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APPROACH – ANSWER: SOCIOLOGY MOCK TEST - 3342 (2025)

SECTION ‘A’
1. Write a short note on each of the following in not more than 150 words. 10x5=50
(a) Religion is a source of consensus and conflict. Discuss. 10
Approach:
• Just mention how Religion can be source of both in introduction.
• Discuss the reasons for consensus as well as conflict.
• Conclude by stating the importance of knowing this to harness the benefits of religion.
Answer:
Introduction:
Religion, as a social institution, plays a dual role in society - as a source of both integration and division.
This duality was first recognized by classical sociologists like Émile Durkheim, who emphasized religion's
integrative functions, and Karl Marx, who highlighted its potential for social conflict.
Religion as source of consensus:
• Religion provides a shared system of beliefs, values, and moral guidelines that bind communities
together. As Durkheim noted in "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life," collective religious rituals
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and ceremonies create social solidarity and strengthen group identity.

• Religious institutions often serve as centers for community welfare and social support. For example,
during natural disasters or crises, religious organizations frequently mobilize resources and volunteers
for relief efforts, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The role of religion in maintaining social order is evident through its moral frameworks that regulate
behavior. Talcott Parsons emphasized how religious values become internalized norms that promote
social stability and consensus.
• Religious traditions often transcend national boundaries to create transnational communities. For
instance, global religious movements like the Catholic Church or Islamic Ummah foster solidarity
across cultural and national divides.
• Religious institutions historically played crucial roles in social movements promoting peace and justice.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s Civil Rights Movement, deeply rooted in Christian theology, exemplifies
religion's potential for positive social change.
Religion as source of conflict:

• Religious differences often become markers of identity that can lead to social division. The partition
of India in 1947, driven partly by religious identity politics, demonstrates religion's potential for large-
scale social conflict.

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 • Max Weber argued that different religious worldviews can create competing claims to absolute truth,
leading to ideological conflicts. Contemporary examples include sectarian tensions in the Middle East
between different Islamic denominations.
• Religious fundamentalism can promote intolerance and extremism. The rise of religious terrorism
globally, from ISIS to Buddhist extremism in Myanmar against Rohingyas, illustrates this destructive
potential.
• Religion often becomes intertwined with political power struggles. Marx's critique of religion as
"opium of the masses" highlights how religious institutions can perpetuate social inequalities and
power hierarchies.
• Religious conflicts frequently intersect with economic and social inequalities. For instance, the
Northern Ireland conflict, though often portrayed as religious, also involved economic disparities
between Protestant and Catholic communities.
Conclusion:
Religion's dual nature as a source of consensus and conflict reflects its profound influence on social life.
As societies become increasingly pluralistic, the challenge lies in promoting religion's integrative functions
while mitigating its potential for conflict through interfaith dialogue and inclusive policies.

1. (b) Distinguish between 'mechanical solidarity' and 'organic solidarity' in Durkheim’s analysis of the
division of labor. 10
Approach:
• Introduce by giving the context of concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity.
• Distinguish between 'mechanical solidarity' and 'organic solidarity'.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
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Emile Durkheim introduced the concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity in his work "The Division of
Labor in Society" (1893). These concepts explain how societies maintain social cohesion and integration.
Mechanical solidarity:

• It is the social cohesion found in simpler, pre-industrial societies, where individuals are more alike
and bonded by shared values, beliefs, and practices.
• In societies with mechanical solidarity, there is little division of labor. Most people perform similar
tasks and have similar experiences and values.
• Social ties are strong because people identify with each other closely, sharing common norms and
collective conscience (a shared set of beliefs and morals).
• Individuality is less pronounced, as personal identities are largely shaped by the collective identity of
the society.
• Examples: Traditional, rural, or tribal societies, where communities are small, and everyone
participates in similar types of work (e.g., agriculture or hunting).
Organic solidarity:

• Organic solidarity is the social cohesion found in complex, modern, industrial societies, where
individuals are more specialized and interconnected through interdependence.
• These societies have a high degree of division of labor, meaning that individuals perform highly
specialized roles.

