BIOLOGY

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

2024-25

NAME: DHEERENDRA MEENA

CLASS:11 SECTION: B
TOPIC: KINGDOM PLANTAE
ROLL NO.15
 Certificate
This is to certify that DHEERENDRA
MEENA of class 11-B has
successfully completed the physics
investigatory project on “KINGDOM
PLANTAE” during academic year
2024-25.

PRINCIPAL
SUBJECT
TEACHER

_________ _________
ACKNOWLEDGEME
NT
I would like to express my
gratitude to our school PM Shri
Kendriya Vidyalaya No.1 Alwar,
Principal sir Dr.L.R. Saini who
give me this opportunity to do
this wonderful project on
“KINGDOM PLANTAE” and a
special thanks to Mr Madan Lal
Gurjar sir who helped and
guided me for this project.
This project made me to do a lot
of research and I came to know
about so many things.
 INDEX
[Link] Of Organisms
[Link] Plantae
3. Classification Of Plantae
4. Thallophyta
5. Bryophyta
6. Pteridophyta
7. Gymnosperms
8. Angiosperms
9. Bibliography
 Classification of
Organisms
Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert
Whittaker (1969) and Carl Woese (1977) have
tried to classify all living organisms into broad
categories, called kingdoms. The classification
Whittaker proposed has five kingdoms:
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia

These groups are formed on the basis of their

cell structure, mode and source of nutrition and
body organization.
Further classification is done by naming the
sub-groups at various levels as given in the
following scheme:
Kingdom Phylum (for animals)/ Division (for
plants)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
 Kingdom Plantae
These are multicellular eukaryotes with cell
walls. They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll
for photosynthesis. Thus, all plants are included
in this group. The first level of classification
among plants depends on whether the plant
body has well differentiated, distinct parts. The
next level of classification is based on whether
the differentiated plant body has special tissues
for the transport of water and other
substances. Further classification looks at the
ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are
enclosed within fruits.
Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic
chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly
called plants. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants
or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap
are examples of insectivorous plants and
Cuscuta is a parasite. The plant cells have a
eukaryotic structure with prominent
chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of
cellulose.
 Classification Of
Plantae
The plant kingdom has been classified into five
subgroups according to the above-mentioned
criteria:
1. Thallophyta

2. Bryophyta

3. Pteridophyta

4. Gymnosperms

5. Angiosperms
 Thallophyta
Plants that do not have well-differentiated
body design fall in this group. The plants in this
group are commonly called algae. These plants
are predominantly aquatic. Examples are
Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Ulva and
Chara.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and
sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by
fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a
thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the
production of different types of spores, the
most common being the zoospores. They are
flagellated (motile) and on germination gives
rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction takes
place through fusion of metes. These two
gametes. These gametes can be flagellated and
similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non-flagellated
(non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra).
Such reproduction is called isogamous. Fusion
of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species
of Eudorina is termed as anisogamous. Fusion
between one large, nonmotile (static) female
gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete is
termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
 Types Of Algae
The algae are divided into three main classes:
1. Chlorophyceae
2. Phaeophyceae
3. Rhodophyceae

Class - Chlorophyceae
Common Name - Green algae
Major Pigments - Chlorophyll a b
Stored Food - Starch
Cell Wall - Cellulose
Flagellar Number and Position of
Insertions - 2-8, equal, apical
Habitat - Fresh water, brackish water. salt
water
Class - Phaeophyceae
Common Name - Brown algae
Major Pigments - Chlorophyll a c
fucoxanthin
Stored Food - Mannitol, laminarin
Cell Wall - Cellulose and algin
Flagellar Number and Position of
Insertions - 2, unequal, lateral
Habitat - Fresh water (rare) brackish water,
salt water

Class - Rhodophyceae
Common Name - Red algae
Major Pigments – Chlorophyll a, d,
phycoerythrin
Stored Food - Floridean starch
Cell Wall - Cellulose, pectin and poly sulphate
esters
Flagellar Number and Position of
Insertions - Absent
Habitat - Fresh water (some). brackish water,
salt water (most)
 Bryophytes
These are called the amphibians of the plant
kingdom. The plant body is commonly
differentiated to form stem and leaf-like
structures. However, there is no specialised
tissue for the conduction of water and other
substances from one part of the plant body to
another. Examples are moss (Funaria) and
Marchantia. Bryophytes include the various
mosses and liverworts that are found
commonly growing in moist shaded areas in the
hills. The plant body of bryophytes is more
differentiated than that of algae. It is thallus-
like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the
substratum by unicellular or multicellular
rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or leaves.
They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-
like structures. The main plant body of the
bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes,
hence is called a gametophyte. The sex organs
in bryophytes are multicellular. The male sex
organ is called antheridium. They produce
biflagellate antherozoids. The female sex organ
called archegonium is flask-shaped and
produces a single egg. The antherozoids are
released into water where they come in
contact with archegonium. An antherozoid
fuses with the egg to produce the zygote.
Zygotes do not undergo reduction division
immediately. They produce a multicellular body
called a sporophyte. The sporophyte is not
free-living but attached to the photosynthetic
gametophyte and derives nourishment from it.
Some cells of the sporophyte undergo
reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid
spores. These spores germinate to produce
gametophyte.
Mosses along with lichens are the first
organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of
great ecological importance. They decompose
rocks making the substrate suitable for the
growth of higher plants. Since mosses form
dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact
of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. The
bryophytes are divided into liverworts and
mosses.

