process outsourcing sector,
employers often prioritize industry-based microcredentials from providers such as
Microsoft, Google, or Coursera over TESDA’s NCs. Certifications from Agile or Python
training programs, which are globally recognized, are also increasingly adopted by
industry (EDCOM II, 2024, Feb 21).

Under the IBACS framework, ITBs are responsible for setting accreditation criteria,
developing industry-based assessments, and promoting the recognition of industry-
specific certifications. By ensuring that these certifications are aligned with employer
expectations, ITBs help boost the employability and productivity of TVET graduates.
These boards also play a role in continuously evaluating and refining the system to
ensure that certification processes remain responsive to the labor market.

The PSF, on the other hand, complements the work of ITBs by providing a common
skills language and taxonomy that serve as structured pathways to upskilling and
career progression (EDCOM II, 2024, Aug 19). This alignment ensures workers acquire
the necessary qualifications at various levels, while also offering greater transferability
of skills across sectors. By integrating the competencies identified in PSFs into
existing national certification systems, ITBs can guarantee that training initiatives
are not only industry driven but also recognized across multiple industries, further
strengthening the overall TVET landscape (EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25).
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 309

Recommendations
Expand the coverage of national ITBs across priority industries identified as key
employment and economic generators. ITBs play a central role in the success
of upskilling initiatives (Philippine Development Plan 2023–2028). Expanding
the formation of additional ITBs at various levels, and making sure they are
operationalized, allows industry associations and groups to actively participate in
setting standards and shaping technical education and skills development programs.
These industry organizations would become TESDA’s key partners in the design and
delivery of EBT, effectively ensuring that training programs are both area based and
demand driven.

TESDA should establish clear, measurable indicators of ITB performance, promote

accountability, and facilitate effective monitoring of ITB roles and responsibilities
(Generalao, 2024). This could start by reviewing the performance of existing ITBs
in areas such as promoting EBT, establishing standards, and updating labor market
information. Empowering ITBs to take on more responsibilities, such as assessments
and certifications, would allow TESDA to concentrate its resources on enhancing its
regulatory capabilities (ADB, 2021). This also involves TESDA supporting the growth of
ITBs into matured organized bodies for TVET and providing direction to local technical
education and skills development committees to ensure program coherence at the
local level. The indicators should be accessible on the website and updated dynamically
to reflect the effectiveness of the training programs. This will enable innovation and
gamification opportunities for both stakeholders and regulators.

Ensure the quadripartite composition of ITBs as mandated by law to ensure

representation and include relevant TVET stakeholder groups. The inclusion of
government, industry, academia, and labor in ITBs fosters collaboration that enables
programs responsive to industry needs and the broader workforce. The government
sets the national agenda for education, labor, and economic development. Academe
brings expertise in curriculum development, teaching methods, and assessment
practices, ensuring that training programs meet educational standards. Industry, with
its real-time knowledge of trends, skills gap, and market demands, serves as the primary
employers of TVET graduates. Labor is crucial for upholding workers’ rights, ensuring fair
treatment, wages, and opportunities for advancement. Labor participation is particularly
important in light of concerns about employers abusing training programs by extending
training periods unnecessarily (EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25).

Establish a clear and sustainable framework for ITBs by addressing their organizational
functions, financial sustainability, and inclusivity. TESDA should define the roles,
functions, and relationships of national, regional, and provincial ITBs, tailoring them to
local contexts to address specific conditions and demands effectively. A structured
funding mechanism must be created to ensure long-term vitability, reducing reliance on
supporting associations through dedicated government funding or alternative financing
strategies. TESDA’s oversight role should be clarified, detailing responsibilities such as
capacity building, partnership formation, and scholarship administration, while ensuring
sufficient personnel are allocated to manage the growing number of ITBs efficiently.
ITBs must inclusively represent their sectors, with provisions to include smaller and less-
represented business groups (EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25). Empowering industry boards
with a clear mandate and strategic guidance will enable them to lead sectoral human
capital development, ensuring diverse needs are met and fostering sustainable growth
across industries.
310 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 3: Lack of resources to effectively implement EBET.

Organizational Capacity for EBET
TESDA currently lacks dedicated personnel in its regional and provincial offices to focus
exclusively on the implementation of EBET. Staff members assigned as focal persons for
EBET are also tasked with multiple other responsibilities, including program registration,
scholarship management, industry board coordination, and special projects (EDCOM
II, 2024, Apr 12). This multitasking severely hinders the effective implementation,
sustainability, and scaling up of EBET programs.

Despite efforts to prioritize EBET, TESDA’s workforce has struggled to keep up with the
evolving demands of the labor market. Provincial offices, in particular, operate with only
7 to 12 personnel, a lean staffing structure that limits their ability to fully support training
outcomes and adapt to industry needs. This issue is compounded at the regional
level, where there is a notable mismatch between the number of TESDA personnel and
the number of TVIs they are tasked with overseeing. High-demand regions such as
the National Capital Region and Region IV-A, which have significantly more TVIs, are
disproportionately understaffed, further exacerbating the strain on TESDA’s workforce.
These staffing challenges underscore the urgent need for additional resources to ensure
the successful implementation and expansion of EBET programs.

FIGURE 17
Distribution of TESDA Personnel vs. Number of TVIs, 2024

Authorized Position No. of TVIs

NCR
CAR
I
II
III
IV-A
IV-B
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
CARAGA

0 200 400 600

Source: TESDA data as of Aug 31, 2023

At the national level, the Partnerships and Linkages Office has one focal person for
DTS and two for both Apprenticeship and Learnership programs, overseeing EBT from
registration to monitoring (EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 12). Moreover, there are only one or
two staff members assigned to connect with employers and establish ITBs at all levels
(EDCOM II, 2024, Jul 25). This lack of dedicated staff further dilutes TESDA’s ability to
build strong industry partnerships and grow the EBT system.

TESDA’s plantilla positions increased by 13.2% between 2019 and 2022. As of April 2024,
TESDA has a total of 5,058 authorized personnel, with 15.2% allocated to provincial
and district offices. However, 18% of these total positions remain unfilled (EDCOM II,
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 311

2024, Apr 12). The shortage of personnel, combined with the multiple roles assigned to
those available, has created bottlenecks that slow down EBT program registration and
development, limiting engagement with industry partners. Despite requests for more
plantilla positions since 2019, little progress has been made in addressing these gaps.
Many provincial offices still rely on job order personnel to handle various roles, including
EBT administration, which further undermines the quality and focus of EBT programs.

To address these challenges, TESDA has proposed creating an Office of Apprenticeship,

an organizational unit mandated by the TESDA Act. This office would consolidate all
EBT-related activities under one unit, not just apprenticeship programs, streamlining
the administration of these programs and allowing more dedicated personnel to focus
on EBT complexities. Since 2023, TESDA has been proposing the creation of this office;
however, the Department of Budget and Management (DBM) has indicated that TESDA’s
request for 28 new positions for the Office of Apprenticeship is not included in the 2023
or 2024 General Appropriations Act (EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 12). It was also not included in
the GAA for 2025.

TESDA’s workforce is also strained by the slow progress in decentralizing

responsibilities for EBT program registration to provincial offices. While decentralization
could improve efficiency by bringing decision-making closer to the ground, there are
concerns that this may create redundancies between regional and provincial offices
(EDCOM II, 2024, Apr 12).

Year Two Recommendations

TESDA should conduct an organizational review or rightsizing study to assess its
capacity to allocate dedicated personnel for EBT at both regional and provincial
levels. Assigning additional staff to EBT will help alleviate the current strain on
overburdened personnelwith multiple roles, ensuring that EBT programs receive
focused attention and resources. While filling existing unfilled positions and
establishing the Office of Apprenticeship may provide a foundation for scaling up
EBT programs, it is equally important to implement capacity-building initiatives for
personnel, particularly in provincial offices. This could involve training staff to manage
the complexities of EBT and industry engagements, building capacity for adaptive
change in response to new ways of doing business, specialized training on industry-
based assessments, and utilizing digital platforms for monitoring program outcomes.

TESDA should continue to explore ways to devolve direct training functions to

industry and local government units. This approach aligns with industry’s long-
held recommendation to develop their own competency standards and training
programs, while TESDA focuses on regulation, financing, and monitoring (EDCOM
II, 2024, Feb 21). Under the TESDA Act, the agency is mandated to develop the
capacity of LGUs to eventually take on the responsibility for technical education and
skills development programs (RA 7796). In 2004, TESDA introduced a policy for the
progressive devolution of TVET over a 25-year period, targeting completion by 2030,
to LGUs, industry associations, and NGOs (Board Resolution 2004-07). However, a
2018 study revealed that many devolved TTIs and pilot decentralization models proved
unsustainable. In response, TESDA revised its policy and, in 2022, approved three
new pathways for devolving TVET to LGUs (BR 2022-02). These pathways include: (1)
empowering LGUs through the community training and employment coordinators
(CTECs) as TVET champions in the localities; (2) engaging LGUs and other stakeholders
to strengthen the TVET ecosystem; and (3) scaling up TTIs to be model institutions
of higher-level TVET, capable of addressing 4IR challenges and future disruptions.
Detailed instructions for each pathway, including preparatory steps and the roles of
various TESDA units, have been provided to all regional and provincial directors, as
well as TTI administrators (Memo 186, 2002).
312 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

“Nasa Puso ang Pagtuturo”

Glenn Maenard Faustino, Joel John he transitioned to full-time teaching

dela Merced, and Stella Muyco may and supervisory work at a private
have started their careers in vastly training center.
different industries—hospitality, health
care, and technology—but their shared In his new role, Glenn applied his hands-
passion for teaching and TVET has led on knowledge and personal experiences
them to make a lasting impact on their from several TVET courses to mentor the
communities. next generation of TVET students.

From Housekeeper to Teacher From Nurse to Health Care Trailblazer

Glenn’s journey began in 2018 when Like Glenn, Joel also found his true
he enrolled in Housekeeping NC II calling in education. He initially studied
while completing his technical teacher nursing and became a rural health
education degree at the Bulacan State practitioner in Tarlac. While completing
University. What began as a course his nursing graduate studies at the
requirement soon evolved into a lifelong Concordia College, Joel stumbled upon
pursuit of learning. TESDA’s trainers methodology program.

After graduation, Glenn quickly found Soon after, he began teaching

work at a resort in his province. He Caregiving NC II, a course whose
breezed through the job application, training regulations he would later help
thanks to the skills he had acquired from refine and develop. Joel’s teaching is
his TVET course. But Glenn didn’t stop deeply informed by his own experiences
there. Over the years, he earned 10 more as a nurse caring for others. He instructs
NC II and NC III certifications, from food aspiring caregivers not just to master
and beverage to events management. technical skills, but also to nurture
compassion and professionalism
Each training program prepared him for needed to care for patients.
future roles. Starting as a housekeeper,
Glenn was eventually promoted to Joel’s leadership in the health care
bartending to managing events at the sector led him to cofound his own
resort. Yet, his ultimate dream was to technical-vocational school, where
teach. So when the opportunity came, he continues to mentor future care
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 313

providers and trainers. From one batch A Shared Commitment

of 25 trainers, his school now manages As TVET teachers, Glenn, Joel, and Stella
three to four batches at any given time share a common philosophy: Education
with five trainers, including Joel himself. should be practical, hands on, and
transformative.
Tech Specialist
to Community Educator Glenn’s frustration with traditional,
Stella started her career in the bustling spoon-fed lessons inspired him
information technology (IT) industry to create dynamic environments
in Makati. A graduate of computer where students can experiment
engineering with advanced degrees in and find creative solutions. Joel’s
IT, she could have pursued a successful holistic approach to caregiving
career in the tech. education emphasized empathy and
accountability, essential in work that
Yet her heart lay elsewhere, and she deals with people’s lives. Stella’s
soon found herself back in Kidapawan, teaching instilled both technical
her hometown. It was here that Stella skills and confidence in her students,
first felt the calling to teach, after emphasizing that TVET is about giving
seeing firsthand the gap in access to students the tools to transform their
quality IT education in certain parts of lives.
Mindanao.
Their approach to TVET has earned
Motivated to address this disparity, Glenn, Joel, and Stella recognition as
she chose a more fulfilling career path: TESDA Idols and Tagsanay awardees.
bringing her knowledge back to her But beyond the accolades, for all three
community and giving young people educators, TVET is a lifelong vocation
the skills to thrive in today’s tech-driven that uplifts lives and communities.
world. Over the next 26 years, Stella
taught Computer Systems Servicing NC “Nasa puso ang pagtuturo,” as Stella
II, as well as other tech and multimedia puts it. This shared commitment to
art courses in Cotabato, Maguindanao, teaching is far more rewarding than any
and Sultan Kudarat. other career path they could have taken.
314 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 22:

Framework for Equivalency and
Recognition of Nonformal and
Informal Learning
Issue 1: The lack of a clear national framework for lifelong
learning has impeded the development of pathways to
support learners.

As the demand for diverse skills continues to rise, there is an increasing need for
frameworks that can assess, validate, and certify competencies gained outside
formal education, ensuring they are equally recognized and valued. Lifelong learning,
a concept that continues to evolve since its introduction as a policy discourse in
the 1970s, has been subject to multiple interpretations, ranging from holistic to
economistic perspectives, depending on its significance to particular users.

For the purposes of TVET, lifelong learning emphasizes jobs and skills, focusing on
how learners are prepared to meet the evolving requirements of the labor market
(Delors Report, 1996, as cited in Medel-Añonuevo, 2024). Under the current national
development plan, the government aims to increase industry involvement in TVET
and promote EBT as the dominant mode of TVET delivery to enhance workforce
employability. In addition, it seeks a master plan to institutionalize lifelong learning
beyond formal education, with LGUs responsible for developing learning communities
in their respective jurisdictions (PDP 2023–2028).

Studies on workforce development and lifelong learning in the Philippines, funded

through the University of the Philippines President Edgardo J. Angara Fellowship, was
completed in July 2024, setting the stage for future conversations. For instance, a study
by Krista Danielle Yu highlights the importance of aligning academic programs with
industry needs, addressing industry gaps, and creating more employment opportunities
for Filipinos (Yu, 2024). Likewise, Michael Cabalfin’s study explored the effect of human
capital on the economic complexity of Philippine exports, pointing at the growth of
service output in the manufacturing sector and emphasizing how skills upgrading
through TVET could boost employees’ productivity and welfare (Cabalfin, 2024).

Carolyn Medel-Añonuevo’s study on lifelong learning in the Philippines highlights

the need for a shared broader perspective on lifelong learning among education
and training stakeholders to guide future policies and government programs, like
contributions to AmBisyon Natin 2040, a long-term vision for the Philippines where
Filipinos could look forward to a “matatag, maginhawa, at panatag na buhay.” It also
notes how the focus of lifelong learning discourse has shifted from the teacher to the
learner, making facilitating learning, learning environments, and learning outcomes
more popular in recent years (Medel-Añonuevo, 2024).

Meanwhile, the study by Dr. Dina Ocampo et al. has two parts: The first part points
to the steps the Philippines need to take to develop policies, plans, programs, and
projects for formal and nonformal education, to provide a cohesive basic education
system that contributes to national development. The second part analyzes the
organization for education of four countries (Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan, and,
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 315

Finland), and compares them to the Philippines’s own education programs. The
study concludes with recommendations on how programs on lifelong learning in the
Philippines can be ensured across the lifespan and in local governments (Ocampo et
al., 2024).

Formal education is only one of several pathways to learning. Nonformal and informal
learning have been identified as strong mechanisms for lifelong learning (OECD,
2007). Informal learning, often referred to as learning by experience, is learning that
results from daily activities.

On the other hand, nonformal learning is learning that is integrated into planned
activities that are not directly designated as learning. While informal learning is often
learned unintentionally, nonformal learning is intentional (Cedefop, 2008, as cited in
OECD, 2010). Recognition of nonformal and informal learning outcomes generates
not only economic benefits but educational, social, and psychological ones as well.
In terms of educational benefits, recognition supports lifelong learning by helping
individuals learn about themselves and develop their career within a lifelong learning
framework (OECD, 2010).

As individuals increasingly acquire skills outside traditional classroom settings, and

as industries shift to prioritize competencies over credentials (ABS-CBN News, 2024,
Sep 10), it is vital to have mechanisms in place to recognize learning gained through
work experiences, self-directed online education, community activities, and other
channels of prior learning.

For example, between 2021 and 2022, approximately 35% of the labor force consists
of workers in the informal sector, many of whom are self-employed. These workers
are often trapped in the informal economy due to limited opportunities in the formal
sector or the absence of other means of livelihood (Bersales, 2024). The informal
economy is typically characterized by inadequate social protection and arrangements
denying worker rights (ILO, 2015), as formal agreements do not fully cover these
economic activities (ILO and OECD, 2019). However, in recent years, some workers
have voluntarily chosen the informal sector, particularly the gig economy, where
digital platforms provide opportunities for more independence and control (Moraga-
Galvez, 2018, as cited in Bersales, 2024).

“Lifelong Learning is essential for developing a skilled, adaptable

workforce that can meet the demands of emerging technologies,
global competition, and societal challenges. It is not just the
responsibility of the education sector; it requires collective
collaboration across industries, government, communities, and other
key stakeholders. By working together, we can create a system that
fosters inclusive prosperity and provides opportunities for all.”
—Ronald U. Mendoza, PhD, Undersecretary for Policy and Planning, DepEd,
Status of Lifelong Learning in the Philippines, TESDA, October 16, 2024
316 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 8
Class of Workers by Selected Levels of Educational Attainment, 2021–2022

Employer in
Wage and own family-
Highest Educational Informal
salary operated Type of informality
Attainment Sector
workers farm
or business

All in labor force 1 7 11

54.2% are self-employed

without any paid employee
No formal schooling 1 0 8
and 15.9% unpaid family
workers

Senior high school 20.3% are unpaid family

1 1 3
graduate workers

26.9% are self-employed

With TVET 2 5 5
without any paid employee

25.4% are self-employed

College units 1 3 5
without any paid employee

College graduate 0 2 0

With postgraduate
1 1 1
degree

Source: Bersales, 2024, based on PSA Labor Force Surveys, 2021–2022

 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 317

The informal economy also offers employment opportunities for those with no
formal schooling. Recent surveys showed that 69.1% of individuals without formal
education are employed in the informal sector (Bersales, 2024). Many SHS graduates
do not immediately join the labor force, opting instead to pursue higher education,
as evidenced by the 75% of Filipino youth who aspire to earn a college degree
(Arguelles & Mendoza, 2024). Among those who enter the informal economy, most
SHS graduates become unpaid family workers (20.3%), while those with some college
units (25.4%) or those who took TVET (26.9%) are more likely to become self-employed
(Bersales, 2024).

There is no shared understanding in the Philippines of what lifelong learning is, what
it requires of education providers, and what it offers learners as they navigate the
education system (Australian Education Research Organisation [AERO], 2024). For
instance, while the PDP 2023–2028 aims to enable thriving families and communities
with its expansive view of lifelong learning, its strategies almost exclusively focus
on strengthening formal education and its interrelationships. Only one strategy
extends beyond formal education, for the government to encourage LGUs to “plan
and integrate lifelong learning programs to transform their jurisdiction into learning
communities,” but even this is focused on learning for professional reasons (AERO,
2024). A shared understanding among stakeholders is needed to achieve a seamless
and integrated lifelong learning system, allowing learners to have the knowledge and
opportunities to use this system to improve their educational outcomes (AERO, 2024).

Issue 2: PQF has made little progress since its inception in

2012, and the passage of the law in 2018.

No significant progress has been made on the PQF since its inception in 2012, but
its slow rollout and limited outcomes are consistent with the experiences of over
150 national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) worldwide (Medel-Añonuevo, 2024).
Qualification frameworks like the PQF are complex mechanisms that require a wide
range of local expertise, dedicated funding, careful governance, and continuous
review to become fully operational.