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 • Because everyone has distinct roles and relies on others to perform complementary tasks, there is
interdependence, fostering a type of social cohesion based on mutual reliance rather than similarity.
• Individuality and personal freedom are more pronounced, as people are valued for their unique
contributions and professions, not just their adherence to collective norms.
• Examples: Modern industrial or urban societies, where occupations vary widely, and individuals
depend on each other (e.g., doctors, teachers, engineers).

Feature Mechanical Solidarity Organic Solidarity

Social Cohesion Based on shared beliefs and values Based on interdependence and
specialization
Division of Labor Low division of labor High division of labor
Law Repressive law Restitutive law
Collective Conscience Strong collective conscience Weak collective conscience

Durkheim argued that societies evolve from mechanical to organic solidarity as they become more
complex and industrialized. Thus, Durkheim's concepts of mechanical and organic solidarity provide a
framework for understanding how societies change and adapt over time.

1. (c) Origins of Symbolic Interactionism can be traced to Max Weber. Discuss. 10

Approach:
• Mention the origins of Symbolic Interactionism.
• Explain how Weber laid foundation for the same and how that developed into Symbolic interactionism.
• Conclude by appreciating Weber’s contribution for development of the subject.
Answer:
Introduction:
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Symbolic Interactionism, while primarily associated with the Chicago School and George Herbert Mead,
has significant intellectual roots in Max Weber's interpretive sociology, particularly his emphasis on
understanding subjective meanings and social action.
Theoretical foundations from Weber:

• Weber's concept of 'Verstehen' (interpretive understanding) laid the groundwork for symbolic
interactionism by emphasizing the importance of understanding the subjective meanings people
attach to their actions and interactions, which became central to how symbolic interactionists study
social behavior.
• His focus on social action as behavior that takes into account the actions and reactions of others
directly influenced symbolic interactionists' emphasis on how individuals interpret and respond to
others' actions in social situations.
• Weber's assertion that society is created through the meaningful interaction of individuals rather than
existing as a separate entity parallels symbolic interactionism's focus on how social reality is
constructed through interaction.
• His analysis of how religious beliefs and values shape individual behavior and social interaction
influenced symbolic interactionists' study of how shared symbols and meanings guide human conduct.
• The Weberian emphasis on the role of subjective interpretation in social life became fundamental to
symbolic interactionists' focus on how individuals define situations and create meaning through
interaction.
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 Development into symbolic interactionism:

• George Herbert Mead built upon Weber's insights by developing the concept of the "self" as emerging
through social interaction, emphasizing how individuals internalize societal attitudes through role-
taking.
• Herbert Blumer, who coined the term "symbolic interactionism," expanded Weber's ideas about
meaning and interpretation into a systematic theoretical approach focusing on how people act based
on the meanings things have for them.
• Erving Goffman's dramaturgical approach drew on Weber's understanding of social action to analyze
how individuals present themselves in everyday life and manage impressions during social
interactions.
• The Chicago School sociologists integrated Weber's interpretive approach with pragmatist philosophy
to study how urban life and social problems were experienced and interpreted by individuals.
• Contemporary symbolic interactionists continue to build on Weber's legacy by examining how new
forms of communication and technology shape meaning-making and social interaction in modern
society.
Conclusion:
While Symbolic Interactionism evolved beyond Weber's original insights, his emphasis on subjective
meaning, interpretation, and social action provided crucial theoretical foundations for the perspective.
This intellectual lineage demonstrates how classical sociological thought continues to inform
contemporary theoretical developments in sociology.