According to the latest classification,

Bryophytes are divided into 2 classes:

1. Liverworts
2. Mosses
 Pteridophyta
In this group, the plant body is differentiated
into roots, stem and leaves and has specialized
tissue for the conduction of water and other
substances from one part of the plant body to
another. Some examples are Marsilea, ferns
and horse-tails The reproductive organs of
plants in all these three groups are very
inconspicuous, and they are therefore called
'cryptogams', or 'those with hidden
reproductive organs'. On the other hand, plants
with well differentiated reproductive parts that
ultimately make seeds are called phanerogams.
Seeds are the result of sexual reproduction
process. They consist of the embryo along with
stored food, which assists for the initial growth
of the embryo during germination. These
organs possess well- differentiated vascular
tissues. The leaves in pteridophyta are small
(microphylls) as in Selaginella or large
(macrophylls) as in ferns. The sporophytes bear
sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like
appendages called sporophylls. In some cases
sporophylls may form distinct compact
structures called strobili or cones. The
sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore
mother cells. The spores germinate to give rise
to inconspicuous, small but multicellular, free-
living, mostly photosynthetic thalloid
gametophytes called prothallus.

Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in

the archegonium result in the formation of
zygote. Zygote thereafter produces a
multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte
which is the dominant phase of the
pteridophytes. In majority of the pteridophytes
all the spores are of similar kinds; such plants
are called homosporous. Genera like Selaginella
and Salvinia which produce two kinds of spores,
macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are
known as heterosporous. The megaspores and
microspores germinate and give rise to female
and male gametophytes, respectively. The
female gametophytes in these plants are
retained on the parent sporophytes for variable
periods. The development of the zygotes into
young embryos take place within the female
gametophytes. This event is a precursor to the
seed habit considered an important step in
evolution. The pteridophytes are further
classified into four classes:

Psilopsida (Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella,

Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum) and
Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).
 Gymnosperms
This term is derived from two Greek words:
gymno means naked and sperma-means seed.
The plants of this group bear naked seeds and
are usually perennial, evergreen and woody.
Examples are pines and deodar. Gymnosperms
include medium-sized trees or tall trees and
shrubs. One of the gymnosperms, the giant
redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree
species. The roots are generally tap roots.
Roots in some genera have fungal association in
the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some
others (Cycas) small specialised roots called
coralloid roots are associated with N2- fixing
cyanobacteria. The stems are unbranched
(Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).
The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they
produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
The two kinds of spores are produced within
sporangia that are borne on sporophylls which
are arranged spirally along an axis to form lax
or compact strobili or cones. The strobili
bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia
are called microsporangiate or male strobili.
The microspores develop into a male
gametophytic generation which is highly
reduced and is confined to only a limited
number of cells. This reduced gametophyte is
called a pollen grain. The development of
pollen grains takes place within the
microsporangia.
Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in
gymnosperms the male and the female
gametophytes do not have an independent
free-living existence. They remain within the
sporangia retained on the sporophytes. The
pollen grain is released from the
microsporangium. They are carried in air
currents and come in contact with the opening
of the ovules borne on megasporophylls. The
pollen tube carrying the male gametes grows
towards archegonia in the ovules and discharge
their contents near the mouth of the
archegonia. Following fertilisation, zygote
develops into an embryo and the ovules into
seeds. These seeds are not covered.
 Angiosperm
This word is made from two Greek words: angio
means covered and sperma- means seed. These
are also called flowering plants. The seeds
develop inside an ovary which is modified to
become a fruit. Plant embryos in seeds have
structures called cotyledons. Cotyledons are
called 'seed leaves' because in many instances
they emerge and become green when the seed
germinates. The angiosperms are divided into
two groups on the basis of the number of
cotyledons present in the seed. Plants with
seeds having a single cotyledon are called
monocotyledonous or monocots. Plants with
seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots.
The dicotyledons are characterised by seeds
having two cotyledons, reticulate venations in
leaves, and tetramerous or pentamerous
flowers, i.e., having four or five members in
each floral whorls. The monocotyledons on the
other hand are characterised by single
cotyledonous seeds, parallel venation in leaves,
and trimerous flowers having three members in
each floral whorls.
The male sex organ in a flower is the stamen.
Each stamen consists of a slender filament with
an anther at the tip. Within the anthers, the
pollen mother cell divide by meiosis to produce
microspores which matures into pollen grains.
The female sex organ in a flower is the pistil.
Pistil consists of a swollen ovary at its base, a
long slender style and stigma. Inside the ovary,
ovules are present. Generally each ovule has a
megaspore mother cell that undergoes meiosis
to form four haploid megaspores. Three of
them degenerate and one divide to form the
embryo sac. Each embryo-sac has a three-
celled egg apparatus one egg cell and two
synergids, three antipodal cells and two polar
nuclei. The polar nuclei eventually fuse to
produce a diploid secondary nucleus. Pollen
grain, after dispersal from the anthers, is
carried by wind or various other agencies to the
stigma of a pistil. This is termed as pollination.
The pollen grains germinate on the stigma and
the resulting pollen tubes grow through the
tissues of stigma and style and reach the ovule.
The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac where
two male gametes are discharged. One of the
male gametes fuses with the egg cell (syngamy)
to form a zygote. The other male gamete fuses
with the diploid secondary nucleus to produce
the triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
Because of the occurrence of two fusions i.c.,
syngamy and triple fusion, this event is termed
as double fertilisation.