First established in 2012 through Executive Order No. 83, the PQF was later
strengthened by the PQF Act of 2017 (RA 10968), which provided a legal framework
for its full implementation. The PQF Act describes the framework as a quality-assured
national system that defines various levels of educational qualifications and sets the
standards for qualification outcomes. It serves as the foundation for developing,
recognizing, and awarding qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skills,
and values acquired by learners and workers through diverse methods and pathways.
By providing clear routes for learners to transition between formal, nonformal, and
informal systems, the PQF ensures that competencies gained through various learning
experiences, including those outside formal institutions, are recognized and validated.
Furthermore, its alignment with international qualifications frameworks like the ASEAN
Qualifications Reference Framework facilitates the mobility of Filipino workers and
students by enhancing the comparability of qualifications across countries (Medel-
Añonuevo, 2024). The Ladderized Education Act of 2014 (RA 10647) further mandates
DepEd, CHED, and TESDA to work together to implement a unified PQF, harmonizing
guidelines, curriculum standards, and equivalency competency courses to improve
TVET and higher education delivery.
318 EDCOM II Year Two Report

The Year One Report described the PQF as the backbone of TVET and called for its
urgent review, citing that the National Coordinating Committee (NCC) has been
nonfunctional since 2017 due to staffing and funding issues. It was also noted that
the PQF still lacks a permanent secretariat, a coordinated financing plan, appropriate
budget allocation, and a comprehensive strategic plan, all of which are necessary for
full implementation.

In Year Two, an EDCOM II study analyzed the operationalization of the PQF within
the context of lifelong learning, using policy documents, case studies, and firsthand
accounts from implementers and participants. This builds on an earlier World Bank
review commissioned by TESDA in 2021, which focused on the PQF’s relevance to
industry needs, scope and coverage, design and methodology, and usage feasibility.
When compared to the global development of similar NQFs, as documented in the 2017
and 2019 global inventories of regional and national qualifications made by Cedefop,
ETF, and UNESCO, the slow rollout of the PQF was found to be a common challenge
(Medel-Añonuevo, 2024). One key reason for the slow development of many NQFs is
the limited availability of in-country expertise to manage the multilayered requirements
of frameworks like PQF. A wide range of technical expertise is necessary, not only for
implementing the PQF but also for its governance (Medel-Añonuevo, 2024).

The global inventories highlight that learning outcomes are increasingly becoming
a central element in NQFs and regional frameworks worldwide. In TVET, learning
outcomes become more visible and valued through the validation of nonformal
and informal learning. Although the measuring of learning outcomes is a technical
approach that may be more suited for TVET than for general education, the shift
toward outcomes-based learning becomes more systematic and consistent through
frameworks like the PQF (Medel-Añonuevo, 2024).

The development of the PQF should also be understood in the context of the evolution
of other NQFs globally. For example, NQF developments in countries like France and
the UK during the 1990s were linked to reforms that emphasize outcomes-based
TVET systems. These reforms involved transferring control of training programs and
qualifications from providers to users, such as employers and individuals, based on the
notion that learning occurs more effectively at work and in social life (Cole, 2017, as
cited in Medel-Añonuevo, 2024).

The PQF NCC’s recent advancements reflect key reforms advocated for by EDCOM II.
During its 12th meeting on January 9, 2025, the council finally approved the creation
of a permanent secretariat under the Development Academy of the Philippines, and
made progress in appointing industry sector representation in the council. Both have
been long overdue actions since the passage of the law in 2018, finally acted on by its
current leadership.
 Technical-Vocational Education and Training & Lifelong Learning 319

Recommendations
Provide PQF-NCC with time-limited funding to develop a strategy for lifelong
learning and a road map for articulation, implementation, and monitoring (AERO,
2024). The strategy should focus on establishing an integrated lifelong learning
system that allows different pathways to attain academic qualifications aligned to the
PQF. Education pathways not well served in the existing system should be described
in a set of learner profiles, with employers and education providers (early childhood
care and development, elementary, secondary, higher education, TVET) listing how
they can integrate these pathways into the learner profiles. Furthermore, it should
include policies and programs that DepEd, TESDA, and CHED need to implement
to enable and incentivize such actions. The road map should then have targets for
the development, and/or refinements of the policies and programs listed in the
strategy, and a description of available data systems or proposals to develop new
data collections that allow real-time monitoring and refinement of these policies and
programs.

Establish the PQF permanent secretariat and strengthen the PQF-NCC to accelerate
the full implementation of the PQF’s critical features. The formation of a PQF
authority is essential to making the framework fully operational (Medel-Añonuevo,
2024.) In the short term, multistakeholder discussions should be organized to reflect
on 50 years of global NQF practices, focusing on identifying the most suitable
contextual model for deploying the PQF, including forming a governing body that can
effectively manage and oversee it. These discussions should also aim to develop a
shared and consistent definition of lifelong learning appropriate for the Philippines,
ensuring that it centers the learner in its programs and activities. Lifelong learning is a
wider educational concept. As such, it should not be reduced to just the PQF (Medel-
Añonuevo, 2024), and any draft bills or proposed legislation should ensure that its
implementation retains this broader perspective.

Conduct an urgent review of the PQF level descriptors to ensure alignment with
the rapidly changing demands of industries and the broader labor market, enhance
global recognition of Filipino workforce qualifications, and strengthen workforce
development. As technological advancements and shifting economic conditions
transform the skills needed in key sectors such as IT, health care, and renewable
energy, the current descriptors risk becoming outdated.

Conduct multistakeholder discussions to reflect on global NQF practices and

develop a model for managing and overseeing the PQF effectively. These discussions
should reassess current barriers to implementation based on actual experiences and
identify practical ways to advance the PQF’s progress.

Integrate the PSF within the PQF by aligning the skills framework within the PQF
levels and descriptors, thereby creating a unified system that aligns industry-
specific skills with educational qualifications. This unified system will help smoothen
transition between different forms of learning, leveraging mechanisms such as credit
transfers, certifications, and other pathways. This integration will also create clear
pathways to equivalencies that support lifelong learning and provide workers with
opportunities to gain recognition for skills acquired through nonformal and informal
learning. Employers, through the ITBs, should regularly update the integrated system
to reflect the latest developments and trends transforming industries, ensuring the
frameworks remain relevant to workforce needs.
 321

GOVERNANCE AND FINANCE

Navigating Challenges
and Solutions: A
Review of Governance
and Finance in
Philippine Education

Introduction
The First Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM I) in 1993 attributed that
the two principal causes of deteriorating education quality are underinvestment in
education and poor management of the education bureaucracy.

EDCOM II found, as stated in the Year One Report, that the conclusion was the
same: The education sector has evidently and persistently suffered from a lack of a
coherent plan, road map, or vision, hindering its ability to strategically navigate and
address the challenges posed by extensive reforms, increased responsibilities, and
the dynamic demands of the sector’s rapidly changing external environment. Gaps
in operationalizing complementarity between public and private education have
diminished private education’s share of enrollment despite evidence of its cost-
effectiveness and strong student outcomes. Flaws in the performance management
and accountability system have also hindered progress toward achieving desired
learning outcomes.

Furthermore, in basic education, multiple issues are related to the challenges of a

highly centralized bureaucracy, impacting core competencies at the level of schools
and thus the delivery of learning outcomes.
322 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Year One Updates

Strengthening the governance and financing of the Philippine education system
is essential yet often overlooked in addressing the learning crisis affecting
millions of Filipinos. This requires evidence-based research to guide the design and
implementation of comprehensive reforms and to minimize the risks of unintended
consequences from poorly planned interventions. Improving governance and
financing for education involves cross-cutting challenges. EDCOM II has identified the
following:

• Lack of coordination and strategic orchestration of the sector between and

among education agencies and other relevant government agencies;
• An unharmonized and unevenly implemented quality assurance system that
requires being more mindful of the typology and mandates of institutions and
the value of a coordinated system of performance measures—especially in the
formulation of performance standards;
• An undefined principle of complementarity between public and private
education institutions has fueled the private education crisis, highlighting the
need for a clear and authoritative framework to guide its application.
• Inadequate resource investments in education despite considerable increases
in government spending;
• Inefficiency in the utilization of resources;
• Constrained school autonomy alongside the need to improve school leadership
capacity;
• Limited participation of relevant stakeholders in governance; and
• Undefined role of local government units (LGUs) in the governance of the
education system.

Strengthening governance and financing is crucial to improving learning outcomes

for learners, teachers, and schools. EDCOM II highlights the importance of clear roles,
responsibilities, and accountability among key system actors, guided by a long-term,
integrated national education and workforce development plan.

Year Two Overview

In its Year Two research, the Commission finds that education governance remains
overly focused on bureaucratic compliance, hindering progress and limiting
aspirations for reform. In 2024, EDCOM II pushed for the cabinet cluster on education,
engaged with stakeholders in formulating an operationalization of complementarity
between public and private education, and continued its collaboration with DepEd
in streamlining performance management through the adoption of headline targets
with a focus on learner outcomes. One of the key themes that emerged was the
need to further decentralize education governance, especially in basic education, to
enhance responsiveness. Studies recommend increasing school autonomy to foster
innovation and adapt education delivery to local contexts. This requires strengthening
support through technical assistance, adequate resources, community engagement,
and results-based financial support systems. Providing timely, actionable data
and building schools’ capacity to take ownership of their deliverables cannot be
underscored enough.
 Governance and Finance 323

Priority Area 23: Ensuring

Seamless and Integrated
Delivery of Education
Education agencies must act in synergy to pursue a shared vision for the education
sector. Mechanisms and/or alternate governance structures must be put in place to
ensure coherent planning and coordination between the Early Childhood Care and
Development Council (ECCDC), the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission
on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA), as well as to enable the participation of other critical actors in the
delivery of education and training services across the lifelong learning (LLL) continuum.

• Trifocalization has been successful in improving subsectoral attention, as

intended by the first EDCOM. However, this has not resulted in improved
learning outcomes (Paqueo et al. 2024) .
• The lack of a formal sectoral coordination mechanism has impeded strategic
transsubsector action. However, a move back to a unitary body is seen to be
counterproductive.
• Despite the establishment of over a hundred interagency bodies, sectoral
coordination has not improved.
• There is a need to review, rationalize, and update policies on School Division
Offices (SDOs) to ensure its responsiveness to the needs of students and
schools.

Issue 1: Trifocalization has been successful in improving

subsectoral attention, as intended by the first EDCOM.
However, this has not resulted in improved learning outcomes.

Three decades have passed since the trifocalization of the Philippine education
system in line with EDCOM I recommendations on education governance. Among the
Commission’s key recommendations was reorganizing the Department of Education,
Culture, and Sports (DECS), now the DepEd, in order to establish “autonomous, policy-
making, planning, programming and administrative bodies to implement the various level
programs of the entire educational system” (EDCOM, 1993). This would enable DepEd to
focus on basic education, CHED on higher education, and TESDA on technical education
and skills development. As part of this reorganization, EDCOM I also recommended to
detach agencies and institutes that were not directly related to the primary responsibility
of DepEd. The intention was to foster overall simplification of administrative operations
and greater accountability for agency performance. This resulted in the rationalization of
functions involving competitive sports and athletics, Philippine languages, and teacher
professional development under the supervision of other agencies.

Trifocalization succeeded in fostering focused attention on each subsector, especially

in ensuring the constitutional prioritization of basic education. Quantitative analysis
by Paqueo et al. (2024) also reveals that government expenditure per student
324 EDCOM II Year Two Report

significantly increased post-trifocalization, but this has not translated to significant

improvements in completion rates and learning outcomes.

As noted in the Year One Report, trifocalization created challenges in sector

management and coordination, exacerbated by the absence of a permanent and
well-functioning coordinating body aligned with the goals of EDCOM I. Specifically,
EDCOM I proposed the establishment of a National Coordinating Council for
Education (NCCE) to ensure effective coordination, planning, and allocation of
resources among the three agencies. However, despite several attempts, including EO
273, s. 2000, and EO 652, s. 2007, the NCCE has yet to be successfully institutionalized
since the 1990s.

Issue 2: The lack of a formal sectoral coordination mechanism

has impeded strategic transsubsector action. However, a
move back to a unitary body is seen to be counterproductive.

Transsubsector orchestration is needed to ensure continuity of education reforms across

administrations, so that these can take root and eventually scale. Research findings
suggest that many interventions have failed over the years due to a lack of continuity.
Implementation delays hamper the observation of a policy’s impact, and policy directions
are affected by administrative transitions or changes in leadership. (Paqueo et al., 2024).
However, weaknesses in policy design, which include the rotating leadership structure
of the NCCE, the lack of a functional secretariat, inconsistent representation of the
agencies, and absence of limits that could temper the vagaries of politics hindered the
establishment of a mechanism for sectoral coordination (Asian Development Bank [ADB],
2021). This is further aggravated by the failure to institutionalize effective accountability
mechanisms, such as the biennial education congress envisioned by EDCOM I, that could
drive performance toward outcomes (Paqueo et al., 2024).

Most expert informants view the return to a unitary body to be counterproductive

(Paqueo et al., 2024), citing concerns about the drawbacks of excessive centralization,
further marginalization of subsector-specific issues, and nonnegligible adjustment
costs of reorganizing, whether through a unitary or binary governance structure. These
costs include compensation packages for job separation and staff reassignment, as
well as disruptions from system reconfiguration that would impede the timely delivery
of other more fundamental reforms. Reforming the governance structure without
a clear framework and well-defined pathways for LLL could hinder the creation of a
seamless and integrated learning delivery system (Ocampo et al., 2024).

Issue 3: Despite the establishment of over a hundred

interagency bodies, sectoral coordination has not improved.
A considerable number of interagency bodies have been organized to address the need for
coordination not only in education, but also in the public sector as a whole. However, these
bodies have neither the mandate nor the fiscal and technical capacity needed to enable
sectoral cohesion and orchestration urgently needed to address the country’s learning
crisis. The Commission highlighted at least 68 interagency bodies in its Year One Report,
but further desk research has surfaced the count to be, in fact, over a hundred. Reviewing
the involvement of the education agencies with these interagency bodies shows that
most involve health and social services (37%), followed by education and culture (18%),
international and private sector linkages (12%), workforce development (11%), peace and
law enforcement (11%), as well as a miscellaneous mix of other functions (11%).
 Governance and Finance 325

Furthermore, it must be pointed out that the laws creating TESDA and CHED actually
aimed to ensure coordination by including education counterpart agencies in their
respective boards.

TABLE 1
TESDA and CHED Board Composition

RA 7796 TESDA Board Ex-Officio Members (8)

Composition expanded • Secretary of Labor and Employment (Chair)
through AO 180, s. 1995, AO • Secretary of Education (Co-chair)
384, s. 1998, AO 87, s. 2003
• Secretary of Trade and Industry (Co-chair)
DOLE, DepEd, and CHED • Secretary of Agriculture
are members • Secretary of Interior and Local Government
• Director-General of the TESDA Secretariat
• Secretary of Science and Technology
• Chair of Commission on Higher Education
Private Sector Representatives (14)
• Six from labor sector
• Four from employer/industry organizations
• Two from national associations of private TVET institutions
• Two from business and investment sectors

RA 7722 • Secretary of Education (Chair)

CHED Board of Advisers • Director-General of the National Economic and Development
Composition expanded Authority (Co-chair)
through EO 730, s. 2008
• Secretary of Science and Technology
DepEd and DOLE • Secretary of Trade and Industry
are members; TESDA is • Secretary of Labor and Employment
not included • President of the Federation of Accrediting Associations of the
Philippines (FAAP)
• President of the Fund for Assistance to Private Education (FAPE)
• Two additional members by presidential appointment
• Two private representatives

Abbreviations: AO = Administrative Order, CHED = Commission on Higher Education, DepEd = Department of

Education, DOLE = Department of Labor and Employment, EO = Executive Order, RA = Republic Act, TESDA = Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority, TVET = Technical-Vocational Education and Training

However, the lack of focus, irregularity of meetings, lack of continuity, and weak
institutional capacity have prevented these bodies from providing a robust platform
to develop a common education agenda. Instead, the education agencies have
been saddled with multiple “interagency” responsibilities but none specific to the
strategic orchestration of the education sector.

Issue 4: There is a need to review, rationalize, and update

policies on Schools Division Offices (SDOs) to ensure its
responsiveness to the needs of students and schools.

A study commissioned by EDCOM II finds that out of 228 SDOs in the country, 84 are
at the provincial level, 142 are at the city level, and 2 are distinctly at the municipal
level namely Lingayen and Binalonan in Pangasinan (Bundoc, 2024). These SDOs have
a wide range in terms of number of schools supervised, as well as number of students
catered to: from as few as 27 schools in Batanes, to as many as 1,275 schools in Misamis
Oriental. Notably, despite the categorization of DepEd of SDOs in terms of size, there
are evidently wide differences even within division types, relative to its manpower
complement. For instance, despite being in the same DepEd size class (particularly,
326 EDCOM II Year Two Report

categorized as a large provincial SDO), Bulacan and Negros Oriental vary greatly in
the number of Teachers, Nurse IIs, Guidance Counselors, underscoring the need to
recalibrate the current system. In terms of nurse to student ratios for instance, Bulacan
has a 1:10,651 ratio, compared to the 1:5,004 of Negros Oriental. This highlights the
need to review the assumptions on the distribution of personnel, and to revise current
policies and resource allocations to one that conforms with the DepEd’s aims and
assumptions in relation to student requirements.

FIGURE 1
SDO Analysis on Schools Covered

Misamis
Batanes Oriental
Province 84
SDO Type

Davao City
City 142

Pangasinan II
- Binalonan Pangasinan I
- Lingayen

Muniicpality 2

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200

Count of Schools

Source: Bundoc, 2024

FIGURE 2
Comparison of SDO Manpower Complement (Bulacan and Negros Oriental)

Sum of Enrollment 489,966 180,143

Guidance Counselor III 7

Teeacher III 5,894 3,721

Teacher II 2,462 1,839

Teacher I 7,246 1,774

Nurse II 26 36

Guidance Counselor II 72 33

Guidance Counselor I 24 11
0

10

1
0
1

10

0
0

10

10

0
0

,0

1,0

1,0

,0

0
0,

0,

0,
10

10
0

10

10
1,0

Count of Personnel (log scale)

Bulacan Negros Oriental

(Large-Province SDO) (Large-Province SDO)

Source: Bundoc, 2024

 Governance and Finance 327

Recommendations
Ensuring Education Sector Coordination
The findings from the Year 1 report of the First Education Commission led to the
establishment of a higher-level coordinating body. Similarly, Paqueo et al. (2024)
suggested the creation of such a body to manage interagency dynamics and drive
strategic reforms, drawing on the experiences of Thailand and Indonesia. Thailand’s
Office of the Permanent Secretary, an administrative unit under the Ministry of
Education, ensures compliance with national standards across various education
sectors; while Indonesia’s coordinating body, the Coordinating Minister for Human
Development and Culture, operates under the Office of the President. The researchers
also suggest a 12-year term limit for such a body to preserve institutional memory and
allow sufficient time for policy reforms to take effect.

Prompted by findings documented in the EDCOM II Year One Report, the Commission
submitted a letter to the Office of the President in July 2024 requesting the creation
of a Cabinet Cluster for Education that could provide strong oversight on all education
agencies under the Executive Department. The Commission proposed the following
top three objectives of the Cabinet Cluster:

1. Urgently address the learning crisis.

2. Work toward a coherent and system-wide national integrated education and
workforce development strategy and implementation plan.
3. Set agency-level targets and budgets, and establish monitoring and evaluation
systems.

To underscore the need to address the poor outcomes besetting the education
sector, EDCOM II Commissioners from the two houses of Congress—Representatives
Romulo, Go, Benitez, Dimaporo, and Garcia, as well as Senators Gatchalian, Cayetano,
Pimentel III, and Villanueva—concurrently filed House Resolution No. 28 and Senate
Resolution No. 21. The proposal was approved in principle by President Ferdinand
“Bongbong” Marcos Jr. in August 2024, marking a significant stride for education
governance during Year Two.
328 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 3
Proposed Structure of the Cabinet Cluster for Education

THE PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES

ECCDC DepEd CHED TESDA DOLE DBM

TWG on TWG on Human TWG on

TWG on Budget
Monitoring Resource in Workforce
and Planning
and Evaluation Education Development

SECRETARIAT

Note: During the discussions in the House of Representatives, the deliberations also surfaced the need to inlcude the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) in the proposed Cluster.