1. (d) "Bureaucracy is a rational form of organization." Discuss. 10

Approach:
• Write about bureaucracy in introduction.
• Explain bureaucracy as a rational form of organization.
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• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Bureaucracy, as conceptualized by Max Weber, is seen as a rational form of organization structured to
ensure efficiency, predictability, and fairness within administrative functions. Bureaucracy is considered
a rational form of organization because it systematizes and formalizes administrative processes; ensuring
decisions are made logically, based on established rules rather than personal whims or favoritism.
Bureaucracy as a rational form of organization:

• Continuous and Regulated Operations: Bureaucracies operate on a stable and continuous basis,
ensuring that official business is carried out consistently and in accordance with established rules. This
regulated approach minimizes arbitrary decisions, promoting fairness and reliability across the
organization.
• Rule-Governed Administration with Defined Authority: Bureaucracies function based on formalized
rules, providing clear guidelines for operations and decision-making. Each official’s role is defined by
impersonal criteria, meaning that decisions are based on merit and job responsibilities rather than
personal preferences.
• Hierarchical Structure of Authority: Bureaucracies are organized hierarchically, meaning that every
official and office is positioned within a chain of command. Higher-ranking officials oversee lower-
level officials, ensuring proper supervision and accountability.

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 • Separation of Office and Personal Resources: The separation between office resources and private
property prevents the misuse of resources for personal gain and promotes accountability in the use
of official assets.
• Non-Appropriation of Office as Private Property: Positions in a bureaucracy cannot be treated as
private property, meaning they cannot be sold, inherited, or personally claimed by an official. Offices
belong to the organization, not the individuals occupying them, which helps to prevent nepotism and
ensure that positions are filled based on competence rather than personal connections.
• Reliance on Written Documentation: Bureaucracies rely on written records and documents, which
creates an official archive that provides transparency and accountability. This formalization helps
ensure consistency and provides a foundation for rational decision-making.
The emphasis on rule-governed operations, defined roles, and documentation minimizes errors, reduces
subjectivity, and enhances predictability, making bureaucracy an efficient model for managing large
organizations in modern society.

1. (e) Distinguish between the 'sacred' and the 'profane' in Durkheim’s study of religion. 10
Approach:
• Introduce by writing briefly about Durkheim’s study of religion.
• Distinguish between the sacred and the profane in his study of religion.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to
say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community
called a Church, all those who adhere to them.
According to Emile Durkheim, the concepts of sacred and profane represent a fundamental division in
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human experience, particularly in the context of religion and social life.

• Sacred:
o For Durkheim, the sacred encompasses things that are set apart, treated with reverence, and
invested with a special, often mystical significance.
o Sacred things can be objects, rituals, symbols, or practices, but what makes them sacred is not
their inherent nature; rather, it is the collective meaning, value, and reverence assigned to them
by a social group.
o This assignment of meaning typically occurs through shared beliefs and practices, which help to
set these things apart from everyday life.
o Sacred objects, or totems, can serve as symbols of a group's values, ideals, or sense of identity,
representing something much larger than the objects themselves.
o For example, Totem in Indigenous Cultures: In some Indigenous communities, an animal or natural
element like a bear or eagle is considered a totem. It represents the clan’s identity and values,
embodying something larger than the object itself.
• Profane:
o On the other hand, profane refers to all that is ordinary, mundane, and secular.
o Profane things are the objects, actions, and spaces associated with daily life—those that are not
set apart or treated as special within a social or religious framework.
o They are part of the regular, functional world rather than the world of ritual or symbolism.

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 o For example, a Grocery Store: This setting is part of routine life, associated with basic needs and
the secular aspects of existence, rather than any collective symbolic or ritual significance.
This boundary between the sacred and profane is essential, Durkheim argues, because it reinforces social
cohesion by uniting individuals around shared beliefs and practices that transcend ordinary experience.

2. (a) "Authority is based on legitimate domination." Explain Weber’s typology of authority with suitable
examples. 20
Approach:

• Define ‘authority’ in introduction.

• Explain types of authority which are based on legitimate domination with examples.
• Conclude by appreciating Weber for such sociological understanding.
Answer:
Introduction:
According to Max Weber unlike mere power, authority involves voluntary compliance based on the belief
in its legitimacy, which Weber categorized into three pure types.
Traditional authority:
• Based on the sanctity of age-old customs and traditions, where authority is inherited or passed down
through generations. For example, monarchies like the British Royal family derive their authority from
historical precedent and traditional beliefs.
• The relationship between ruler and subjects is personal and based on loyalty, as seen in traditional
village chiefs in many African societies who maintain authority through customary rights and
obligations.
• Succession follows established customs rather than formal rules, illustrated by hereditary leadership
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in traditional Japanese family businesses (zaibatsu).

