Particles and Waves
Particles Waves
• Discrete and occupy • Extended, do not occupy
space space
• Exist in only one • Can exist in more than
location at a time one location at a time
• Position and velocity • Wavelength, speed can
can be determined with be determined with
infinite accuracy
infinite accuracy
• Interact by collisions,
scattering. • Interact by interference,
diffraction.
The classical mechanics of Newton
and the electromagnetism of Maxwell
seem to indicate that particles and waves
are very different entities
However, experimental observations
in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s
suggested that it might not be so.
Under certain circumstances
particles may behave as waves and
waves may behave as particles
Waves as Waves
X-Rays
Wavelength: λ ≈ 0.1 nm
Energy: E(eV) = 1.24 / λ(μm) ≈ 10 KeV
X-ray tube
X-ray spectra from tungsten
X-Ray Emission
The energy of the emitted x-rays identifies the excited atom
X-Ray Diffraction
X-rays are diffracted by the
periodically arranged atoms
in a crystalline lattice
X-Ray Diffraction
X-rays are diffracted by the
periodically arranged atoms
in a crystalline lattice
Bragg Condition
2 d sin θ = m λ
X-Ray Diffraction
Bragg Condition
2 d sin θ = m λ
Waves as Particles
Compton Effect (1923)
X-Ray Scattering
λ’ - λ = (h / mec) (1 – cos φ)
Compton Effect
λ’ - λ = (h / mec) (1 – cos φ)
The Compton Effect could be
explained by assuming the
collision between a
stationary electron, and
an incident ‘particle’, the Photon,
of mass zero, moment P = h / λ, and energy E= h c / λ.
The Photon
The concept of the Photon as the quantum of energy
(discrete, minimum value) for electromagnetic waves,
was introduced by Max Plank, in 1900, in his attempt
to explain the wavelength dependence of the energy
emitted by a body at a given temperature T (called
blackbody radiation).
The concept of photon was further developed by
Albert Einstein in 1905 in his explanation of the
Photoelectric Effect (emission of electrons upon
illumination of a solid – typically in the UV or
higher energy)
The Photon
To explain certain experimental observations of
the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with
matter, it is necessary to describe the radiation as
a beam of photons: particles or quanta of energy with
mass zero, moment P = h / λ, and energy E = h c / λ
instead of using the wave representation.
Particles as Waves
Diffraction of Electrons
The Davisson-Germer Experiment
The strongly directional scattering could
only be explained by assuming diffraction
of an incident wave, with wavelength
λ = h / p, where p was the momentum
of the electrons
Diffraction of Electrons
n λ = D sin φ with λ = h / p
Diffraction of Electrons
n λ = D sin φ, λ = h / p, and p = (2meV)1/2
then λ = h / (2meV)1/2
A plot of λ vs. V-1/2 should give a straight line with slope h / (2me)1/2
1. Set acceleration voltage to V
2. Perform expt, determine φ
3. Calculate λ from n λ = D sin φ
4. Plot λ vs. V-1/2
5. Measure slope
Diffraction of Electrons and X-Rays in Aluminum
X-Rays
Electrons
The de Broglie Hypothesis
Louis de Broglie proposed in 1924 that the wave-particle duality
that had been adopted for radiation, was also valid for particles.
Not only waves may behave as particles (under certain conditions)
but also particles (in particular electrons) may behave as waves.
De Broglie proposed the following relations for the frequency and
wavelength of the wave associated with an electron:
f=E/h λ=h/p
E is the total energy, and p is the momentum, of the particle or
electron, and λ is called the de Broglie wavelength of the particle.
Wave-Particle Duality
1. Waves may exhibit particle-like properties (Compton effect) and
2. Particles may exhibit wave-like properties (electron diffraction)
The correlation between particles and waves was proposed by
de Broglie:
f=E/h λ=h/p
For a non-relativistic particle p = mv and E = p2 / 2m
For a relativistic particle E2 = (mc2)2 + p2 c2
For a photon m = 0 then E = pc and f = p c / h
or p = h / λ and E = h c / λ