Abbreviations: DBM = Department of Budget and Management, ECCDC = Early Childhood Care and Development
Council, TWG = technical working group

In contrast to the Human Development and Poverty Reduction Cluster, where

education is only one among the myriad issues that could be taken up, a dedicated
Cabinet Cluster for Education would provide a more focused platform to address
both urgent and longer-term challenges specific to education. The Cabinet Cluster
can facilitate coordinated action to realize the education sector’s critical role in
workforce development, fostering inclusive growth “that provides equal opportunities
to all Filipinos, and equipping them with skills to participate fully in an innovative and
globally competitive economy,” as outlined in the Philippine Development Plan(PDP)
2023–2028 (National Economic and Development Authority [NEDA], 2023). Toward
this end, the Commission has proposed that the Cabinet Cluster be composed
of DepEd, CHED, TESDA, DOLE, with support from the DBM to ensure operational
funding, likewise including relevant attached agencies such as the ECCD Council.
These agencies shall jointly

• Formulate a 10-year National Education and Workforce Development Plan

for approval of the President, ensuring integrated planning, projection, and
target setting for the education system as a whole;
• Based on this Plan, identify priority programs, activities, and projects to be
considered by each agency (specifically on learning recovery, education
human resource, and workforce development);
• Review, align, and recommend the overall budget for education annually to
the President, ensuring alignment with the Plan; and
• Coordinate, monitor, review, and evaluate the progress of priority
initiatives, with a focus on improving learning outcomes and transitions
across the education system.

The functions enumerated above shall be undertaken by technical working groups

(TWGs) on budget and planning, monitoring and evaluation, human resource in
education, and workforce development.
 Governance and Finance 329

These TWGs shall be supported by a full-time high-level technical secretariat under

the Office of the President. The proposed Cabinet Cluster for Education will address
the learning crisis by fostering closer coordination and providing strong oversight
across education agencies. It will ensure education issues are addressed with a view
of the whole system rather than in silos. The cluster will align agency policy directions
and optimize resource allocation while respecting existing structures and avoiding
interference in daily operations.

The Cluster could also contribute to streamlining public-sector coordination by

subsuming and/or rationalizing some of the interagency bodies under the proposed
TWGs. Based on a cursory review, at least four interagency bodies could be subsumed
under the Workforce Development TWG. These interagency bodies are the Philippine
Qualifications Framework–National Coordinating Council, the Career Guidance
Advocacy Program Working Group, the First Time Jobseekers Assistance Act
Interagency Monitoring Committee, and the Interagency Council for Development and
Competitiveness of Philippine Digital Workforce.

There is optimism that the new governance structure will spur synergistic action and
combat the nation’s learning crisis.

National agencies and various education organizations have backed the creation of
the Cabinet Cluster for Education. This was made evident during a joint deliberation
of the House of Representatives Committee on Basic Education and Culture and
Committee on Higher and Technical Education on House Concurrent Resolution No. 28
in August 2024. The joint deliberation involved DepEd, CHED, DBM, DOLE, DOST, the
Coordinating Council of Private Educational Associations (COCOPEA), the Technical
Vocational School Associations of the Philippines (TVSAP), and other private education
groups. Securing the President’s support for the Cluster’s creation in Year Two is a
significant achievement, one that is hoped to pave the way for greater alignment, better
coordination, and effective implementation of education programs.

“This initiative is not merely a matter of governance; It is about

ensuring that every agency involved in education works in
coordination, follows a clear policy direction, and understands
the critical urgency of the tasks at hand. By doing so, we will
optimize the use of resources, eliminate redundancy, and
ensure that every effort contributes to the greater goal of
providing quality education for all.”
—Rep. Roman Romulo, 2024
330 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 24:

Complementarity Between
Public and Private Education
We must formulate a clear strategy for complementarity across all levels of education, from
ECCD to higher education, in a way that expands access to quality education for all learners.

Issue: Gaps in operationalizing complementarity have led to a

decrease over time in private education’s share of enrollment,
in spite of research suggesting strong student outcomes and
cost-effectiveness of private education.

The issue of complementarity between public and private education is particularly

pronounced in the Philippines compared to education systems in other countries due to
the historical developments and policy legacies that have shaped the emergence and role
of both public and private institutions. Historically, the private sector played a leading role
in financing and delivering education, primarily through religious institutions established
during the Spanish colonial period and secular counterparts introduced during the
American colonial era (Jimenez & Sawada, 2001; Yee, 2022). Public education emerged in
the early 20th century, with the government prioritizing its limited resources on universal
primary education. This focus left private education with a relatively small role at the primary
level but a more significant presence in higher education (Jimenez & Sawada, 2001).

Over time, increased provision of public secondary education led to a decline in private
education’s share of enrollment, particularly after the promulgation of RA 6655, or the Public
Free Secondary Education Act of 1988 (World Bank, 2011). Regression analysis by Jimenez
and Sawada (2001) indicates a significant crowding-out effect: For every 10 additional
students enrolled in public secondary schools, private school enrollment decreased by
more than two students. This explains the decreasing share of private secondary enrollment
from 46% in 1982 to 31% by 1997. The Commission’s own computations using school year
(SY) 2022-2023 enrollment data show that this share has further declined to 20.1%.

As for higher education, economic developments and policy changes since the 1990s
have led to significant shifts in both public and private provision. A review of the changing
higher education landscape by Yee (2022) points to a rise in for-profit higher education
institutions (HEIs), motivated by increasing demand for specific skill areas and enabled
by the promulgation of RA 7798 in 1994, which permitted the incorporation of schools as
stock educational corporations. This surge was accompanied by a corresponding decline
in nonprofits such as mission-oriented and foundation-owned entities. At the same time,
improvements in the government’s fiscal position enabled the intensification of public
provision through state and local universities and colleges. Saguin (2023) also points to
CHED’s adoption of a bifurcated approach in regulating public and private HEIs in the
2000s—deregulation of private HEIs through accreditation and marketization of state
universities and colleges (SUCs) through rewards for outcomes and greater autonomy—in
enabling the establishment of more private and public HEIs. These changes have led the
Philippines to buck the global trend of deepening private sector dominance in higher
education. Instead, the Philippines has undergone a process of deprivatization, defined
as “the decline in private shares of higher education even while private numbers grow”
(Saguin, 2023).
 Governance and Finance 331

TABLE 2
Changes in Establishment and Enrollment Share of Private Education

Schools Established Enrollment Share

Level
1990–1991 2022–2023 Change 1990–1991 2022–2023 Change

Elementary Ed 1,674 8,396 502% 6.4% 7.3% 0.9%

Secondary Ed 1,674 4,622 214% 36.4% 20.1% -16.3%

TVET 926 3,220 348% 86.0% 46.4% -39.6%

Higher Ed 635 1,085 171% 85.2% 50.3 -34.9%

Notes: The comparative years were chosen to show changes in public and private education in the intervening period
between EDCOM I and II. Data consolidated from EDCOM I tables and figures, DepEd Learner Information System
as of January 10, 2023, TESDA Training Management Information System dashboard, CHED fiscal year 2024 budget
presentation, and TVET enrollment data obtained through correspondence on Jan. 29, 2024. Tertiary enrollment for
school year 1988–1989 is shown due to lack of disaggregated data for school year 1990–1991.

Consistent with the research literature, the Commission’s own computations (see Table
2) show a decline in private education’s share of enrollment in both secondary and
tertiary education alongside continued private sector investment in establishing new
schools across subsectors.

Mixed Stances on Complementarity Through the Years

Though the complementary roles of public and private institutions in enabling access to
education for all Filipinos is enshrined no less than in the 1987 Constitution, the question
of how to effectively balance between public and private education has persisted.
The issue is further complicated by the absence of a coherent framework guiding the
differentiation of roles, as well as the rationalization of program offerings and their
geographic distribution, especially in higher education. To this day, gaps in policy with
clear guidelines and mechanisms to operationalize complementarity remain a challenge
(Generalao & David, 2022).

The government’s stance on private education has always vacillated, often influenced
by differing perspectives between the executive and legislative branches. This is
pointed out in a forthcoming study by Yee and Bautista that noted that in the 1920s, the
Legislature resisted calls for stricter regulation following the Monroe Survey’s finding
that most private schools were of substandard quality. At the same time, the Legislature
opposed subsidies for private education, prioritizing provision of free public elementary
education. In contrast, by 1989, the Legislature strongly supported assistance to private
schools, recognizing their role in performing “an important public function that properly
belongs to the State” (Explanatory Note to Senate Bill No. 1105, as cited in Yee, 2022).

TESDA officials and technical personnel surfaced key differences in how education
agencies implement complementarity. Among the three, DepEd has made the most
progress, identifying complementarity as one of six governance strategies in Basic
Education Development Plan (BEDP) 2030, its long-term strategic plan. DepEd’s
provision of vouchers allows learners to enroll in private SHS programs unavailable in
public schools, reflecting an enabling approach to complementarity. Meanwhile, TESDA
officials noted that the agency avoids competing with private Technical-Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) providers as a policy but acknowledged occasional
overlap when public institutions respond to clamor for specific training programs. They
emphasized the need for clearer policies, measures, and outcomes on complementarity.
332 EDCOM II Year Two Report

CHED officials observed that SUCs often compete with private HEIs, citing studies and
internal reviews of charters that show that SUCs have expanded beyond their original
focus on regional needs and specializations over time to offer comprehensive programs.

Providing Access to Quality Education

Given the significant growth of of private education globally, the World Bank emphasizes
that “improved interaction between government and private schools is essential for
increasing equity and quality” (Baum et al., 2014). This aligns with the State’s duty to
ensure all children have equitable access to quality education, whether in public or
private schools. Moreover, a recent systematic review found that private school students
outperform public school students on test scores by an average of 0.26 standard
deviations (Crawfurd et al., 2023). This indicates that private education can play a crucial
role in expanding access to quality education, a resource that the government could
strategically leverage to support its national and social development aspirations.

Analysis of test scores from international large-scale assessments shows that, similar to
global trends, private schools in the Philippines also perform better than their public school
counterparts. Comparing the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS) 2003 test scores of public and private schools, the World Bank (2011) found private
school attendance in the Philippines to be associated with significantly higher academic
scores in math and science. More recent analysis of the Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 and TIMSS 2019 test scores by Orbeta and Paqueo (2022)
similarly reveals that private schools attained higher test scores than public schools.

FIGURE 4
Results Framework from the Basic Education Plan 2030

Upper Middle Income

600
Average Performance in Reading (in Score Points)

Singapore
550
South Korea
Macao
500 Japan

450

Jordan
400 Philippines Malaysia
(Private)
Thailand
Indonesia
Morocco
350
Philippines
Philippines
300 (Public)

8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5

Log of Current Gross Domestic Product Per Capita at PPP

Source: DepEd Order No. 024, s. 2022 or The Basic Education Plan 2030
Abbreviations: GDP = gross domestic product, PPP = purchasing power parity
 Governance and Finance 333

FIGURE 5
PISA 2018 Average Score in Mathematics by GDP Per Capita

Upper Middle Income

650 Singapore
Average Performance in Mathematics (in Score Points)

Korea Rep
600
Japan
550

500

450 Kosovo

400
Morocco Philippines
(Private)
350
Pakistan
300 Philippines
Philippines
250 (Public)

8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12

Log of Current GDP Per Capita at PPP

Source: Philippine Education: Situationer, Challenges, and Ways Forward (Orbeta & Paqueo, 2022)

FIGURE 6
PISA 2022 Average Score in Mathematics by GDP Per Capita

Low-performing students High-performing students

(scoring below Level 2) (scoring at Level 6 or above)
Mathematics

Philippines 84

OECD 9
31
average

Philippines 76
Reading

OECD
average 26 7

Philippines 77
Science

OECD
average 24 7

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

334 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Across the domains of reading, math, and science in the PISA 2018 test of the country’s
15-year-old students, Orbeta and Paqueo (2022) found that “private schools are performing
better than expected given our level of income and better than public schools.” They also
had a similar observation in their analysis of TIMSS 2019, which tests Grade 4 students.

Furthermore, comparative analysis of the marginal productivity of education inputs

(namely, teacher qualifications, educational materials, class size, and student-teacher ratio)
on student scores in math, reading, and science also suggests that public schools in the
Philippines are not as efficient and effective as their private school counterparts in utilizing
limited resources (Paqueo, et al., 2023). One reason for the efficiency and effectiveness of
private schools over public schools could be better management practices, as suggested
in the literature review and analysis of PISA survey data by Crawfurd, et al. (2023). Taken
together, these findings emphasize the continuing relevance of private education in
enabling access to quality and cost-effective education in the Philippines.

Lessons from Public-Private Partnerships in Education

Educational public-private partnerships (PPPs) are one mechanism through which
complementarity could be operationalized. Research shows that the Philippine education
sector has good experience in educational PPPs, though these are mainly implemented
in basic education. Often cited examples are the Education Service Contracting (ESC)
scheme and the Senior High School Voucher Program. A lesser known example is the
PPP for School Infrastructure Project, which supplemented DepEd’s efforts to reduce
its classroom backlog through a Build-Lease-and-Transfer scheme. The construction of
9,296 classrooms in Regions I, III, and IV-A was completed on December 4, 2015, with a
project cost of Php 9.89 billion approved by the NEDA Board.

FIGURE 7
Public-Private Partnership Continuum
Low PPP High PPP

Lacks Nascent Emerging Moderate Engaged Integral

Public Public Subsidies Contracts Private Vouchers,

provides schools to private with private management loans,
finances, schools schools to of public scholarships,
regulates provide a schools funding
education portion of follows
services education students

100% Public 100% Private

Source: Philippines Private Provision, Public Purpose: A Review of the Government’s Education Service Contracting
Program, World Bank, 2011

Various assessments of global experience show that, generally, educational PPPs have
a positive impact on expanding access to education (Patrinos & Sakellariou, 2011).
However, evidence has been mixed with regard to the impact of PPPs on learning
(Ansari, 2020; Crawfurd & Alam, 2023; Hsieh & Urquiola, 2006; Patrinos et al., 2009),
which suggests that design matters (Crawfurd et al., 2023).
 Governance and Finance 335

The discussions below surface lessons from both local and international experiences
with educational PPPs. The first discussion zeroes in on the Philippines’s ESC program,
which is one of the world’s largest and longest-running educational PPPs (Termes et
al., 2020). The second discussion highlights the experience of Punjab, Pakistan, where
experimentation with educational PPPs has been ongoing for over 3 decades.

Lessons from Local Experience: ESC in the Philippines

As of SY 2022–2023, the ESC program served over 859,900 students, or 4% of the
country’s total junior high school population. This number accounts for 76% of total
private junior high school enrollment, from 36% in SY 2008–2009. The enactment
of RA 6728, or the Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private
Education (GASTPE) Act, institutionalized and mainstreamed ESC in 1989. This was
later amended by RA 8545. In 2013, the coverage of GASTPE was further expanded to
include senior high school through RA 10533, or the Enhanced Basic Education Act,
facilitating rapid expansion of access to senior high school via vouchers.

The ESC extends financial assistance in the form of tuition subsidies to qualified
elementary school graduates who wish to pursue junior high school in private
schools. The program was designed to address congestion in public high schools,
improve access to quality education in a more cost-effective way, and ensure
the viability of private high schools in view of the significant decline in private
education’s share of enrollment (World Bank, 2011). The World Bank also put forward
the following recommendations to address observed areas for improvement:

• Clarify the roles and responsibilities of both the managing agency and the
implementing agency.
• Introduce a results-oriented approach in the contractual agreement.
• Establish performance measures for private schools receiving public funds
to encourage quality improvements.
• Improve budgeting and slot allocation process to stay within budgetary
constraints.
• Gradually adjust the distribution of ESC grants to align with public school
congestion across regions and address varying needs among students from
different socioeconomic backgrounds.
• Collect empirical data on schools, students, family background, and
learning outcomes to enable policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders
to assess the program’s effectiveness.

In a study by Termes et al. (2020) on school choice and competition dynamics in

Manila, the researchers found that test scores and school marketing had little impact
on families’ school choices. Instead, decisions were mainly influenced by factors
such as distance (including geographic proximity and transportation costs), financial
considerations, and the school’s composition and social environment. Families that
opted to attend public schools also frequently mentioned teacher quality and ability
grouping, particularly the practice of placing “bright” students in “cream sections,” as
part of their choice criteria. On the other hand, the perceived association to quality
education of a longer school day, reduced pupil-to-teacher ratio, and language of
instruction prompted families that chose to attend private schools to give more
weight to these factors.
336 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Learnings from Global Experience: Punjab, Pakistan

In Pakistan, public schools represent around half of primary schools, with private
schools and PPP schools accounting for about 33% and 18%, respectively.
Recognizing that the government of Pakistan cannot single-handedly shoulder the
immense responsibility of providing quality education to its citizens, policymakers
view PPPs as a key strategy in improving equity, particularly for populations with
limited access to education, as well as in raising the quality of their education system.

Educational PPPs are managed by the Punjab Education Foundation (PEF), an

autonomous body established in 1991 and given full autonomy in 2004, with a
mandate to promote quality education through noncommercial partnerships.
Since its inception, the PEF has developed PPPs involving vouchers, subsidies, and
management contracts. Studies by Crawfurd and Alam (2023); Ansari (2020), and
Malik (2010) document the following positive impacts of PPPs in Punjab:

• Improved access to education for poor households across the board,

especially for those in rural and slum areas;
• Improved student achievement, in particular students from disadvantaged
backgrounds often achieving comparable or superior test results to their
peers from more privileged backgrounds;
• Reduction of dropout rate, which in turn reduced child labor; and
• Improved teacher attendance.

PEF’s primary mechanism for improving outcomes is a robust monitoring and

evaluation (M&E) framework, including Quality Assurance Tests for students and
regular monitoring of school facilities and infrastructure. The test is conducted at
the start and end of the school year. It is a separate test from the standard exams
administered to public and private school students by the Punjab Examinations
Commission. M&E reports are closely examined and analyzed to inform policy
reforms and guide program adjustments. Below are recommendations put forward
by the ADB to improve the PEF’s M&E and accountability system, which we could also
glean lessons from:

• Define in advance a set of specific quantifiable goals and targets.

• Collect, on a quarterly basis, information on a small set of key monitoring
indicators that are time-bound and transparent, e.g. physical learning
environment and teacher information.
• Conduct structured comprehensive evaluations periodically in addition to
internal evaluations.
• Increase involvement of parents and community in the accountability
system to foster social and institutional sustainability.
• Institutionalize an M&E department to enable regular scrutiny of program
impact and implementation, as well as to support budgetary decision-
making, performance gap analysis, and program fine-tuning.
 Governance and Finance 337

Choice is a key aspect of complementarity. When designing

complementarity models, it is essential to ensure that end
users (students, parents, and households) have a wide range
of educational options to choose from.

It is also important to note that the success of implementing PPPs for education
requires strengthened public sector capability in procurement, monitoring and
evaluation, and overall governance. PPPs necessitate “a range of conditions that must
be in place to ensure that these theoretical relationships actually work as expected”;
thus, as reviewed in the policy literature, “for a PPP to succeed, the public side of the
PPP needs to be strong” (Crawfurd et al., 2023).