• Power is exercised through personal discretion within traditional limits, as seen in the authority of
tribal elders in indigenous communities.
• Traditional legitimacy often intertwines with religious beliefs, as demonstrated in the divine right of
kings or the Dalai Lama's traditional authority in Tibetan Buddhism.
Charismatic authority:
• Derives from the extraordinary personal qualities or exemplary character of a leader. Examples include
religious leaders like Mahatma Gandhi or political figures like Martin Luther King Jr.
• Authority is maintained through continuous demonstration of exceptional qualities and successful
leadership, as seen in Nelson Mandela's leadership during South Africa's transition from apartheid.
• The relationship between leader and followers is emotional and based on personal devotion,
exemplified by the mass following of charismatic religious leaders like Pope John Paul II.
• Faces the challenge of succession or what Weber calls the "routinization of charisma," as witnessed in
the transition of leadership in religious movements or revolutionary organizations.
• Often emerges during periods of social crisis or transformation, as seen in the rise of revolutionary
leaders like Fidel Castro during times of political upheaval.
Rational-legal authority:

• Based on belief in the legality of formal rules and the right of those elevated to authority to issue
commands. Modern bureaucracies and democratic governments exemplify this type.
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 • Authority resides in the office rather than the person, as seen in the transfer of presidential powers in
democratic systems.
• Officials are appointed based on technical qualifications and follow formal procedures, illustrated by
civil service systems worldwide.
• Power is exercised according to written laws and regulations, as demonstrated in modern corporate
structures and government institutions.
• Creates hierarchical organizations with clear chains of command, as seen in military organizations or
large corporations.
Conclusion:
Weber's typology remains fundamental for understanding different forms of legitimate authority in
society. While these are 'ideal types' and often overlap in reality, they provide a valuable framework for
analyzing how authority is established, maintained, and transformed across different social contexts.

2. (b) Distinguish between people being socially excluded and people excluding themselves socially in
societies. 20
Approach:

• Define what is external and internal social exclusion.

• Explain externally imposed social exclusion.
• In next part give details of self-imposed social exclusion.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Introduction:
Social exclusion is a complex phenomenon that manifests in two distinct forms, namely, externally
imposed exclusion by society and self-imposed exclusion by individuals or groups. Understanding this
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distinction is crucial for addressing social marginalization and promoting inclusive development.
Externally imposed social exclusion:
• External social exclusion operates through institutional mechanisms and structural barriers. For
instance, discriminatory housing policies in many countries lead to residential segregation of minority
communities, as seen in the historical practice of redlining in the United States.
• Pierre Bourdieu's concept of cultural capital explains how dominant groups maintain exclusion
through social and cultural practices that disadvantage others. For example, elite educational
institutions often favor students from privileged backgrounds through their admission criteria.
• Economic exclusion through market mechanisms and labor discrimination creates barriers to
employment and financial services. The exclusion of certain castes from particular occupations in India
exemplifies this form of institutionalized exclusion.
• Political marginalization through denial of citizenship rights or representation, as experienced by the
Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, demonstrates how state policies can enforce social exclusion.
• Social stigma and prejudice, as theorized by Erving Goffman, lead to the exclusion of groups based on
attributes like disability, mental illness, or HIV status.
Self-Imposed social exclusion:
• Communities may choose isolation to preserve cultural identity and traditions. The Amish community
in America deliberately limits interaction with mainstream society to maintain their way of life.