Developing a Harmonized Complementarity Framework for the Sector

During Year Two, EDCOM II explored potential models and directions in developing a
harmonized complementarity framework for the education sector. This was enabled
through technical assistance from the World Bank, which kicked off with a workshop
on complementarity on January 29–30, 2024. Participating experts remarked that
the relatively unique evolution of public and private education in the Philippines may
require a more customized approach that combines PPPs, education regulation, and
governance. The activity generated the following key insights:

• Choice is a key aspect of complementarity. When designing complementarity

models, it is essential to ensure that end users (students, parents, and
households) have a wide range of educational options to choose from. This
means that they are not restricted by financial contributions, particularly in
schools receiving government funding. By expanding educational choices to
a more diverse range of providers, the government increases client power and
makes providers more directly accountable to students and parents for results.
Transparency in school performance is a key aspect of school choice.
• Information asymmetry issues must be addressed to strengthen the link
between school choice and improved learning outcomes. Transparency
in school performance is crucial so that households are able to make well-
informed decisions. Patrinos et al. (2009) have outlined the following concrete
steps that can be undertaken by governments to improve information flows and
quality assurance in private education markets:
• Requiring schools to disclose information to regulators and the general
public as a condition of registration;
• Collecting and disseminating information by education authorities on
schools according to a number of indicators, including the quality of their
infrastructure, facilities, and curriculum, the qualifications that they offer,
and their class sizes, fee levels, teacher qualifications, and exam scores;
• Introducing independent school review systems to provide information on
school performance; and
• Introducing independent accrediting agencies that focus on school
performance.
• Enable flexibility in the delivery of services, while holding providers
accountable for learning outcomes. Private providers need to determine
the most effective methods for delivering the contracted services, as long as
they meet the government’s specified output and performance standards. In
particular, providers will require considerable autonomy in staff employment
and management, curriculum delivery, and budget allocation and utilization.
338 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Minimizing government restrictions will enable the contracted provider to innovate and
effectively manage resources.
• Targeting is an important component of PPP design. Targeted interventions are more
able to meet specific student needs. It is crucial to identify services that are needed by the
underserved or marginalized groups and communities.
• Care should be taken to nuance the choice of complementarity mode, including what
outcomes to prioritize, and what modality fits with the outcome.
• Encourage collaboration between private and public schools by sharing best practices,
resources, and strategies to address gaps and enhance the quality of education in both
sectors.
• Contract design is crucial to ensuring the effectiveness and sustainability of PPPs. To
guarantee that educational PPPs serve the public interest, contracts must explicitly define
how the private sector contributes to the government’s objectives of expanding access,
promoting equity, and enhancing the quality of education. In particular, the following
details should be clearly articulated:
• The roles, responsibilities, and liabilities of both the public and private sectors must
be clearly defined. This includes the appropriate sharing of risks between public and
private sectors.
• Performance metrics and standards, monitoring mechanisms, and reporting
requirements must also be articulated to promote accountability of both parties, as
well as to enhance transparency in the use of public funds. Attainment of performance
targets could be included in the contract as prerequisites to the provider’s receipt
of compensation. Relatedly, there should be open, competitive, and transparent
procedures for bidding and awarding of contracts.

FIGURE 8
Establishing an Effective Regulatory Environment for PPPs

Central & Local

Governments

Empowered Accountable
Parents Schools
Q
ua s s u
lit ra
A
ce

y & nc
i
Vo

Eq e
ui
ty

Provider Diversity
Citizens, State/
Households, Non-State
Client Power
& Communities Service
Providers
Empowered Parents

Services

Provider Innovation

Note: Data taken from EDCOM II Workshop on Complementarity, January 29–30, 2024.
Source: Harry Anthony Patrinos, World Bank
 Governance and Finance 339

• The contracting agency must have the capacity to implement a well-

designed M&E system. M&E is a means to ensure that the service provider
meets its contractual obligations. More importantly, it enables continuous
improvement and safeguards the public interest.
• There is a need to find a strategic balance between the private and public
sector to avoid tension. Including private providers in the national policy
discussion is crucial, particularly in difficult but necessary discussions on
competitive neutrality and regulation.

TABLE 3
Components of the STEER Model

Strategically • Variety of institutions from universities, polytechnics, and postsecondary colleges to TVET
Diversified institutions and short-term skills training providers
Systems • Diverse delivery modes (online, in person, and blended)
• Clear pathways for student movement within the system

Technology • Adoption of technology in teaching and learning, including the use of virtual and augmented
reality as well as artificial intelligence for simulated environments
• Building capacity to adapt to rapid technological advancements

Equity • Sustained commitment to address issues in access, completion/persistence through tertiary

education, and learning gaps

Efficiency • Strategic fiscal and human resource allocation

• Agile systems that can adapt to disruptions and shocks
• Robust quality assurance mechanisms

Resilience • Collaboration between government, private institutions, employers, students, and civil
society
• Clear roles and responsibilities in quality assurance
• Responsive review of legal and regulatory frameworks

Note: Data taken from EDCOM II Workshop on Complementarity, January 29–30, 2024.
Source: World Bank

Recommendations
In 2024, DepEd launched a complementarity framework for public and private basic
education through DO 6, s. 2024. The issuance acknowledges that PPPs can further
help in improving access to quality education, enabling the effective and efficient
use of resources. DepEd’s framework for complementarity defines the following key
principles that basic education policy, programs, and governance must adhere to:

• Optimizing the roles of the public and private sectors in basic education;
• Mutual understanding by the public and private sectors of their
complementary roles;.
• Recognition of the inherent value of private education institutions in the
education system;
• Reasonable supervision and regulation of private institutions;
• Participatory governance to nurture the complementary relationship
between public and private institutions;
• Equal regard to the impact of education policies and resource allocation
decisions on both the public and private sectors; and
• Partnership and collaboration in achieving national education goals.

DepEd’s adoption of a complementary framework is a step in the right direction in

view of the advantages that complementarity brings about to the education system:
340 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• Addressing market failures: correcting externalities, reducing equity gaps,

improving access to finance, and enhancing information transparency
• Increased investment: fostering greater contributions from government,
industry, and households
• Improved outcomes: enhancing student learning, research, and
development through competition and accountability

However, CHED and TESDA must also undertake similar measures to fully realize the
complementary roles of public and private education in the Philippine education
system.

With the understanding that legislative intervention is another recourse to establish

an enabling policy environment, the Commission is drafting a bill that seeks to create
a more dynamic education system where both public and private sectors play crucial
roles in providing quality education to all Filipinos, particularly through expanding
choices for students and strengthening their ability to access those choices.

The Taguig Experience: Taguig Learner’s Certificate (TLC)

The City of Taguig has implemented a unique voucher system that emphasizes
student choice and extends scholarships to both public and private teachers.
Public elementary graduates wishing to attend a partner private high school can
receive a Php 10,000 educational allowance, along with a tuition subsidy of up to
Php 18,000. With over 60 partner schools in the city, the TLC Scholarship Program
not only provides opportunities for elementary graduates to enroll in private
schools but also helps reduce overcrowding in public classrooms, alleviates the
issue of school overpopulation, and supports private institutions by increasing
their enrollment.

To date, 10,887 high school students have benefited from the TLC Scholarship’s
financial assistance. In addition to the TLC, the city has launched the Lifeline
Assistance for Neighbors In-need Scholarship program. This initiative offers
grants ranging from Php 15,000 to Php 110,000 per year to a wide range of
beneficiaries, including high school graduates, students pursuing education at top
colleges and universities, technical and vocational courses, board and bar exam
reviewees, and both public and private school teachers in Taguig.
 Governance and Finance 341

Priority Area 25:

Integrated Performance Management
and Accountability System
Major gaps in the performance and accountability system must be urgently addressed in order to
rapidly improve the performance of schools and the agency as a whole toward the achievement
of minimum learner outcomes.

Issue: Significant flaws in the existing performance management and

accountability system have severely limited its effectiveness in driving
performance toward desired student learning outcomes.

Through the technical assistance of the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) Improving Learning Outcomes for the Philippines (ILO-PH) project in Year Two,
researchers observed that DepEd officials across governance levels expressed “deep commitment
for improving the state of the education system” (USAID, 2024) and were actively seeking
opportunities to refine existing processes, practices, and tools. The following are already in place:

• Detailed process for developing plans, as well as roles and responsibilities at each
organizational level, appear to be clearly understood.
• Quarterly progress checks are conducted through monitoring, evaluation, and
adjustment meetings at the division and regional levels.
• Performance is measured against indicators and budget targets.
• The agency’s overall progress is monitored through quarterly performance reports
submitted to the NEDA Social Development Committee.

TABLE 4
Performance and Accountability System Gaps and Recommendations

There are too many objectives, indicators, 1. Prioritize a small number of headline targets to focus on
and targets, which means that “everything” is learner outcomes and the system.
important, with limited direction or focus.

Targets are inconsistent, lack ambition, and 2. Design targets to be ambitious yet realistic. Care must also be
have a limited focus on learning outcomes. taken to reflect community aspirations.
3. Tailor targets at each level of governance, but ensure that they
roll up to system-wide targets.
4. Communicate the targets clearly and regularly across the system.

There is too much “clutter” in the system, 5. Simplify and align targets with performance management
leading to a focus on bureaucratic compliance. policies, tools, and funding processes.

There is limited alignment between the Basic

Education Development Plan 2030 and the
DepEd Budget Framework.

The system is not held to account for

improvement.

Existing data systems are neither effective 6. Implement “fit for purpose” standardized assessments to track
at tracking progress against targets nor are progress and to inform where support is needed most.
they used to improve teaching practice in a 7. Use data to better understand progress and drivers of performance.
targeted way. 8. Align the targets to focus technical assistance to schools.

Regions, divisions, and schools lack agency. 9. Give greater agency to regions, divisions, and schools.

Note: Summary adapted from the USAID ILO-PH report Strengthening Performance and Accountability in the Philippine Education System.
342 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Despite the high number of targets, only 8 out of the 88

targets in the BEDP are about learning outcomes, which is
indicative that learning outcomes are not given sufficient
attention in the system.

Finally, the overarching recommendation put forward by the ILO-PH researchers is to

establish a delivery function to oversee implementation of the nine action points.

A Closer Look at the Gaps in DepEd’s Performance and Accountability System

Case reviews of Indonesia; Punjab, Pakistan; and New South Wales, Australia, conducted
by USAID ILO-PH in Year One surfaced the key insight that strong performance and
accountability systems are characterized by the following key components:

• Plans, targets, and budgets are aligned.

• Outcome-focused targets and their supporting indicators are well aligned,
understood, and communicated.
• Quantitative data is available and regularly shared to understand system performance.
• System leadership prioritizes a culture of high performance.
• System actors receive targeted and tailored support, and there is a focus on
support for underperformers. As a result, system actors have the capacity to
take action, flexibly deploying plans and resources at all levels of governance.

In contrast to global best practice, ILO-PH researchers observed that the BEDP
2030, the country’s first comprehensive and long-term strategic plan for formal and
nonformal basic education, is overburdened with an excessive number of indicators
and targets, adding up to 88 in all. One regional plan had an even more staggering
number, at 514 in total. Despite the high number of targets, only 8 out of the 88
targets in the BEDP are about learning outcomes, which are indicative that learning
outcomes are not given sufficient attention in the system.

Furthermore, there is limited alignment between the BEDP 2030 and the agency’s
budget framework. Developed through an intensive consultation process and
technical assistance from UNICEF as grant agent of the Global Partnership for
Education, the BEDP 2030 establishes a results framework anchored on the key pillars
of access, equity, quality, and resiliency and well-being to address immediate and
long-term challenges in basic education. DepEd articulated intermediate outcomes
for each of these pillars, shown in Figure 9.
 Governance and Finance 343

FIGURE 9
BEDP 2030 Results Framework

GOAL

All Filipinos are able to realize their full potential and

contribute meaningfully to a cohesive nation

SECTOR OUTCOME

Basic education Filipino learners have the physical, cognitive, socioemotional

and moral preparation for civic participation and engagement in postsecondary
opportunities in their local, national, global communities

INTEMEDIATE OUTCOMES

1. ACCESS 2. EQUITY 3. QUALITY 4. RESILIENCE

All school-age School-age Leaners complete Learners are

children, out- children and K–12 basic resilient and
of-school youth, youth, and adults education, having aware of their
and adults in situations of successfully rights, and have
access relevant disadvantage attained all the life skills to
basic learning benefit from learning standards protect themselves
opportunities appropriate equity that equip them and their rights
initiatives with the necessary while being
skills and attributes aware of their
to pursue their responsibilities
chosen paths as individuals and
as members of
society

ENABLING MECHANISMS - GOVERNANCE

Modern, efficient, nimble, and resilient governance and management processes

Source: Basic Education Development Plan 2030 (DO 24, s.2022)

Meanwhile, the DepEd budget framework articulates the following organizational

outcome toward which the agency’s programs contribute:

“Access of every Filipino to an enhanced basic education program, enabling

them to prepare for further education, entrepreneurship, and the world of
work achieved.”

Following the program expenditure classification approach implemented as part of

a broader package of public financial management reforms, DepEd activities and
projects are organized into five overarching programs: Education Policy Development,
Basic Education Inputs, Inclusive Education, Support to Schools and Learners, and
Education Human Resource Development.
344 EDCOM II Year Two Report

FIGURE 10
DepEd Budget Structure
Education Policy Flexible Learning
Development Options
Operations
Basic Education Special Education
Inputs Program

Indigenous Peoples
Inclusive Education Education Program

Support to Schools and

Learners Madrasah Education
DepEd
Education
Human Resource Multigrade Education
Development

Support
to Operations

General
Administration Program
and Support Sub-Program
Activities/Projects

Note: For brevity, only the subprograms under inclusive education are shown to illustrate the hierarchical structure
of DepEd’s budget in accordance with the program expenditure classification approach implemented by the DBM.
Illustration is based on the DBM’s PREXC approach.

Source: Program Expenditure Classification (PREXC) briefer published by the DBM, 2016

The agency’s budget performance and contribution to promoting human and social
development is measured through performance indicators in the National Expenditure
Plan (NEP) or the General Appropriations Act (GAA), and the Philippine Development
Plan. Examining these documents revealed disparity in the articulated outcomes and
metrics used by DepEd, the DBM, and NEDA. This implies that even though DepEd’s
attainment of budget utilization and nonfinancial targets are tracked, the metrics
used by oversight bodies do not have a clear connection to the desired outcomes
specified in the BEDP. For instance, while National Achievement Test (NAT) scores are
consistently used as measures of quality in the three documents, the actual metrics
differ in terms of the degree of proficiency desired, the grade levels tracked, and skill
areas specified (see Table 5).
 Governance and Finance 345

TABLE 5
Comparison of Performance Indicators for Quality of Learning

PDP 2023–2028
BEDP 2030 Pillar 3: Quality FY 2025 NEP
Results Matrix

Percentage of learners who None None

proceeded to college, employment,
entrepreneurship, and middle-level
skills training

Completion rates for elementary and None Aligned

secondary

Percentage of learners achieving nearly Percentage of learners achieving Also adopts NAT scores as
proficient or better in English, mother nearly proficient or better in measures but only for Grades
tongue, and numeracy (NAT Grade 3) English, mother tongue, and 6, 10, and 12. This leaves out
numeracy (NAT Grade 3) foundational learning in the
Percentage of learners attaining early grades.
proficient level or better in Stage 2 • Tracks performance
literacy and numeracy standards (NAT in reading and While it uses the proportion
Grade 6) mathematics. These are of learners achieving at least
similar to literacy and nearly proficient like the
Percentage of learners attaining nearly numeracy, but not quite BEDP, it does not specify
proficient level or better in Stage 3 the same. which skill areas.
literacy and numeracy standards (NAT • The specific metric used
Grade 10) is proportion of learners
achieving at least
Percentage of learners attaining nearly proficient in the NAT
proficient level or better in Stage 4
core SHS areas (NAT Grade 12)

None Learning poverty rate Aligned

Abbreviations: BEDP = Basic Education Development Plan, FY = fiscal year, NAT = National Achievement Test, NEP =
National Expenditure Plan, SHS = senior high school

There are also misalignments in the targets set by DepEd’s central office and its
field units. In some instances, even when the measures are consistent, targets at the
lower levels of governance do not roll up and aggregate into the targets set at the
national level. For example, the BEDP target for percentage of learners achieving nearly
proficient or better in NAT Grade 3 English (SY 2022–2026) is 68.9%. However, in
one of the regional plans sampled by researchers, the target was 17 out of 21 division
offices with at least 61.8% of learners achieving nearly proficient or better in English
in 2026. Furthermore, these targets are determined by forecasting performance
based on past trends, instead of ascertaining whether or not strategic pivots or
additional effort and resources could be invested to hasten the pace of performance
improvements. Determined in this manner, these targets do not engender a sense of
drive and urgency toward meaningful improvement.

In some instances, even when the measures

are consistent, targets at the lower levels
of governance do not roll up and aggregate
into the targets set at the national level.
346 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Another critical gap is that existing data systems are neither effective at tracking
progress against targets nor are they used to improve teaching practice in a
targeted way. In the case of learning outcomes, the NAT continues to be the primary
means of measuring attainment of learner proficiency levels. However, there are
“limited routines and structures . . . that facilitate the sharing of available data
leading to data-informed policy design and system improvement” (USAID, 2024) at
the national level. More importantly, results are not made available quickly to the field
units, where data could make the most impact in improving student performance.
Since test administration is sample based and participating schools change from year
to year, using the test as a performance measure of the field units would raise issues of
inequity.

Consistent with ILO-PH findings, EDCOM II consultations with DepEd officials also
reveal weaknesses in data-informed policy and program design. This hinders DepEd
from leveraging data to support rapid improvements in the attainment of desired
outcomes, as well as to inform agile pivots when necessary. Reflecting on the agency’s
fairly recent adoption of the Basic Education Monitoring and Evaluation Framework in
2022, a high-ranking official shared the following assessment:

“Most existing programs and policies have unclear theory of

change or logframe leading to challenges in evaluation and
attribution to organizational outcomes. With the assumed
relevance of the basic education policies and programs, the
same have been implemented for years without assessment or
evaluation to check if the original objectives have already been
addressed. Unclear program design and success measures at the
onset leads to programs continually being implemented without
clear measure of its contribution to learner and organizational
outcomes.”

Examined as a whole, it is evident that the system is cluttered with detailed policies,
processes, and tools for planning, performance-based budgeting, and individual
performance mandated at a central level. These involve intensive processes that
require significant time and resources for bureaucratic compliance. Mapping out
all these policies, processes, and tools together (see Figure 10) reveals that DepEd
has a performance and accountability system that has become “a complex and
overengineered tapestry of requirements . . . [that] drives a culture centered around
compliance, where organizations and individuals are more concerned about meeting
requirements, than the meaningful improvement of outcomes” (USAID, 2024).

It is important to acknowledge that the design of DepEd’s performance management

system is not solely determined by the agency’s internal dynamics and priorities.
Primarily shaping the process, incentives, and tools implemented by DepEd are the
following detailed systems developed by oversight agencies that built up over time:

• Development planning and results framework of the NEDA;

• Strategic performance management system of the Civil Service Commission;
• Performance-informed budgeting framework and tools of the DBM; and
• Results-based performance management system and performance-based
incentive system introduced through EO 80, s. 2012, and AO 25, s. 2011.
 Governance and Finance 347

FIGURE 11
Planning, Budgeting, and Performance Management Systems Underpinning
DepEd’s RBPMS

PLAN FORMUATION
Philippine Development Plan & Results Framework

NEDA

Basic Education
Development Plan 2030 &
Secretary’s Reform Agenda

PERFORMANCE-INFORMED BUDGETING
Regional Education
Program Expenditure Classification Budget Development Plans
Structure (NEP, GAA)
- Organizational Outcomes
- Output and Outcome Indicators
Division Education
Development Plans
DBM

School Improvement Plans

1
Performance Planning & Commitment

4
2
Performance Strategic Performance
Performance
Rewarding & Management System
Monitoring
Development
& Coaching
Planning
CSC

Performance Review & Evaluation

Primary Tools
Organizational and Individual Performance Commitment Review Forms (OPCRF/IPCRF)
Career Executive Service Performance Evaluation System (CESPES) Form

PERFORMANCE-BASED INCENTIVE SYSTEM

Performance-Based Bonus
Performance Enhancement Incentive

AO25 IATF

Abbreviations: AO = Administrative Order, CSC = Civil Service Commission, DBM = Department of Budget and Management, GAA =
General Appropriations Act, IATF = Interagency Task Force, NEDA = National Economic and Development Authority, NEP = National
Expenditure Program, RBPMS = results-based performance management system

At the local level, the sheer weight of plans, processes, and tools from higher
governance levels constrains the capacity of regions, divisions, and schools to take
action. The cluttered system limits discretion to direct resources in line with local
needs and drives a top-down compliance culture that disincentivizes local actors
from adopting more proactive and innovative approaches.1 On the whole, these
issues in the performance and accountability practices of DepEd lead to misalignment
between inputs and outcomes, which in turn limit the capacity of schools and
divisions to take full ownership of outcomes.

1 A related and more in-depth discussion of the agency’s compliance culture is discussed under Priority Area 27.
348 EDCOM II Year Two Report

To address inefficiencies arising from these overlapping systems and processes,

the Office of the President issued EO 60 on June 3, 2024, to effect the immediate
suspension of the results-based performance management system and the
performance-based incentive system, as well as create a TWG tasked to overhaul,
streamline, and improve the government’s performance management and incentive
systems.

To communicate findings and recommendations surfaced through the USAID ILO-PH

technical assistance and workshops conducted by EDCOM II, the Standing Committee
on Governance and Finance organized a series of briefings and brainstorming sessions
with members of the DepEd executive committee in the third quarter of Year Two. In
these meetings, Secretary Angara outlined the key deliverables of DepEd under his
leadership:

• Focus on learning outcomes, specifically the attainment of quality of learning

standards as measured through credible assessments, and employability of
basic education graduates.
• Improve access to learning resources, particularly textbooks and technology.
• Improve student experience in schools and learning centers to safeguard their
well-being.
• Improve teacher quality and teacher experience.

To implement the Secretary’s priorities, DepEd has committed to organize and focus
its delivery of desired improvements through the following initial steps:

1. Carefully identify a select number of outcome-focused targets and supporting

headline indicators.
2. Establish a lean, cross-functional, and high-performing internal delivery unit
to coordinate implementation across and within agencies to achieve targets.

Key DepEd deliverable: Focus on learning outcomes,

specifically the attainment of quality of learning
standards as measured through credible assessments,
and employability of basic education graduates.
 Governance and Finance 349

Priority Area 26:

Efficiency and Equity in Financing,
Resource Mobilization,
and Delivery of Education
How do we ensure that government use of resources (i.e., budgeting) in relation to
the improvement of learning outcomes is effective? We must formulate financing
strategies, policies, and instruments (e.g., GAA, SEF, loans, vouchers, and grants) that
could improve resourcing for education and lead to better outcomes in both the short
term and long term.

Given the dynamic and evolving global context, ensuring equitable access to quality
education for all learners requires a multifaceted approach that extends beyond
traditional reliance on government expenditure. The Philippine education system must
strategically mobilize a diverse range of resources and maximize both public and private
capacities to effectively deliver quality educational services (see Figure 11). Given the
limitations of relying solely on government funding and the urgent need to significantly
improve student learning, adopting innovative “leapfrog” strategies is imperative.

FIGURE 12
Finance-Provision Matrix

PROVISION

Private Public

Private

Traditional private schools User fees

Homeschooling Student Loans
Tutoring
FINANCE

Note: Data taken from

EDCOM II Workshop on
Public
Complementarity, January
29–30, 2024.
Government-funded Public schools
private schools
Source: Baum et al. (2014),
Privately managed schools
World Bank
Voucher schools

Issue 1: Despite significant growth in the education budget

in recent years, the Philippines continues to underinvest in
education.

Three decades ago, EDCOM I identified government underinvestment as a principal

reason for the continuous decline in Philippine education quality. At the time, the
government’s budget for education was only 2.7% of the country’s gross domestic
product (GDP). In line with global trends, the budget for education has risen to an
average of 3.2% of the GDP in the last 10 years. However, the Philippines has failed
350 EDCOM II Year Two Report

to meet the recommended education spending benchmark of 4% to 6% of GDP

laid out in the UNESCO 2030 Incheon Declaration (see Figure 12). Although recent
budget allocations indicate some progress and growth, there remains a considerable
gap between current funding and what is needed to develop a high-performing
educational system.

FIGURE 13
Government Allocation for Education as a Percentage of National Budget and GDP

EDUCATION BUDGET
National budget allocated to education

19.6%
20%
UNESCO Recommendation: 15% to 20%
National budget allocation

15%
12.8%
Php 1188.2 B

Php 863.5 B
10%
Php 100.1 B

Php 182.8 B
Php 681.7 B

Php 781.4 B

P 968.9 B

P 977.6 B
5%

0
2000 2010 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

GDP allocated to education

6%

UNESCO Recommendation: 4% to 6%
5%

3.9%
4%
GDP allocation

3%

2%
2%
Php 968.9 B
Php 1188.2 B

Php 863.5 B

Php 977.6 B
Php 100.1 B

Php 182.8 B
Php 681.7 B

Php 781.4 B

1%

0
2000 2010 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics

However, when budget figures are adjusted for inflation, it

becomes apparent that national government allocation for
education has in fact flattened in recent years. From 2013 to
2017, increases in the education sector budget averaged at
21.1% annually; but since then, the average annual increase has
slowed to 1.33%.
 Governance and Finance 351

Between 2013 and 2024, the government’s education budget more than doubled in real
terms. However, the education sector’s share of the GDP rose by only about 1% over the
past 2 decades, peaking at 4.0% of the GDP in 2017 before declining to an average of
3.7% between 2018 and the present. Notably, spending surged with the implementation
of RA 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013) and RA 10931 (Universal Access to
Quality Tertiary Education Act). These expanded the student population and increased
expenditures for free tertiary tuition (see Figure 13).

FIGURE 14
Total National Government Allocation and Enrollment
for Basic and Higher Education

700 653 664 636 27

602 611 631
600 26
502
26
500 26 25

MILLIONS
399
BILLIONS

400 357 24
305 24
24 24
300 23
23
23 23
200 22 22 22

100 21

0 20
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Total National Government Allocation for Basic and Higher Education

Public Basic and Higher Education Enrollment

Note: Computed from the GAA figures and enrollment data submitted to EDCOM II

Once Adjusted for Inflation, Recent Budget Increases Have Been Modest
However, when budget figures are adjusted for inflation, it becomes apparent that
national government allocation for education has in fact flattened in recent years (see
Figure 14). From 2013 to 2017, increases in the education sector budget averaged at
21.1% annually; but since then, the average annual increase has slowed to 1.33%.

FIGURE 15
Total National Government Allocation for Education
(Nominal vs. Real Values in Constant 2018 Prices)

900.0 679.7
800.0
671.7
700.0
600.0
BILLIONS

500.0
400.0 308.8
300.0
Nominal
200.0
Real
100.0
0.0
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Note: National government spending combines the GAA budgets of the ECCDC, DepEd, TESDA, CHED, and state
universities and colleges. Real values computed from the consumer price index.
352 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 2: There is a need to adjust education spending

to increase investments in early childhood and primary
education.
Investing in education builds human capital, fostering skill development, knowledge,
and lifelong growth. Research shows that a 10% increase in school funding can boost
individual wages by 7.25% annually, supporting financial stability and stimulating
economic growth (Jackson et al., 2015). Primary education in low-income countries,
in particular, offers the highest social returns (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018). A
recent study in the Philippines on recent policy reforms for early education provides
strong evidence that early schooling impacts academic achievement and educational
attainment in later years (Lloyd & Yang, 2024).

Beyond individual benefits, education creates a productive workforce, fuels

innovation, and reduces dependency on social programs. Studies link public
education spending to sustained economic growth but warn that inefficient
allocations can weaken its impact (Judson, 1998). For the Philippines, increasing the
education budget is essential, but improvements must also be strategic and targeted.

Increasing government allocations have mostly been toward upper secondary

and tertiary education in recent years
While total spending shows general trends, per capita spending more accurately
indicates whether each student receives adequate support. Per capita allocations
in basic education have doubled over the past decade, primarily due to senior high
school expansion in 2016. Tertiary education saw a rise as well in the subsequent
year with the implementation of RA 10931 and the provision of free tuition. However,
despite the critical importance of the foundational years for LLL and development,
the Philippines allocates the highest per capita funding to secondary and tertiary
education, while funding for primary students has seen the least growth and remains
the lowest in real terms (see Figure 16).

FIGURE 16
National Government Budget per Student, Adjusted for Inflation

SHS RA 10931
(UAQTEA)

SUCs per capita

Secondary Education
52,234
Primary Education 54,850 29,450 48,688
55,044
53,320
36,377

28,122 27,120 28,111 34,572 34,046 37,557

33,455 35,341
26,986 25,638
27,111
12,209 12,050 13,429
14,853 16,062 17,176 17,962 18,066 18,071
10,459 9,948 10,513 10,972 13,043

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Note: Computed from Operation of Schools Line item, FY 2013–2023, 2018=100.

Abbreviations: SHS = senior high school, SUCs = state universities and colleges, RA = Republic Act, UAQTEA =
Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act
 Governance and Finance 353

Nonetheless, despite recent budget

increases, the country’s spending of
USD 11,000 per student still falls short of
this benchmark and remains inadequate,
particularly in primary education.

The analysis of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
of the PISA 2018 data shows that cumulative expenditure per student of approximately
USD 50,000 over a child’s schooling up to age 15 correlates with average reading
performance (Schleicher, 2019). It is important to note, however, that there is no
causal effect of spending on student achievement, and the necessary “minimum”
spending level can vary significantly by country due to differences in demographic and
geographic factors, availability of educational resources, and management capacity to
efficiently deliver educational services. Nonetheless, despite recent budget increases,
the country’s spending of USD 11,000 per student still falls short of this benchmark
and remains inadequate, particularly in primary education.

TABLE 6
PISA Scores and Cumulative Education Spending per Student of Selected
Countries

Cumulative Spending
Country Math Reading Science
(USD PPP)

Singapore 166,100 575 543 561

Malaysia 50,700 409 388 416

International Benchmark /
50,000 487 489 489
OECD Average PISA scores

Vietnam 13,800 469 462 472

Philippines 11,000 355 347 356

Abbreviations: OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, USD PPP = purchasing power
parity based on the US dollar

Source: Data from PISA 2018 Results

354 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Issue 3:Inefficient utilization needs to be addressed to

maximize the impact of increasing investments.
International research highlights that increasing resources alone does not guarantee
better educational outcomes; effective allocation and spending are equally crucial.

In the case of DepEd, analysis of end-of-year financial accountability reports reveals

that over the past decade, the agency’s unobligated fund allocation by end of year have
ranged from a low of 1.1% to a high of 13.5%. While these percentages are relatively low
compared to other public sector agencies, these translate to billions of public funds due
to the agency’s large budget allocation. In terms of actual figures, DepEd has averaged
around Php 27.2 billion in unobligated funds annually. Reports from the last 3 years
show that unobligated amounts ranging from Php 1.1 billion to Php 10.3 billion include
expenditures on basic resource inputs for public schools such as computerization,
learning tools and equipment, and school desks and furniture. In the same period, the
DepEd Central Office also incurred unobligated amounts for general management and
supervision ranging from Php 1.2 billion to Php 3.1 billion.

These unutilized funds represent significant opportunity costs given the magnitude of
funding needed to address deficits in basic resources faced by our public schools.

FIGURE 17
DepEd Unobligated Allotment per Expenditure Category

Capital Outlay MOOE PS % Unobligated

13.5% 10.5%

5.6%
14.2
11.3% 5.5%
20.0
11.9
Note: Computed from FY
2014 to FY 2023 statements
12.0 4.3% 13.4
4.3% of appropriations,
3.4% allotments, obligations,
11.1 6.8 disbursements, and
23.9 4.2
2.5% balances data.
12.2 17.8 23.7
3.6 13.8
8.4 11.9 11.2
1.1% Abbreviations: MOOE =
7.4
3.1 maintenance and other
7.5
4.9 4.9 4.4 3.5 3.7 5.3 operating expenses, PS =
2.4 2.6 2.2
personal services
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

When examined by expenditure category, the highest proportion of unutilized

allocation by end of year is incurred for maintenance and other operating expenses
(MOOE), followed by capital outlay, which is indicative of absorptive capacity issues.

In terms of actual figures, DepEd has

averaged around Php 27.2 billion in
unobligated funds annually.
 Governance and Finance 355

Issue 4: Resourcing has been done in silos, without equity

considerations addressed.
To ensure strategic use of the education sector’s limited resources, national and
local spending for each education subsector must be evaluated as interlocking parts
of a whole, considering variations by geography and the income class of localities.
However, the absence of a systems approach at the education sector level also
persists within the agencies. DepEd, for example, needs to rationalize resourcing
mechanisms to properly monitor and account for what is received at the school level.
However, the following data practices hinder the agency:

• Lack of relevant detail and disaggregation in statutory reports on SEF spending

submitted by LGUs to the Bureau of Local Government Finance (BLGF) of the
Department of Finance (DOF) ;
• Duplicative collection of SEF spending reports required under the DepEd-
DBM-Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Joint Circular
No. 1, s. 2020, and Joint Circular No. 1, s. 2017, which would involve manual
consolidation unlike the more systematic aggregation enabled by the BLGF’s
LGU Integrated Financial Tools system;
• Common practice of downloading “program support funds” that trickle down to
field unit, without systematic assessment of how these additional funds impact
overall efficiency and equity of allocation to differently resourced regions,
divisions, and schools; and
• Absence of a comprehensive mechanism to track the amount of support
received by schools through alternative funding streams, such as SEF allocation
to schools; donations from parent-teacher associations (PTAs), alumni, and civil
society; and other support initiatives by LGUs or the private sector.

Preliminary findings on local financing and learning outcomes presented by UNICEF

Philippines during the Commission’s October 29, 2024, field visit to Gapan City show
that analysis of the whole resource envelope available to schools could yield useful
insights for policy. Specifically, UNICEF Philippines observed weak detection of effects
for school MOOE and SEF spending on learning outcomes. This could be indicative of
ineffective spending, though further study is needed. In particular, examining learning
outcomes in relation to detailed LGU spending is crucial to determine whether current
expenditures translate into improved results and to ensure future budgets, whether
from national or local sources, are effectively aligned with achieving better learning
outcomes.
356 EDCOM II Year Two Report

LESSONS FROM THE FINANCING OF SCHOOL MOOE

Reforms to the School MOOE Formula

For fiscal year (FY) 2024, the total budget for school MOOE is Php 38.9 billion, or
5.07% of DepEd’s total adjusted allotment. While small relative to the agency’s total
budget, the school MOOE allocation is significant because it provides schools some
autonomy to decide and fund their spending priorities. However, desk research and
consultations reveal two challenges: insufficiency of allocation and delays in the
release of these funds.

Insufficient School MOOE Allocation

A budget of over Php 30 billion seems huge, but when we account for the millions of
Filipino learners served by the nation’s public schools, this budget is actually quite
miniscule. To illustrate the point, we computed the annual and monthly allotment
per learner using FY 2022 school MOOE adjusted allotment and enrollment data (see
Table 7). Assuming equal allocation per learner,2 a school head in a public elementary
school has a mere Php 93.92 to spend on each pupil per month. The monthly budget
in junior and senior high school is higher though not by much, at Php 125 per student.

TABLE 7
FY 2022 Per Capita School MOOE

SY 2022–2023 FY 2022 School MOOE Annual Monthly

Level
Enrollment Budget Per Capita Per Capita

ES 14,072,129 Php 15,864,088,773 Php 1,127 Php 93.92

JHS 7,243,005 Php 10,886,063,569 Php 1,503 Php 125.25

SHS 2,721,117 Php 4,095,818,275 Php 1,505 Php 125.42

Note: SY 2022–2023 enrollment data from DepEd Learner Information System and school MOOE budget
from FY 2022 statements of appropriations, allotments, obligations, disbursements, and balances.
Abbreviations: ES = elementary school, JHS = junior high school, MOOE = maintenance and other
operating expenses

The Commission’s engagement with DepEd on this concern revealed that the
agency is fully aware of the problem and has proactively engaged the DBM in
increasing the school MOOE budget through the adoption of normative financing
formulas. Developed through technical assistance from the ADB, the formulas are
informed by cost estimates obtained from a survey of over 10,000 schools. Securing
the DBM’s approval of the new normative financing formulas is critical in replacing
the Boncodin formula, which predates the K–12 reform program and is based on
service standards and cost estimates that have since become outdated.

The Boncodin formula computes school MOOE as a function of total enrollment,

the number of teachers, the number of classrooms, and the number of graduating
students:

School MOOE = Fixed + β1 Enrollment + β2 Teachers + β3 Classroom + β4

Graduating

Over the years, DepEd increased the value of the fixed cost and variable cost
coefficients (denoted by β), but the justification for setting these levels was not
documented.
2 In practice, there is variation in actual allocation per learner because of the way the Boncodin formula computes the
MOOE budget for each school.
 Governance and Finance 357

TABLE 8
Boncodin Formula Coefficients for Fixed and Variable Cost

Regional Science
Coefficients ES JHS SHS (Stand-Alone)
High School

Fixed Cost 117,600 172,800 172,800 1,150,00

β1 300 480 2,076 2,000

β2 6,000 9,600

β3 4,500 7,200

In its review, the ADB observed a lack of clarity in the logic of increases adopted
over time, remarking that the proper adjustment due to inflation should be to
increase all the coefficients by the same factor instead of the different increases
adopted by DepEd. More importantly, the ADB also found that the Boncodin
formula has a built-in bias against congested schools. Data show that the median
MOOE per student decreases as the number of students per classroom increases
(see Figure 18). The ADB also observed the same trend for teacher-to-student ratio.
This is true across levels from elementary to senior high school.

FIGURE 18
Mean School MOOE per Student by Student : Classroom Ratio

4,584
Elementary
Junior High
Senior High
3,721
3,543

3,159

2,706
2,586
2,433 2,478
2,247

1,666
1,475 1,437

<=25:1 >=25:1 & <35:1 >35:1 & <45:1 >45:1

Source: Data from Review of Current School MOOE Formula (ADB, 2024)

To develop a new formula that resolves these issues, the ADB team led by Dr.
Geoffrey Ducanes first developed a formula for a normative school MOOE,
which is computed based on the current minimum service standards of DepEd.
The normative formula incorporates 27 variables influencing the cost of school
operations. Regression analyses, relating normative MOOE to curricular offering
and number of students, was then used to simplify the normative MOOE formula
into seven simple equations with a fixed cost coefficient and a variable cost
coefficient. One formula combines all the curricular offerings, while the other six
are specific for each type of curricular offering (i.e., purely elementary school,
purely junior high school, purely senior high school, or a combination of these).
358 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Adoption of the new formulas as a basis for the agency’s school MOOE budget has
been approved by the DBM, beginning with a partial implementation in FY 2025.
This resulted in a 32.1% increase of the school MOOE budget in the NEP, which
amounts to an increase of Php 12.1 billion from Php 37.6 billion in FY 2024.

Delays in the Release of School MOOE

Compared to other DepEd programs managed directly from the Central Office,
the school MOOE records low percentages of unobligated funds, at only 2.37% for
elementary, 4.3% for junior high, and 7.35% for senior high by the end of FY 2023. In
actual amounts, however, the total unobligated allotment for school MOOE adds
up to Php 1.2 billion, which is not a negligible amount. Thus, addressing issues
delaying the utilization of these funds by schools would be in the public interest.

One reason for this is the delayed release of the School MOOE budget to non-
implementing units (IUs), which are the majority of the country’s public schools.
A non-IU school cannot receive its school MOOE budget directly. Instead, school
heads have to regularly submit monthly cash advance requests and liquidation
reports to access portions of the school’s MOOE allotment from their division office.
Potential delays are compounded for schools in remote and isolated locations.
Unfortunately, 94% of the country’s 45,225 public schools are non-IUs. Data
submitted by DepEd’s Finance Service indicates only 2,661 public schools are IUs.
These schools have finance staff, maintain separate books of accounts, and receive
their school MOOE budget as a direct release to the school’s bank account.