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 • Robert K. Merton's concept of retreatism explains how individuals may withdraw from society when
they reject both cultural goals and institutional means, as seen in some counter-cultural movements.
• Religious groups might opt for voluntary separation to maintain religious purity and avoid secular
influences. Orthodox Jewish communities in various countries often choose to live in separate
neighborhoods.
• Some social groups develop parallel institutions and networks as a response to discrimination, like
the development of separate African American businesses and churches during segregation in the US.
• Economic elites may practice self-exclusion through gated communities and exclusive social clubs,
what Max Weber termed "social closure" to maintain their privileged status.
Conclusion:
While externally imposed social exclusion reflects power dynamics and structural inequalities, self-
imposed exclusion often serves as either a protective mechanism or a means of maintaining group
identity. Understanding this distinction is essential for developing appropriate social policies that address
forced marginalization while respecting voluntary cultural separation when it represents legitimate group
choices.

2. (c) Compare Merton's concept of deviance with Durkheim’s idea of anomie. How do they differ in
explaining deviant behavior? 10
Approach:

• Introduction: give brief idea about the both concepts

• Body:
o Compare their view points on different parameters.
o Make a table format for better presentation.
o Add a line of criticism/alternate view for value addition.
• Conclusion
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Answer:
Durkheim and Merton are two important thinkers who have contributed to the concept of anomie,
however, they have approached it from different perspectives. Merton, in fact, expanded on Durkheim’s
ideas and gave a more structured theory known as strain theory to explain deviance.

Parameter Durkehim’s theory of ‘anomie’ Merton’s theory of ‘deviance’

Definition Durkehim described anomie as a state Merton argued that deviance arises from
of normlessness, where individuals feel the discrepancy between culturally
disconnected due to a breakdown of prescribed goals and the means
social norms and values. available to achieve them. This
discrepancy, or ‘strain,’ pushes
individuals toward deviant behavior.

Cause/sources Arises during societal disruptions or Emerges from a structural strain due to
normlessness, like economic crises or discrepancy between culturally
rapid modernization, leading to prescribed goals and the means available
ambiguity in acceptable behavior. to achieve them , eg. ‘American Dream’.

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 Deviance It contributes to deviance because of Deviance is a form of individual
the lack of moral constraints. For adaptation. Merton gives five modes of
example, in periods of economic deviance-
depression, people may resort to theft
Mode Means Goals
or fraud due to desperation and the
absence of social support or guidance. Conformity + +

Innovation - +

Ritualism + -

Retreatism - -

Rebellion New New

means goals

Social Structure A general societal condition, where Lower social strata, with fewer legitimate
impacted rapid social changes weaken the means to achieve societal goals, are
collective conscience. more prone to engage in deviant
behavior.

Mitigation Could be mitigated through the By addressing the structural imbalances

strengthening of social bonds, the that create strain for individuals.
promotion of collective consciousness,
and the development of organic
solidarity

Both the theories have been criticized for their ignorance of individual agency.
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Despite the above mentioned differences, the two theories also share some similarities like, both
acknowledge societal factors in deviant behavior. Both of them are fundamental to enriching sociological
analysis of deviance and social control.

3. (a) How do Mead’s concepts of the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ inform our understanding of self-identity and social
interactions? 20
Approach:

• Introduction: Briefly introduce the concept and book by the associated scholar
• Body: Explain how Mead’s concept of the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ inform our understanding of self-identity
and social interaction.
• Conclude with the significance of the concept
Answer:
In his book “Mind, Self and Society” (1934), George Herbert Mead laid the foundation for symbolic
interactionism. He introduced the concept of “Self” which has dual aspects of “I” & “Me”.

• “I”, the savage self, is the distinct novel aspect of one’s self-identity. “Me”, the conformist self, is the
conventional aspect which carries out the organised activities.
• The notion of self is not inborn, it is learned during childhood. He argued that a person constructs self-
identity through social interaction, developed via the mechanism of reflexive role-taking.
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 • Mead sees two main stages in its development;
o PLAY STAGE: It involves the child playing roles which are not his own.
o GAME STAGE: In playing a game, the child comes to see himself from the perspective of various
other participants (generalised others).
Mead’s concept of the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’ inform our understanding of self-identity and social interaction
in the following ways:

• Dynamic identity: Mead argued that self-identity is a result of dialogue between the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’
in a social context, allowing individuals to adapt within society.
For instance, urban Indian youth balancing traditional and modern values illustrate this balance.
• He argued that the social interactions one engages in throughout their life is the primary factor in
determining the development of their “self-idenity”.
This can be observed in the distinct self-identities developed by women in rural parts of India
compared to women of developed Western countries.
• The role of symbols holds importance in the theory of self for Mead. He argued that humans act based
on the meaning that they attach to objects and these meanings are attached in terms of significant
symbols such as language or gestures.
Further, meanings arise from the process of interaction and in the course of interaction, these
meanings are modified/created rather than being fixed at the outset.
• ‘Role taking’ - The process of role taking involves the individual taking on the role of another by
imaginatively placing himself in the position of the person with whom he is interacting. Based on this
interpretation he will make his response to the action of the other, contributing to one’s self-identity.
Role-taking is crucial in social communication as it allows individuals to interpret each other’s
responses and leads to a greater consensus on the meanings of the symbols used in social interactions.
Mead’s ‘I’ and ‘Me’ demonstrate that self-identity is not static but evolves through social interactions. His
theory underscores the interplay between personal agency and societal norms, crucial for understanding
social behaviour.
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3. (b) Compare Durkheim’s approach to religion with that of Max Weber. How do their views on the role
of religion in social change differ? 20
Approach:

• Define religion in introduction.

• Compare Durkheim’s approach to religion with that of Max Weber.
• Explain the difference in their views on the role of religion in social change.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to
say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community
called a Church, all those who adhere to them.
Durkheim’s approach to religion:

• Collective Consciousness: Durkheim argued that religion is a product of society itself, rooted in the
collective consciousness of a group. It's a shared system of beliefs and practices that binds individuals
together.

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 • Social Cohesion: Religion plays a crucial role in maintaining social cohesion by reinforcing shared
values, norms, and a sense of belonging.
• Sacred and Profane: He distinguished between the sacred, which is extraordinary and set apart, and
the profane, which is ordinary and mundane. Religious rituals and beliefs revolve around the sacred.
• Shared Experience: Durkheim believed that religious rituals create a sense of collective effervescence,
where individuals feel a heightened sense of connection to the group and a transcendence of their
individual selves.
Max Weber’s approach to religion:

• Ideal Types: Weber used the concept of "ideal types" to analyze religious phenomena. Ideal types are
theoretical constructs that highlight the essential characteristics of a particular social phenomenon.
By comparing real-world religions to ideal types, Weber could identify variations and deviations.
• The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: Weber famously argued that the Protestant ethic,
particularly Calvinist beliefs, contributed to the rise of capitalism. Hard work, frugality, and a focus on
worldly success were seen as indicators of potential salvation. This religious ethos, according to
Weber, fostered a capitalist spirit that valued rational, systematic, and profit-oriented behavior.
Role of religion in social change:
• Durkheim’s views:
o While Durkheim emphasized religion’s role in social cohesion, he also recognized that religious
institutions can drive social change by mobilizing people around new ideas or reinterpreting
beliefs to address changing social conditions.
o Durkheim observed that religion has the capacity to create new norms and values that can, in
turn, influence society’s broader moral framework.
o As religious groups redefine what is considered “sacred” or “moral,” they can challenge existing
norms and inspire new ethical perspectives.
o For example, this can be seen in religiously motivated movements that promote social justice,
environmental stewardship, or human rights, which encourage a re-evaluation of societal values
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and practices.
• Weber’s views:
o Unlike Durkheim, who focused on religion’s role in maintaining social cohesion, Weber was
interested in how religious ideas and values could influence societal transformation, especially
through changes in economic behavior and social stratification.
o Weber saw religion as a driving force for social change when it introduced new ethical orientations
that could alter people’s attitudes and actions.
o Weber also analyzed how charismatic religious leaders, who often rise during times of social crisis,
play a role in social change. Charismatic leaders—those who are believed to possess special
qualities or divine inspiration—have the power to inspire new ways of thinking and to challenge
established norms.
Thus, religion can serve as a potent source of social change by influencing values, behaviors, and social
structures.