Alternative Funding Streams at the Local Level

Consistent with consultation findings from Year One, the ADB survey confirmed that
schools augment their MOOE allocation from the national government by tapping
PTA contributions and the SEF. Specifically, ADB found that most schools receive
fund support from the PTA, while close to half receive fund support from the SEF.
The median amount, as well as range of amounts received, are indicated below:

TABLE 9
Support Through PTA Contributions and SEF Allocation: Alternative Funding
Positive Deviants in Low-Resourced Settings

% of
Level Fund Support Median Range
Schools

SEF 46% 50,000 17,500–461,268

Elementary
PTA 70% 40,000 20,000–311,529

SEF 44% 70,000 15,000–577,342

Secondary
PTA 69% 74,836 30,000–159,093
Abbreviations: PTA = Parents-Teachers Association, SEF = Special Education Fund

However, comparison of the support generated Despite resource limitations,

a recent analysis by UNICEF (2024) linking NAT results with school MOOE and
SEF budgets reveals potential positive deviants—public schools whose local
conditions and practices enable them to perform higher than the prevailing trend
of low literacy and numeracy outcomes despite relatively low-resourced contexts
characterized by low per capita school MOOE and the SEF. These schools obtained
higher than average scores in the problem-solving, information literacy, and
critical thinking components of the Grade 10 NAT. The national average for these
skill areas ranged from 42 to 45 points.
 Governance and Finance 359

TABLE 10
Above Average Performance from Schools in Low-Resourced Contexts

Problem Information Critical

School Division
Solving Literacy Thinking

Daantabogon NHS Tabogon 69.4 71.7 69.4

Biliran Science HS Biliran 69.4 65.3 65.0

Gapan East Integrated

Gapan North 64.2 62.0 59.7
School

Doña Liling Neis

Tabogon 62.3 63.0 56.2
Negapatan NHS

City of Bogo Science and

Bogo I 61.5 63.1 62.9
Arts Academy

Bagacay Integrated
Calbayog 60.8 51.5 43.1
School

Kapalangan NHS Gapan North 60.6 60.1 59.4

Abbreviation: HS = High School, NHS = National High School

Two of these schools are located in the Division of Gapan City, a fourth-income-
class city in Region III. In FY 2022, Gapan accrued an SEF income of Php 9.7 million,
which is less than half (40.03%) the average SEF income of other fourth-income-
class cities in the country. In comparison to other cities in the province of Nueva
Ecija, Gapan also has second to the lowest SEF income. Comparing the scores of
Gapan East Integrated School and Kapalangan National High School against the
more highly resourced schools in the National Capital Region shows that the two
Central Luzon schools outperformed over 90% of the 342 public and private schools
that had participated in the SY 2022–2023 NAT. This remarkable case from Gapan
exemplifies that quality of education is not solely determined by the amount of
funding. These schools, despite having lower budgets than many others, achieved
higher scores in key skills, emphasizing the importance of effective resource
utilization, strong leadership, and a conducive learning environment.

Recommendations
• Integrate an equity component for low-income municipalities, given studies
that show significant variances in access to resources based on geography
and income class.
• Consider adjusting budget amounts based on context-dependent
expenditures (for instance, the differing cost of electricity nationwide).
• Improve monitoring and reporting of SEF expenditures and explore how
differences in allocations could be better accounted for in the school MOOE
formula.
• Review policies on special curricular programs and its assumptions on
resourcing requirements.
• Amend DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2019:
• Embed mechanisms to ensure responsiveness of budget year on year
to prevent one-time-big-time adjustments that are typically too late
(e.g., ensuring that proposed budget adjusts for inflation).
360 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• Review Program Support Funds across the department to ensure

nonduplication of resourcing.
• Conduct M&E to continuously refine the formula and adjust for
realities in implementation.

Furthermore, mechanisms to overcome inequities in the system are weak. Cases

from low-resourced settings indicate limited additional tailored support. For
instance, while the responsibility of delivering ECCD services now largely rests on
the shoulders of local governments, support for fourth- and fifth-income-class LGUs
remains limited. The following discussion on increasing resources for early childhood
education and nutrition showcases how local actors make the most out of resources at
their disposal.

LESSONS FROM LOCAL EFFORTS TO MEET EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

AND NUTRITION NEEDS
The Priority Area 26 subgroup conducted desk research and participated in
consultations to identify alternatives to the SEF that could provide further support
to a more decentralized delivery of education services. This was prompted by Year
One findings that found (a) considerable disparity in SEF income across different
types of LGUs and (b) insufficiency of the SEF to finance ECCD requirements on top
of the needs in basic education. This workstream supports the work of the ECCD
Subcommittee as well as the Priority Area 27 subgroup.

Deploying Local Strategies

Local chief executives from smaller municipalities have cited in consultations
with EDCOM II that limited funds will significantly constrain their ability to
implement ECCD and other education programs more broadly, even if they
fully tap the SEF and other sources. One mayor observed that since many health
governance functions have been devolved, access to additional funds enabled by
the Mandanas ruling would still be insufficient. To overcome these limitations, it
has become common practice from innovative local leaders to tap a diverse array
of funds to support day care centers and other ECCD needs. A case study on LGUs
commissioned by USAID for the ABC+: Advancing Basic Education in the Philippines
Project has found that resourceful LGUs deploy both insourcing and outsourcing
strategies to generate much needed resources. Insourcing involves maximizing
the LGU’s ability to generate its own revenues, such as earmarking a percentage of
fees collected by the LGU (e.g., burial fees and rents from public market booths) for
ECCD. On the other hand, outsourcing strategies require local leaders to tap both
institutional linkages and social support networks.

Potential Avenues for National Government Support

The national government has an existing mechanism of providing fund support
to LGUs through several types of Local Government Support Fund (LGSF) under
the portfolio of the DBM Local Government and Regional Coordination Bureau.
Of particular interest is the Local Government Support Fund–Financial Assistance
(LGSF-FA) to LGUs and the Support for Capital Outlays and Social Programs. Existing
LGSF-FA guidelines already include some ECCD and basic education requirements
in the menu of expenditures such as acquisition of school sites and provision of
educational assistance to indigent individuals. However, the long-term availability of
such funds is not assured as the only legal basis for the LGSF-FA is a special provision
in the GAA, which may change from year to year. Another limitation of the LGSF-FA
is that it cannot be used to cover the Personnel Services requirements of hiring child
development workers and teachers through regular plantilla positions. This is due to
the general limitation provided under Section 325(e) of RA 7160, which states that
 Governance and Finance 361

“Positions in the official plantilla for career positions which are occupied
by incumbents holding permanent appointments shall be covered by
adequate appropriations.”

This suggests that legislation is needed to establish a support fund for low-
resourced LGUs whose funding shall be covered through regular appropriations.
The fund may be lodged with the DBM, similar to how the LGSF is currently
implemented; or this could be lodged with the education agencies themselves,
provided that implementation guidelines remain consistent with the operative
principles of decentralization articulated in Section 2(k) of RA 7160:

“The realization of local autonomy shall be facilitated through improved

coordination of national government policies and programs and extension
of adequate technical and material assistance to less developed and
deserving local government units.”

Recommendations
• Prioritize ECCD budgetary requirements in the allocation of SEF in view of
its strategic importance. The early years exert an outsized influence on future
life outcomes, such as in reducing school dropout rates, enhancing learner
achievement, boosting labor market participation, and diminishing the
likelihood of poverty.
• Institutionalize equity mechanisms to ensure sufficient resources for
lower-income class municipalities addressing the significant disparities in
fiscal resources available to LGUs, particularly for functions funded primarily
or exclusively through the SEF. The following interventions are proposed:
• Mandate provincial LSBs to support municipal LSBs and to provide a
framework for prioritization. Provincial LSB responsibilities could include
• Organizing consultations with municipal LSBs;
• Augmenting the budgetary requirements of proposals that could not
be funded through the municipal SEF budget; and
• Prioritizing the needs of fourth- and fifth-income-class
municipalities.
• Mandate the DILG to develop incentives through the Seal of Good
Local Governance or other mechanisms that would encourage LGUs
to improve the efficiency of SEF spending. In particular, there may be
interest among LGUs with large unexpended SEF balances to share their
resources.
• Mandate national government agencies to provide program support
funds and technical assistance for low-resourced LGUs. In particular,
the resources of fourth- and fifth-income-class municipalities need to be
augmented to enable strategic investments in ECCD. This is consistent
with the Operative Principles of Decentralization articulated in Sec. 3(k)
of the Local Government Code, to wit:

“The realization of local autonomy shall be facilitated through improved

coordination of national government policies and programs and
extension of adequate technical and material assistance to less
developed and deserving local government units.”

• Strengthen national reporting and oversight to foster data-informed

policymaking and interventions. This could include the following:
362 EDCOM II Year Two Report

• Reinforce the oversight functions of the BLGF enumerated in Sec. 43

of EO 127, s. 1987, as well as the mandate of the Council of Good Local
Governance established through RA 11292.
• Further specify and standardize, if necessary, the data elements
in statutory reports on SEF spending, so that data collected and
maintained in the LGU Integrated Financial Tools system reliably provides
policymakers with actionable insights.
• Harmonize reporting tools and processes between the DOF, DepEd, and
the DILG.

Alternative Funding Streams for Education and Training

Tax incentives are also potent means to increase resources, but these have largely
been underutilized in supporting the country’s education and training goals.

Research by Lee et al. (2023) highlights that “Asian philanthropists view collaboration
with government as a necessary and desirable path to achieving social and
environmental change at scale,” underscoring the potential for further expanding
private contributions and partnerships for education. However, education agencies
must, first of all, clearly identify and communicate priority gaps and areas needing
intervention, and where possible provide platforms for collaboration with the private
sector at both national and local levels. Education agencies also need to expand their
thinking as to the kinds of support that private entities can provide. Across Asia, the
following levers are deployed by philanthropists in support of social change efforts of
governments:

TABLE 11
Range of Private Sector Support for Public Change Initiatives

Levers Definition

Resources Give financial or in-kind materials for support

Research Conduct research or analysis to surface key issues and new insights

Policy development Prepare policy recommendations to inform or influence public sector

decision-making

Technical advisory Advise government on targeted issues or implementation of policies and

programs by providing expertise, inputs, or recommendations

Capacity building Train public sector leaders and technical personnel to strengthen government
capacity and capability

Demonstration programs Pilot solutions to prove the potential for impact and scale (often in partnership
with local governments)

Narrative change Design and deploy campaigns to inform stakeholders’ priorities or points of
view on issues

Coalition building Convene stakeholders to support and work toward a common position or
outcome while learning from each other

Note: Adapted from How Asian Philanthropists Work with Governments: A View From the Field (Lee et al., 2023)

To provide more concrete examples of steps that could be undertaken by the

education agencies to leverage private sector support, insights from a series of
consultations on the Adopt-A-School Program (ASP) implementation are discussed in
the next section.
 Governance and Finance 363

LESSONS FROM THE ADOPT-A-SCHOOL IMPLEMENTATION

Although legislation such as the Dual Training System (DTS) Act of 1994 (RA 7686)
and the Adopt-A-School Act of 1998 (RA 8525) established tax incentives to
encourage private sector support for education, desk research and consultations
revealed uneven implementation. For example, under the DTS Act, few claims
have been made, with the most recent transaction recorded by the DOF Revenue
Operations Group in 2017.Consultations surfaced two key challenges in its
implementation:

• Exclusion of the DTS in the National Priority Plan, a list of government

programs, projects, and activities issued by NEDA in line with Section 34(H)
(2)(a) of the National Internal Revenue Code of 1997, as amended; and
• Need for strengthened advocacy by both TESDA and the DOF, especially
the dissemination of critical information to key stakeholders.

In contrast, the ASP appears to be better implemented, at least in securing support

for basic education, as evidenced by a total of 476 tax endorsement claims in the
period 2018 to 2023 recorded by the ASP National Secretariat. This is equivalent to
an estimated cumulative amount of Php 1.8 billion (see Table 12).

TABLE 12
Tax Claims Under the Adopt-a-School Program, FY 2018–2023

Year 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

No. of Tax
145 120 54 35 56 66
Endorsements

Total Tax Claims 242.2 M 370.2 M 282.2 M 273.6 M 218.4 M 413.4 M

Source: ASP National Secretariat submissions to EDCOM II in April 2024

However, comparison of the support generated through the ASP versus that of
Brigada Eskwela reveals there is still much that can be improved. In contrast to
the ASP, Brigada Eskwela has a very narrow focus. First launched in 2003 through
DepEd Memorandum No. 79, s. 2003, the program mobilizes volunteers to help the
country’s public schools prepare for the annual opening of classes. Records from
the ASP National Secretariat show that a total of Php 4.8 billion3 worth of financial
and in-kind resources were generated in 2023. This is 11.5 times more than the
value of resources generated through the ASP.
3 Consultation participants noted that figures for Brigada Eskwela could be a generous estimate as the pressures of
competition may incentivize inflated reporting from schools. However, it is worth noting that the adoption of DepEd
Order No. 21, s. 2023, halted the implementation of Brigada Eskwela as a competition between schools in FY 2024.
364 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 13
Financial and In-Kind Resources Generated Through Brigada Eskwela

Year 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Volunteer Man
1.783 B 1.997 B 1.626 B 1.708 B
Hours

Resources
4.665 B 7.331 B 7.135 B 5.149 B 5.595 B 4.772 B
Generated

Source: August 2024 submission of the ASP Secretariat to EDCOM II, generated from the DepEd Partnerships
Database System

To make better sense of the data, the Commission conducted consultations and
discovered through a semistructured discussion with corporate foundations that
private entities voluntarily provide assistance to public schools, even in the
absence of tax incentives, as indicated by the large difference in investment levels
between the tax claims under the ASP and the total resources generated through
Brigada Eskwela. This difference may be due to

• Private entities being unaware that tax claims can also be filed for
assistance provided to schools during Brigada Eskwela;
• A prevailing notion that assistance provided during Brigada Eskwela is
borne out of volunteerism and bayanihan; and
• The sense that assistance provided under the ASP has to be of a certain
scale to merit the effort of filing tax claims.

In addition to basic education, the ASP was also supposed to encourage private
support for TVET and higher education. However, the absence of tax claim records
that could be provided for both subsectors (despite repeated requests from the
Technical Secretariat) is indicative of implementation challenges or policy design
flaws that need to be addressed. The Commission’s consultations yielded insights
that shed further light on the relevant issues:

• RA 8525 and its implementing rules and regulations do not adequately

specify the forms of assistance for technical-vocational institutions and
HEIs.
• Generic statements on tax incentives result in gray areas that leave their
implementation open to the interpretation of tax administrators, who often
take a conservative approach in applying them.
• The policy design construes the private sector as a generic whole with
the availment process primarily framed from the perspective of a large
private entity. Short-staffed small to medium enterprises may not have
the bandwidth to process the required paperwork, and entering into a
memorandum of agreement might be superfluous for individual donors.
• Bureaucratic delays in the processing of tax claims disincentivizes private
entities from participating. ASP would be more appealing if the process
was streamlined with a shortened processing time.
• Lack of permanent staffing of the ASP National Secretariat contributes to
delays and limits the scale of program implementation. At present only two
personnel are handling the review and evaluation of tax claim applications.
For these personnel, their ASP tasks are assignments on top of their regular
functions in the DepEd External Partnerships Service.
 Governance and Finance 365

To more effectively encourage the different segments of the private sector

(ranging from individual donors and small enterprises to large corporations with
their own corporate foundations), consultation participants raised the following
suggestions:

• Segment the private sector into different profiles based on a sound

understanding of their behavior to enable a more effective approach to
private stakeholder engagement. In the absence of such study, identify
private stakeholders who could help the government in meeting priority
outcomes.
• Guarantee the ease of program participation. Ease on its own is a strong
incentive. A regular company would not have the bandwidth to comply with
the requirements of a complicated process.
• Provide assurance that private sector assistance is directed toward the
actual needs of schools.
• Explore innovative approaches such as the establishment of integrator
mechanisms, joint adoption by private entities, and consumerization of
initiatives.

Recommendations
• A more detailed enumeration of support areas with specific articulations
relevant to TVET and higher education;
• The periodic identification and communication of priorities and targets
by education agencies to guide private initiatives toward more strategic
interventions and engender more synergistic public-private investments;
• Involvement of the DILG and LGUs to facilitate the adoption of ECCD
programs;
• Ease-of-doing business provisions such as online one-stop-shop
processing and expediting the availment of tax exemptions and customs
clearances;
• Establishment of ASP units in DepEd, CHED, TESDA, and the ECCDC
Secretariat, including the creation of plantilla positions;
• Additional income tax deduction equivalent to 50% of incurred ASP
expenses for support such as
• Scholarships for teachers and child development workers;
• Scholarships provided at the tertiary level in both public and private
educational institutions if the funding and support involved is for
technical training and graduate studies of underprivileged students and
those who are products of public institutions; and
• labor training expenses incurred for the skills development of
enterprise-based trainees enrolled in public SHS, HEIs, or technical-
vocational institutions; and
• Additional deduction for hiring of public SHS graduates, equivalent
to 20% of the salaries, wages, and benefits paid to the employed SHS
graduate during the entire first year of employment.
366 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Priority Area 27:

Decentralization and
Participatory Governance
We must decentralize the governance structure in education to make the system more
agile, participatory, innovative, and responsive. At the same time, it is essential that we
establish mechanisms to expand the role of local government units and increase the
participation of the private sector, the civil society, and other stakeholders.

Issue 1: Highly centralized governance structure resulted in

a deepening culture of compliance.

The need for improved delivery of public goods and services has motivated
jurisdictions across the globe to adopt decentralization reform, with the expectation
that empowering local actors who are closer to the issues would result in a more
responsive system. Similar views are held in the Philippines, as evidenced by the
promulgation of the Local Government Code in 1991, as well as the adoption of
policies on shared governance and school-based management in basic education. In
a conversation with EDCOM II, the following statement from chief executive officer of
Ramon Aboitiz Foundation, Inc., Amaya Aboitiz-Fansler best exemplifies the desired
outcome of decentralization:

“When you are viewing things from a higher level, the conversations can be
theoretical and intellectual, but the decisions that you make and the risks
you’re willing to take are very different if you are making them for students
you know and a community that you’re a part of. Learning happens in schools
and classrooms, with students and families that have their own needs and
priorities. There’s something to be said for strengthening school-based
management, giving schools some autonomy and preparing their leaders to
make decisions responsive to these needs. This is especially true for schools
working with children at the younger years, where parents and family should
play a big role. To ensure that decisions made in a school are fit for the
learners in that community is really important.”

Decentralization is a process whereby the “central government formally cedes powers

to actors and institutions at lower levels in a political-administrative and territorial
hierarchy” (Agrawal & Ribot, 1999). The literature describes varying degrees of power
transfer to local actors: devolution, deconcentration, delegation, and privatization
(King, 2024). In basic education governance, decentralization involves “the distribution
of powers and functions from the national government, particularly the DepEd Central
Office, to local bodies and units” (Laguda et al., 2024). For our purposes, the distinction
introduced by Agrawal and Ribot (1999) between lower-level actors who are upwardly
accountable to their superiors in a hierarchy, and local actors who are downwardly
accountable to stakeholders in the local context is quite useful in differentiating between
devolution and deconcentration (also known as administrative decentralization). This
is also consistent with the distinction made by Laguda et al. in their review of existing
decentralization policies as applied to basic education governance:
 Governance and Finance 367

“Decentralization reforms have taken different paths; there

is apparently no one optimal decentralization design that
fits the needs of every country. Countries have struggled
to find the design that effectively addresses their most
important education goals and challenges, frequently
resulting in advances and reversals.”
—Dr. Elizabeth King, 2024

• Deconcentration is the transfer of powers and delegation of authority from the

DepEd Central Office to the regional and division offices, as well as the schools
and learning centers. Note that the officials and personnel in these field units are
upwardly accountable to higher governance levels within DepEd.
• Devolution is the transfer of power, authority, functions, or resources from the
national government to LGUs. In line with the principle of local autonomy, local
chief executives and other LGU officials and personnel are primarily accountable
to their constituents.

Observing the varied global experiences in decentralization documented in the

research literature, King (2024) remarks that “there is no one optimal decentralization
design that fits the needs of every country,” given that strategies must be tailored to the
country’s specific political, social, and economic contexts. King (2024) cautions against
a “big-bang reform,” in light of issues and struggles that have stymied similar reforms,
noting that the key challenge often lies not in determining which level of government
should deliver a specific service, but rather in establishing mechanisms that support
the effective coordination of service delivery across levels of government.

While haphazard preparation could lead to quick advances, it is also likely to result in
costly reversals. Common issues flagged in the research literature concern policy gaps
in the allocation of authority and responsibilities, methods of conflict prevention and
coordination, intergovernmental fiscal transfer mechanisms, incentives for efficient use
of resources, and strengthening technical and administrative capacity of local actors.
Care must also be taken to ensure that equity and accountability mechanisms are in
place to avoid intensifying regional disparities and corruption.

Decentralization holds great potential in improving the coverage and quality of

Philippine education, but careful planning is crucial. Successful decentralization will
require careful consideration of organizational restructuring, institutional arrangements
needed to facilitate change, and personnel management as adjustments are made to
roles and responsibilities. Interagency coordination will be essential throughout this
process as the reform will involve the Civil Service Commission, the DBM, and various
other government agencies beyond the education sector. King (2024) also underscores
that involving all relevant stakeholders will be vital to foster a sense of ownership of
the process, and thereby guarantee the success and sustainability of decentralization
reform.

Recognizing the limitations of a highly centralized bureaucracy in managing a complex

system such as education, EDCOM I recommended drastic changes to the governance
of education in the 1990s to enable both horizontal and vertical decentralization
(Paqueo et al., 2024), as well as rectify the unclear lines of authority and responsibility
within the governance structure of DECS (Laguda et al., 2024). These recommendations
gave rise to the trifocalized governance of the education system extant today,
368 EDCOM II Year Two Report

distributing powers and responsibilities over each subsector through the creation
of CHED and TESDA, and the reorganization of DECS into the present-day DepEd
structure. EDCOM I also sought to deconcentrate the governance of basic education by
transferring powers from the central office to the agency’s field units.
However, as observed by Laguda et al. (2024), departures from these critical
recommendations in subsequent policy resulted in the persistence of systemic
inefficiencies and overlaps.

Culture of Compliance
Year Two studies by the Commission’s research partners all similarly observe a highly
centralized and hierarchical DepEd structure that manifests in the agency’s day-
to-day operations (Comia et al., 2024; Cuyegkeng, 2024; King, 2024; Laguda et al.,
2024). Noting parallels in the legislated functions of lower governance levels stated
in the Education Act of 1982 (Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, s. 1982) and the Governance
of Basic Education Act of 2001 (RA 9155), Laguda et al. (2024) remarked that “the
concentration of policymaking and decision-making at the highest level of the
bureaucracy has remained relatively the same.” The mere replication of higher level
functions onto lower levels, albeit at a smaller scale, in effect confines the agency’s
field offices to implementation, while the central office ultimately retains the
authority to design programs and allocate resources (Laguda et al., 2024). Relatedly,
Cuyegkeng (2024) has also mapped out a prevailing top-down workflow in DepEd
based on roles and functions of offices laid out in policy documents (see Figure 19)
This hierarchical process is further reinforced by rigid reporting requirements. In
consultations conducted by Hechanova and Yusay (2024), school leaders shared, “our
monitoring and evaluation standards do not allow contextualization. It is one-size-fits-
all.” Taken together, these factors contribute to a culture of compliance.

FIGURE 19
Prevailing Top-Down Workflow in DepEd

National

Teachers

Regional

Learners

Division

Abbreviation: LGU = local

School School
District government unit
District
Source: Adapted from
Parents Systems Analysis of the
Private Philippine Basic Education
LGU Partners System: The Role of School
Leadership (Cuyegkeng,
Benefactors 2024)

In consultations, teachers repeatedly underscored the agency’s compliance culture.

This is indicative that adherence has been internalized by field personnel. School
leaders also share that while DepEd memorandums may encourage contextualization
(as provided under RA 10533), leaders that deviate from rigid reporting requirements
may be penalized or publicly criticized when their reports are not fully compliant
(Hechanova & Yusay, 2024).Similarly, teachers also share that it is commonplace for
 Governance and Finance 369

individuals to be labeled pabibo (attention seekers) for performing tasks beyond what
a memorandum has explicitly required (Comia et al., 2024).

“Our school is more policy compliant. Kung anong binaba

from DepEd, ’yun ang ginagawa. [Whatever instructions
are handed down from the higher-up DepEd offices, that
is what we do.]”

These examples from the lived experiences of teachers and school leaders illustrate
how the overemphasis on compliance encourages risk-averse behaviors and stifles
innovation and collaboration. Thus, it is hardly surprising that even after 2 decades
of implementation, RA 9155 has failed to transform the agency’s hierarchical and
centralized configuration.

As Laguda et al. (2024) rightly point out, centralized control hinders DepEd’s ability
to provide tailored and responsive services crucial for improving learning outcomes.
Decentralization was urgently needed for the country’s basic education system in
2001 when RA 9155 was enacted. Despite the setbacks, this need remains paramount
today. Thus, decentralization must still be pursued.

Recommendations
A highly centralized top-down process persists in DepEd despite well-intentioned
efforts to decentralize the agency’s structure through RA 9155. This outcome
underscores the importance of careful and thoughtful design of decentralization
reform. More importantly, Laguda et al. (2024) argue that “the Department of
Education should spearhead efforts to fully realize the vision of shared governance
and decentralization outlined in RA 9155, in view of the agency’s primary authority in
basic education.

Drawing from the review of global experience on decentralization by King (2024), the
Commission puts forward the following recommendations to guide the challenging
but necessary work of decentralizing the governance of basic education:

Adopt a phased, selective, and iterative decentralization process based on a

clear framework of reform readiness.
King (2024) explains that a phased, selective, and iterative reform involves “organizing
the reform process into discrete, sequenced steps, with any decision being
contingent on empirical evidence about what design features are working, what is not
working, and where the reform is producing good outcomes.” The researcher provides
four ways of implementing decentralization in phases:

1. By education cycle: Start with higher education levels (secondary and tertiary)
before moving to the much larger scope and scale of elementary education.
2. By level of government: Begin with decentralization to DepEd regions, divisions,
then schools, or to the local governments of provinces and chartered cities,
followed by municipalities.
3. By geography: Implement in selected areas or regions before expanding to
others.
4. By function: Start with a limited set of functions with clearly defined roles and
authorities for each level of government.
370 EDCOM II Year Two Report

Furthermore, King (2024) underscores that the phases and sequence of reform
should be based on a clear framework for reform readiness, to avoid the pitfalls
of a one-size-fits-all approach. This will involve conducting an assessment of the
capabilities and resources of lower governance levels, such as administrative capacity,
technical expertise, fiscal resources, political commitment, and past experience
with decentralization. Recognizing that decentralization is an ongoing process, the
possibility of adjustments and improvements based on evidence and experience should
be anticipated and already embedded in the policy design to enable a truly iterative
approach.

After the decision to undertake decentralization has been made, King (2024) specifies
that a preparation phase of at least 2 years must be undertaken to develop coherent and
realistic policy design and implementation plans (see Figure 20). The major activities are
analysis, design, and planning; consultation and communication; and training.

FIGURE 20
Simplified Cycle of Steps to Decentralization

PREPARATION PHASE
Analysis, Design, Planning
· Prepare a comprehensive and Monitor, Evaluate,
coherent decentralization design and Retrofit
and implementation plan
· Include developing the framework
for a readiness index

5 Implement the
Decentralization
Program
1
4

2 3
PREPARATION PHASE
Consultation
and Communication
Obtain and reflect the views of PREPARATION PHASE
stakeholders in the design and Training
plan of the reform
· Fill gaps in administrtive and
technical capacities at all levels
· Involves stakeholders from
planners to administrators,
as well as service providers

The development of institutional capacity at lower levels of governance is just

as important as the provision of resources. However, adequate training is often
overlooked, despite its crucial role in ensuring the success of decentralization.
King (2024) cautions that decentralization can fail if lower levels lack the necessary
technical expertise and administrative capacity to effectively carry out their new
responsibilities. Comia et al. (2024) also emphasize that adequate staffing at lower
governance levels is critical in building institutional capacity, in view of findings on
short staffed schools and lean staffing in field units.

In particular, developing the leadership and management capacity of school heads

is crucial to any decentralization reform in basic education governance. Analysis
of management practices in schools show that improved management practices
are linked to substantial gains in student performance, with a 1 standard deviation
increase in management quality associated with a 0.2 to 0.4 standard deviation
 Governance and Finance 371

improvement in student performance (Bloom et al., 2015, as cited by King, 2024).

Though learner performance is a multifaceted interplay of factors, international
research literature and local cases of good practice show that effective school
leadership and management can positively impact the performance of both students
and teachers.

Lessons from School-Based Management in the Philippines

School-based management (SBM) empowers schools with greater decision-
making authority, aiming to improve accountability, efficiency, and responsiveness
to local needs. When implemented properly, SBM significantly impacts school
management practices and teacher behavior, which in turn contributes
substantially to improved student learning outcomes. However, studies assessing
the impact of SBM on student outcomes have shown mixed results (King, 2024).
Laguda, et al., (2024) document the following challenges in their review of SBM
implementation in the Philippines:
• Lack of capacity: Over half of the country’s public schools are led by
teachers-in-charge (TICs) who lack the necessary training and support
to effectively fulfill the role of a school head. While regional and division
offices are responsible for providing support to schools, they themselves
might not have the technical capacity and resources to do so.
• Lack of funding: With limited school MOOE budgets, schools focus on
compliance rather than pursue innovative school improvement projects.
The discontinuation of SBM grants in 2016 further limited available
sources of funding for innovation. While alternative funding sources like
LGU support or private partnerships could be tapped by schools, this
disadvantages schools in low-resourced communities.

To ensure effective implementation, SBM should be reevaluated within the broader

context of decentralization reforms. Laguda et al. (2024) assert that it would be
more fruitful to view SBM as a key management principle rather than a program.
The researchers propose the following concrete actions:

• Revise prescriptive policies that limit principals from managing schools

effectively. These often stifle innovation and initiative at the school level. In
particular, provide flexibility to enable tailored strategies for underserved
or disadvantaged schools.
• Revive SBM grants to ensure equitable resource distribution, but expand
beyond promoting innovation to also include increasing accountability for
learning outcomes.
• Reorient regional and division personnel on management and supervision
methods that support rather than stifle school head leadership. This will
require self-awareness sessions, modeling, and mentoring in the field.

Specify clear functions, responsibilities, and authority for all concerned.

Clear and consistent assignment of roles and responsibilities among different levels
of government is crucial for successful decentralization to avoid overlapping and
duplicating functions, which can lead to confusion, inefficiency, and inaction. King
(2024) reiterates that the assignment of functions must ensure alignment between
responsibility and authority; fiscal resources; and administrative, technical, and
political capacities. It is crucial to ensure that individuals and institutions at the local
level possess the necessary authority, skills, and knowledge to effectively carry out
their assigned responsibilities. When capacity gaps exist, training programs can
be implemented to enhance their capabilities. Doing otherwise is likely to result in
more restrictive, partial decentralization than what was originally intended. Finally,
372 EDCOM II Year Two Report

King (2024) reminds that reform efforts should always be accompanied by a clear,
consistent, and widespread information program so that affected stakeholders are
aware of their roles and what is expected of them.

While discussions on decentralization often center on which functions should be

transferred to lower levels, it is equally crucial to clearly define and strengthen the
strategic role of the central government. However, this is easier said than done.
Selecting the appropriate locus of decision-making is a significant policy design
challenge. To illustrate the point, we examine the OECD indicator “Who makes key
decisions in education systems,” which tracks a set of 23 key decisions, organized
across four domains: organization of instruction, personnel management, planning
and structures, and resource management. Data from the Education At A Glance
report reveal a variegated array of possibilities observed across the 36 OECD
countries and economies with available data (see Figure 21).

FIGURE 21
Percentage of Decisions Taken at Each Level of Government, OECD Countries
and Economies, by Domain of Decisions (2017)

Organization of Instruction Planning & Structures

Personnel Management Resource Management

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
al

ol

ls
na

na

ca
at

ve
tr

ho
Lo
io

io
St
en

Le
Sc
eg

eg
C

le
l/R

br

p
Su

ti
ia

ul
nc

M
vi
o
Pr

Note: These data pertain to lower public secondary schools in 36 OECD countries and economies. Local refers to the
governance level right above the school.

Source: OECD Education at a Glance Report, 2018

The key findings are the following:

• The largest share of decisions is taken at the school level. Nearly a third of
decisions at the school or local level are taken in full autonomy, and two-thirds
are within a framework set by a higher authority.
• The organization of instruction and use of resources are mostly decided at
the school level. For example, in Korea, the central government stipulates a
minimum instruction time per group of grades, but schools make decisions on
allocation of the instruction time in each grade and can also decide to increase
or decrease instruction time within a certain extent (set at the central level).
• Planning and structures, as well as personnel management are more likely to be
made at higher levels of authority, although countries vary widely. For instance,
In Lithuania, the hiring of school principals results from a competition process
between applicants. The committee in charge of the final decision is composed of
representatives from the central government, local authorities, and the school board.
 Governance and Finance 373

Drawing on their review of shared governance under RA 9155, Laguda et al. (2024)
recommend that DepEd should “reassess its roles at each level of governance”
and conduct a comprehensive review of its programs, projects, and activities to
identify which of these could be redesigned for deconcentration. Functions such
as beneficiary selection, procurement, delivery, and acceptance can be delegated
to regions and divisions, while the central office retains its primary role in policy
development and standard setting. This will free up bandwidth so that the central
office can focus on monitoring the performance of field units. In particular, the
review could begin with programs that repeatedly face utilization and delivery issues,
such as those involving computerization, internet connectivity, provision of science
equipment and tools, and last-mile schools. The researchers point out that the
agency’s existing policy on the school-based feeding program is a viable starting
reference for delegating responsibilities to lower levels of governance.

Address vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances

to reduce inequity and improve implementation.
Vertical fiscal imbalance arises when lower levels of government lack the necessary
resources to effectively deliver services due to insufficient funding from higher levels
of government. On the other hand, horizontal fiscal imbalance refers to the widening
gap in fiscal resources and spending capacity between different regions within a
country. To address imbalances, fiscal transfers and resource sharing must be aligned
with assigned roles and responsibilities, as well as the particular needs of subnational
levels to reduce regional disparities. To address these imbalances, the central
government can implement measures such as the following:

• Intergovernmental fiscal transfers: including revenue sharing, general purpose

grants, and conditional grants
• Enhanced fiscal autonomy: granting subnational levels greater control over
resources and expenditures

These measures aim to ensure equitable resource distribution and empower lower
governance levels to make more efficient decisions regarding resource allocation and
service delivery.

Integrate M&E mechanisms into the reform

process to strengthen analysis and use of evidence.
King (2024) notes that a robust M&E system is needed to track the progress and
impact of decentralization reform. M&E is especially important in an iterative
implementation, as regular assessments enable identification of issues and guide
adjustments of the reform process as needed. Evidence from monitoring activities
enables the change agents to advocate for necessary resources, and strengthens
broader political support of the reform itself.

Issue 2: Participatory governance mechanisms remain

limited and often lead to dead ends when pursued.
Year Two findings paint a concerning picture: Significant barriers effectively hinder
ordinary citizens from meaningful participation in education governance. A study
conducted by Comia et al. (2024) mapped at least 30 mechanisms for people’s
participation mentioned in various DepEd issuances. While there are many entry
points, the researchers found that these often lead to dead ends (see Table 15),
especially with scant information available to ordinary citizens on how and where they
can engage or contribute to improving the education system.
374 EDCOM II Year Two Report

TABLE 14
Participatory Mechanisms in Basic Education Governance

Level Mechanism Potential Barriers

Mechanisms with high potential for effective participation

School Parent-Teacher Associations Lack of resources; limited engagement of

marginalized groups

Teacher-parent collaboration Overburdened teachers; parents’ lack of

awareness or interest

Collaborative development of curricula Teachers seen as “complying officers”; lack

of autonomy in decision-making

Workshops by student councils Lack of resources; limited autonomy of

student leaders

Learner-first referral networks Lack of funding; overburdened teachers;

social service responsibilities pushed onto
schools

Stakeholder Public consultations on education policy Tokenistic participation; limited awareness

among community members

LGU Barangay partnerships for school projects Political interference; variability in

engagement across barangays

Mechanisms with moderate challenges that can be overcome with improvements

School School governance councils Overburdened school staff; limited capacity

for community engagement

Disaster preparedness in schools Lack of funding and capacity for proper

implementation

Student government Centralized decision-making; students

seen as “complying officers”

School-based decision-making committees Overburdened school staff; lack of teacher

autonomy due to centralized governance

Stakeholder Capacity-building programs for stakeholders Lack of resources; limited awareness;

political interference

Engagement of faith-based organizations Cultural resistance; elite capture

Community-based school monitoring Lack of transparency; limited access to

data; centralized decision-making

Cross-sectoral partnerships Lack of coordination between private

sector, schools, and LGUs; funding
constraints

LGU Public-private partnerships for infrastructure Political interference; elite capture;

inequitable distribution of resources

Youth involvement in educational planning Lack of meaningful roles for youth; seen as
tokenistic participants

Civil society organization engagement in Procedural or tokenistic participation; lack

local school governance of funding and capacity for civil society
organizations

Town hall meetings for education issues Low community turnout; political capture;
lack of follow-through on issues raised

Open forums with LGUs Political interference; elite capture

Participatory budgeting Limited financial resources; political

capture; limited community engagement

Role of local leaders in education Political interference; elite capture

 Governance and Finance 375

Level Mechanism Potential Barriers

Mechanisms with significant challenges or dead ends due to structural issues, political interference, or
other barriers

School School-based health and feeding programs Lack of funding; overburdened school staff
with nonacademic tasks

Stakeholder Collaboration with nongovernmental Lack of coordination; nongovernmental

organizations organizations sometimes offering irrelevant
services; elite capture

Civil society’s involvement in curriculum Tokenistic participation; lack of

assessment transparency; centralized decision-making

Social media platforms for feedback Limited reach; unstructured feedback

collection; lack of responsiveness from
authorities

Inclusion of marginalized groups Cultural or social resistance; political

capture; lack of inclusivity in decision-
making forums

LGU Community involvement in dropout Lack of resources; political interference

prevention

Local school boards Political interference; elite capture; lack of

awareness

Multisectoral task forces Lack of coordination; political interference;

resource constraints

Note: Data taken from Comia, R. S. B., Abante, K. I. I., Villasis, J. C., & De Leon, H. C. G. (2024). Kakayanin natin:
Empowering citizens to participate in improving education governance in the Philippines. Second Congressional
Commission on Education.

The researchers assert that opening

up education data is a crucial step “to
enable and facilitate more targeted,
effective interventions in response to
education problems on the ground.” By
making education data publicly available,
governments can empower communities to
actively participate in improving learning
outcomes and ensure that interventions are
targeted and effective.

Comia et al. (2024) highlight the critical role of people’s participation in solving
complex social problems such as education. However, focus group discussion and
interviews with over a hundred stakeholders revealed a prevailing belief that “only
the DepEd Offices can shape policies, curriculum, and mandates within schools”
(Comia et al., 2024). Student council officers shared receiving little guidance and
376 EDCOM II Year Two Report

being mobilized only for administration-initiated events, while parent officers pointed
to a prevailing perception of parent engagement in schools that is largely centered
around the provision of financial support “beautification” projects, relief operations,
and procurement of educational technology devices. These responses are indicative
of tokenistic and procedural engagement, which discourages sustained participation
and limits the potential of local actors on the ground to engage in meaningful
collaboration.

However, without crucial information—publicly available, timely, and usable

education data—ordinary citizens, civil society organizations, and nongovernmental
organizations are left in the dark about how and where they can contribute to
improving education outcomes. The researchers assert that opening up education
data is a crucial step “to enable and facilitate more targeted, effective interventions
in response to education problems on the ground.” By making education data
publicly available, governments can empower communities to actively participate
in improving learning outcomes and ensure that interventions are targeted and
effective.
 Governance and Finance 377

Valenzuela City’s Education 360:

A Holistic Approach to Ensuring
No Student Is Left Behind

Valenzuela City’s Education 360 Degrees These activities bring together parents,
Investment Program has written a teachers, and community members,
playbook of how local governments can creating a shared culture of support and
champion education. Beyond the usual accountability.
“gravel and sand” solutions—building
schools and distributing supplies, this Teachers, too, are supported through
project embraces a comprehensive teaching camps where they can develop
strategy that not only secures the their skills and adapt to new technologies.
physical infrastructure of education but
also nurtures the human components Meanwhile, Education 360 provides
that truly drive learning. support to young learners to excel
academically through a series of
Launched in 2014, the program was the interventions, including remediation
brainchild of then-mayor, now secretary programs on numeracy and literacy. It
of Social Welfare and Development, also provides opportunities for them
Rex Gatchalian, legislated through a to cultivate other talents and engage in
city ordinance to ensure continuity. sports, like baseball and football, while
The initiative goes beyond the typical developing values such as discipline,
blueprint in governance and management perseverance, and teamwork. These
of education. Education 360 adapts activities are drawn up in partnership
a holistic approach by investing in with organizations such as the Synergia
every vital aspect of basic education: Foundation and the Laos Football Club.
infrastructure, school supplies,
curriculum enhancement, teacher A standout feature of the program is
competency, parental involvement, its bottom-up budgeting approach.
and nutrition. For Gatchalian and his Governing councils of local schools
team, quality education is not just about actively participate, proposing programs
building classrooms. It’s about building a during the budgeting and planning
community that empowers every learner process. The involvement of key
to grow and thrive. stakeholders fosters a sense of ownership
within the local community and makes
“We’re not a fan of just constructing sure that activities are responsive to their
buildings,” explains Councilor Rovin specific needs.
Andrew Feliciano, one of the program’s
advocates. “While it is essential to build Education 360 has continuously
up the facilities and assets, even more improved and adapted over 20 years. It
critical is the human component.” continues to evolve in its third decade,
demonstrating how well-designed
Project Education 360 recognizes that local education programs can build a
education is not just the responsibility lasting ecosystem that truly nurtures the
of schools; it’s a collective effort. It youngest of its citizens.
organizes parenting camps that help
empower parents and caretakers to
take an active role in child education.
378 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 379

Conclusion

As the Commission completes its diagnosis of the 28 priorities identified in

our mandate, the picture that emerges is stark yet clarifying. The challenges are
vast, spanning decades of neglect and systemic dysfunction, but they are not
insurmountable. This report represents not an endpoint, but rather a turning point in
our collective journey to rebuild Philippine education from its very foundations.

It is easy to feel overwhelmed by the issues that confront us: chronic underfunding,
fragmented policies, inequities in access, and declining student outcomes. But we
stress that EDCOM was not assembled to conduct self-flagellation or punitive finger-
pointing. Rather, ours is an exercise in deliberate self-awareness, undertaken so that
we may fully grasp the depths of the crisis and begin from there, with stronger resolve
and a sharper ability to craft solutions that work.

From Bohol to Nueva Ecija, from Makati and even to Vietnam, we sought out solutions
and best practices. The insights we gathered consistently pointed us back to
the basics: comprehensive teacher support, readily available learning resources,
adequate school infrastructure, and a relentless tenacity in ensuring that students
are learning. These elements are the bedrock of quality education, the necessary
preconditions for creativity and innovation to thrive. Without them, aspirations will
remain aspirations—inspiring and good for rhetoric, but yielding little in terms of
meaningful change.
380 EDCOM II Year Two Report

To move forward, we must first and foremost

address the basics. We must focus on what
is most urgent and foundational. Early
childhood education, nutritional support
during the first 1,000 days of life, and
literacy by the end of Grade 3 are not just
benchmarks—they are lifelines. If we fail to
establish these cornerstones, the rest of the
structure cannot stand.

It is also worth emphasizing that the narrative of failure we alluded to in the Year
One Report does not tell the entire story. In our visits to schools and conversations
with educators, we witnessed profound examples of grit, resolve, and ingenuity.
We met principals who traverse great distances to supervise bilocated schools, and
teachers who dig into their own often shallow pockets to fill gaps in school resources.
Their sacrifices are acts of heroism, not failure—and it is our duty to ensure that they
become the exception, not the rule. The goal is a system that empowers—one that
allows educators to channel their efforts fully toward improving learning outcomes,
rather than merely coping with systemic inadequacies.

To move forward, we must first and foremost address the basics. We must focus on
what is most urgent and foundational. Early childhood education, nutritional support
during the first 1,000 days of life, and literacy by the end of Grade 3 are not just
benchmarks—they are lifelines. If we fail to establish these cornerstones, the rest of
the structure cannot stand.

And we must act with the recognition that time is a resource we cannot afford to
waste. The demographic window of opportunity will not remain open indefinitely,
and every year lost compounds the gaps we need to bridge. If our findings induce
strong sentiments, then we must find ways to transform sentiment into inspiration,
inspiration into strategy, and strategy into concrete action. All these things we point
out that should have happened long ago must begin to happen now and accelerate by
the moment, without delay.

While the research conducted by EDCOM II is comprehensive, it is by no means

exhaustive. There is more to learn and more to understand. This is why continued
dialogue with local stakeholders, teachers, and parents is essential. Their voices must
inform the policies that will shape the future of our education system.
Conclusion 381
382 EDCOM II Year Two Report
 Conclusion 383

As we enter our third and final year, our task

becomes both clearer and more urgent. We
shall integrate the findings of the past years,
identify the most critical interventions, and
develop a road map that ensures sustainable
improvements. This road map must not only
address the current crises but also build an
education system resilient and agile enough
to adapt to future challenges.

In this light, we acknowledge that there may be context-specific issues we have not
yet uncovered. By no means do we imply that the challenges outlined apply across all
schools and communities. We examine foundational elements even as we recognize
the unique challenges faced by different communities: The problems faced by a
village public school in coastal Leyte might differ from those faced by a school in
the concrete recesses of Metro Manila. The diversity of our nation—its languages,
cultures, and geographies—requires solutions that are not only evidence based but
also deeply contextual. We recognize this, even as we recognize that the principles of
quality, equity, and inclusion remain universal.

As we enter our third and final year, our task becomes both clearer and more
urgent. We shall integrate the findings of the past years, identify the most critical
interventions, and develop a road map that ensures sustainable improvements. This
road map must not only address the current crises but also build an education system
resilient and agile enough to adapt to future challenges.

We close this report with an invitation to all stakeholders to provide us with further
nuance on the issues covered by the Year One and Year Two reports, especially those
critical impediments that remain unaddressed. We also welcome any suggestions
that can help build a system that truly works—one that is inclusive, equitable, and
capable of meeting the demands of a rapidly changing world.

Education is about cultivating the full potential of every individual; it is about

nurturing citizens who are informed, compassionate, and capable of contributing
meaningfully to society. It is about building a nation. Together, we can turn this crisis
into an opportunity—to rebuild, to innovate, and to create an education system that is
worthy of the Filipino people and their boundless potential.
384 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

The Second Congressional

Commission on Education

Commissioners
Senator Sherwin Gatchalian Representative Roman Romulo
Co-Chairperson Co-Chairperson

Senator Alan Cayetano Representative Mark Go

Co-Chairperson Co-Chairperson

Senator Loren Legarda Representative Jude Acidre

Senator Koko Pimentel III Representative Khalid Dimaporo

Senator Joel Villanueva Representative Pablo John Garcia

 The Second Congressional Commission on Education 385

Education, Legislation, and Policy Advisory Council

For Academe Ms. Irene Isaac
Dr. Maria Cynthia Rose Bautista Former Director General
Former Vice President for Academic Affairs Technical Education and Skills
University of the Philippines Development Authority (TESDA)

Fr. Bienvenido Nebres, SJ For Local Government

Professor and Former President Mayor Victor Ma. Regis Sotto
Ateneo de Manila University Pasig City

For Industry Mayor Maria Laarni Cayetano

Mr. Alfredo I. Ayala Taguig City
Chairman and President
National Teachers College, APEC Schools and For Civil Society Organizations
University of Nueva Caceres / iPeople, inc. Ms. Maria Olivia Lucas
President
Dr. Meliton “Chito” B. Salazar E-Net Philippines / Unang
President and CEO Hakbang Foundation, Inc.
PHINMA Education / Philippine Business for
Education Dr. Milwida Guevara
President and CEO
For Government Agencies Synergeia Foundation, Inc.
Ms. Rhodora Angela Ferrer
Executive Director
Private Education Assistance Committee
(PEAC)
386 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

Standing Committees
Sub-Committee on Early Atty. Alexander B. Cabrera
Childhood Care and Development Chairman Emeritus and ESG Leader
Ms. Amabelle Cariño Isla Lipana & Co. / PwC Philippines
Principal
Skills Development and Technical Education Center Dr. Elyxzur C. Ramos
Miriam College President
University of Makati
Ms. Rina Lopez
President and Executive Director Dr. Tirso Ronquillo
Knowledge Channel Foundation President
Philippines Association of State
Dr. Mianne Silvestre Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
President
Kalusugan ng Mag-Ina Dr. Reynaldo B. Vea
(KMI; Health of Mother and Child) Chairman and CEO
iPeople, inc.
Sub-Committee on Basic Education
Dr. Allan B. I. Bernardo Fr. John Christian U. Young
Distinguished University Professor President
De La Salle University Father Saturnino Urios University

Dr. Ma Therese Angeline P. Bustos Sub-Committee on Teach

Professor Education and Development
College of Education, Fr. Johnny Go, SJ
University of the Philippines Diliman Dean
Gokongwei Brothers School of Education
Fr. Jerome Marquez and Learning Design (GBSEALD)
Executive Director Ateneo de Manila University
Arnold Janssen Catholic Mission Foundation, Inc.
(AJCMFI) Dr. Jennie V. Jocson
*February 2023–September 2024 Former Executive Director
PNU - Research Institute for Teacher
Dr. Diosdado M. San Antonio Quality
Manager *February 2023–August 2024
Educational Research and Innovation Office, Executive Director
SEAMEO INNOTECH Teacher Education Council (TEC)
Secretariat
Mr. Elvin Ivan Uy
Executive Director Dr. Dina S. Ocampo
Philippine Business for Social Progress (PBSP) Professor
College of Education
Fr. Lawrence Llona, SVD University of the Philippines Diliman
ALS Site Director in Semirara, Antique
Arnold Janssen Catholic Mission Foundation, Inc. Dr. Ester B. Ogena
(AJCMFI) Former President
*September 2024–Present Philippine Normal University
Adjunct Faculty
Sub-Committee on Higher Education Asian Institute of Management
Dr. Raymund P. Arcega *September 2024–Present
Executive Director
Association of Local Colleges and Universities
in the Philippines (ALCU)
 The Second Congressional Commission on Education 387

Dr. Carmela Oracion Standing Committee

Executive Director on Governance and Finance
Ateneo Center for Educational Development Ms. Ma. Nieves R. Confesor
(ACED) Adjunct Faculty, Retired Associate Professor
*April 2024-Present
Dr. Maria Cristina Robles
Former Principal IV Dr. Vicente K. Fabella
Navotas National High School President
*September 2024–Present Jose Rizal University

Standing Committee on Technical- Mr. Ernesto D. Garilao

Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Chairman
and Lifelong Learning Zuellig Family Foundation
Mr. Edgar Chua
Chairman President Mr. Malcolm S. Garma
Makati Business Club Former USAID ABC+ Project System
De La Salle Philippines Strengthening Advisor
Assistant Secretary for Field Operations
Mr. Charles Kenneth C. Co *March–August 2024
President
Cebu Chamber of Commerce and Industry Dr. Cielito F. Habito
Professor
Mr. Edicio G. dela Torre Ateneo de Manila University
President
Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement Dr. Gilberto M. Llanto*
(PRRM) Trustee
Philippine Institute for Development Studies
Engr. Ronaldo R. Elepaño Jr. (PIDS)
President *February–July 2023
Philippine Constructors Association
Mr. Juan Miguel Luz (+)
Mr. John Thomas C. Franco Former Dean
Executive Vice President Development Management
St. Alexius College Asian Institute of Management

Fr. Onofre Inocencio Jr., SDB Mayor Jimuel S. Que

President Bongao, Tawi-Tawi
Unified TVET of the Philippines, Inc.
Dr. Emerlinda R. Roman
Dr. Christopher P. Monterola Professor Emeritus
Head University of the Philippines
Aboitiz School of Innovation, Technology, *February–December 2023
and Entrepreneurship
Asian Institute of Management Mr. John Phillip P. Sevilla
Consultant
Mr. Lito Tayag Asian Development Bank
Former Country Managing Director (CMD)
and President
Accenture, Inc. (Philippines)
388 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

Technical Secretariat

Office of the Executive Director Atty. Jemirose R. Loot

Dr. Karol Mark R. Yee Legal Officer
Executive Director *September 2024–December 2024

Dominic L. Rolloda Arabelle Joy S. Bayron

Executive Assistant Legal Associate

Yul P. VIllanueva Jr. Ada Claudette E. Enriquez

OED Assistant Legal Assistant

Susan P. Mogao Technical Unit

Commission Secretariat Krupskaya M. Añonuevo
Chief Technical Specialist
Andrew Stephen L. Pablo
Senior Policy Research Officer Conchitina D. Enrile
Technical Specialist for Early Childhood
Atty. Paulo Miguel R. Antonio Care and Development
Senior Policy Research Officer *February 2023–December 2024

Josephine Gayl Porter-Laurel Ma. Guia M. Del Valle-Ramoso

Senior Policy Research Officer Technical Specialist for Basic Education
*March 2023–October 2024
Michael Joseph P. Cabauatan
Senior Policy Research Officer Raquel B. Cabrieto
*February 2023–August 2024 Technical Specialist for Basic Education
*April 2024–October 2024
Carlo Fernando
Technical Specialist for Pathways Riz Supreme B. Comia
*August 2023–May 2024 Technical Specialist for Basic Education

Legal Unit Paula Francesca A. Birung

Atty. Joseph Noel M. Estrada Technical Specialist for Higher Education
Chief Legal Officer
*February 2023–September 2024 Rudy T. Clariño Jr.
Technical Specialist - Teacher Education
*May 2024–November 2024
 The Second Congressional Commission on Education 389

Nastashja Bianca I. Melevo Operations Unit

Technical Specialist for Technical Vocational Adelaide Elpidama
Education and Lifelong Learning Senior Operations Officer

Susan Anne A. Quirante Nico M. Fos

Technical Specialist for Governance and Finance Operations Officer
*March 2023–December 2024
Rowena S. Modesto
Maria Bianca Louise L. Villacorta Operations Officer
Technical Specialist for Governance and Finance
*November 2023–May 2024 Data, Partnerships, and Research
Sebastian Felipe R. Bundoc
Emmanuella A. Iellamo Data Scientist
Technical Specialist for Governance and Finance *October 2023–July 2024

Hasmer A. Hamid Jayson V. Esquivel

Technical Specialist - BARMM Data Officer
*May 2024–September 2024
Jan Erik S. Chua
Hannah Mae L. Canillas Partnerships and Linkages Officer
Administration Assistant (Technical) *April 2023–June 2024
*January 2024–December 2024
Keirth France Eymard M. Manio
Jan Zenne O. Genandoy Partnerships and Linkages Officer
Government Liaison Officer *July 2024–December 2024

Communications Unit Ishadora S. Lim

Luigi C. Conti Senior Policy Research Officer
Communications and Advocacy Officer *October 2023–June 2024

Bettina M. Tapalla Gibriel M. Santos

Graphic and Layout Artist Research Coordinator

Mavreen Jackie P. Yapchiongco Administrative and Finance Unit

Publications Officer Angelina B. Eduardo
*November 2023–December 2024 Chief Administrative and Finance Officer

Jose Natividad Sherwin C. Tapalla

Social Media Manager Administrative Officer (Senate)
*June 2024–October 2024
Janice S. Pader
Johnessa S. Gabrillo-Quimosing Administrative Officer (HoR)
Video Editor
*April 2024–September 2024 Mae Rosette P. Patio
Liaison Officer
Lee D. Villanueva
Video Editor Ronnie Keen B. Eborda
Administrative Assistant (Senate)
Lindsay M. Orsolino
Media Relations Officer Anne Justine D. Herramia
*May 2024–September 2024 Administrative Assistant (HoR)

Amaia Janelle C. Baculo Stenographers

Media Relations Officer Mildred V. Amador
Nida A. Mancol
Consolacion P. Mendoza
390 EDCOM II Year 2 Report

Office of Senator Sherwin Gatchalian Office of Representative Roman Romulo

Alexandra S. Valera Atty. Jesselyn Durante-Cuizon
Atty. Katryn Cadiente Atty. Mari Leiozelle Anthony Sol Cruz
Adnan Ahmad Ms. Yndira Maballo
Tristan Piosang Ms. Jewelyn Mandigma
Atty. Archiesyl Galang Atty. Nona Marinela Guiam
Atty. Sheena Bellen Ms. Yella Bautista

Office of Senator Alan Peter Cayetano Office of Representative Mark Go

Atty. Bernadette Remalla-Maybituin Charis Go
Thea Dianito Jeff Paran
Karen Giocado
Office of Senator Loren Legarda
Atty. Asmenah Barambangan Office of Representative Jude Acidre
Atty. Kim Laurente - Alib Atty. Cesar Ong
Sheree Mangunay Nico Tayao

Office of Senator Koko Pimentel III Office of Representative Khalid Dimaporo

Atty. Roseanne Mateo Dante Galindes
Atty. Charity Anne Osdon
(until July 2024) Office of Representative Pablo John Garcia
Atty. Renz Alrec Alinas Atty. Red Maines
Regina Adolfo
Office of Senator Joel Villanueva
Albert Basa Office of former Representative Jose
Atty. Veron Requejo (until December 2024) Francisco “Kiko” Benitez
Atty. Marni Ortega Galo Glino III
Rohi Yocariza
Office of Senator Pia Cayetano
Atty. Abi Miranda
Atty. Jackie Gan

Office of former Senator Sonny Angara

Atty. Fatima Lipp D. Panontongan
Atty. Johvie Valenton-Radoc
Atty. Hana Kamille A. Escueta
Atty. Paolo Mikhail E. Quilala
Bernard Jose C. Patalinghug
Miguel Alfonso A. Lima
Kim Lenard S. Raypan
Mary Soledad E. Apostol
Ramon Miguel G. Abola
Olivia DL Bustamante
Lourd Aurora Rotas-Ancheta
Marvin U. Sy
Javi Laiz
Mark Edward E. Pimentel
John Mark Bisnar
 References 391

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400 EDCOM II Year Two Report References 401
 About EDCOM II
The Second Congressional Commission
on Education (EDCOM II) is a national
Commission established through
Republic Act No. 11899, tasked to
undertake a comprehensive national
assessment and evaluation of the
performance of the Philippine
education sector, and to propose
transformative solutions, from 2023
to 2025. It is composed of lawmakers
from both the Senate and the House of
Representatives, and is guided by an
Advisory Council, and assisted by the
Technical Secretariat.

Cover artwork
I'm Still Hoping by Ronald Jeresano
2008 Grand Awardee for Oil/Acrylic on Canvas Category
Metrobank Art and Design Excellence (MADE)
From the collection of the Metrobank Foundation, Inc.