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3. (c) To what an extent can power be viewed as a constant sum game? Elucidate with suitable examples.
10
Approach:

• Introduction- Explain what it means to see power as a constant sum game.

• Body:
o Elucidate the arguments of sociology thinkers along with supporting the statement.
o Provide an alternative critical perspective by certain scholars suggesting power is not a constant
sum game, along with examples.
• Conclusion: Provide concluding remarks with both arguments.
Answer:
The concept of power as a “constant sum game” suggests that power is limited, where an increase in one
group's power results in a decrease for another. This idea contrasts with views that power can be
redistributed or generated.
Power be viewed as a constant sum game:
1. Max Weber’s Zero-Sum Theory of Power: There is only ever a fixed amount of power in any society -
those who are powerful are powerful at the expense of others. He argued that the powerful use their
power at the expense of others - to further their own sectional interests. Thus, for him, a conflict
between those who possess power and those who do not is inevitable.
a. Example: In caste hierarchies in India, historically, the power of upper castes often implied the
disempowerment of lower castes.
2. Conflict Theory – Marx’s View:
a. Marx viewed power within class struggles as fixed, with the ruling class (bourgeoisie) holding
power at the expense of the working class (proletariat).
b. Example: Indian labour movements, especially in industries, reflect attempts by workers to
redistribute power, often resisted by management.
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However, some scholars believe that power is not a constant-sum game:

1. Foucault’s Relational Power:
a. Non-Zero-Sum Perspective: Michel Foucault argued that power is not simply a zero-sum but is
diffuse, relational, and exercised throughout networks, making it more complex than mere
transfer from one group to another.
b. Example: Social media in India empowers marginalized voices, suggesting that power can be
dynamically generated and shared rather than fixed.
2. Parsons’ Functionalist View of Power as Expansive:
a. Positive-Sum Perspective: Talcott Parsons considered power as collectively enabling social
cooperation and coordination, where increased power can benefit all groups.
b. Example: In rural development initiatives in India, collective efforts to empower villages have
often increased resources and influence for multiple groups, benefiting entire communities.
While certain social hierarchies may reflect zero-sum dynamics, such as caste and class struggles in India,
power can also be relational or generated collectively. Therefore, the nature of power shifts based on
structural and social contexts, highlighting its multi-dimensional nature across sociological theories.

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4. (a) Durkheim argued that the conscience collective would become less and less significant in a
functionally differentiated society. Support with your arguments. 20
Approach:

• Mention what is the main reason for declining significance of conscience collective.
• Discuss factors contributing to weakening conscience collective.
• Mention few contemporary evidence supporting Durkheim's argument.
• Conclude by stating the importance of maintaining collective conscience.
Answer:
Introduction:
Émile Durkheim's concept of conscience collective (collective consciousness) and its diminishing
significance in modern society reflects the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity, characterized
by increased functional differentiation and individualization.
Factors contributing to weakening conscience collective:

• The division of labor, as Durkheim argued in "The Division of Labor in Society," leads to specialized
roles and diverse occupational identities, weakening the uniformity of beliefs and values. For instance,
professional ethics often replace traditional moral codes in workplace settings.
• Urbanization and mobility reduce the strength of common traditions and local customs. The
migration of people to cities creates diverse urban communities where multiple belief systems coexist,
as seen in modern metropolitan areas like London or Mumbai.
• The rise of individualism, which Durkheim saw as a product of modernization, emphasizes personal
autonomy over collective consciousness. This is evident in the growing emphasis on individual rights
and personal choice in contemporary societies.
• Secularization diminishes the role of religion as a source of shared beliefs and moral guidance. Peter
Berger's work shows how modernization has led to the decline of religious authority in public life.
• The emergence of multiple reference groups and social networks fragments collective consciousness,
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as individuals participate in various social circles with different norms and values.
• The education system in modern societies emphasizes critical thinking and diverse perspectives rather
than uniform moral values. As Durkheim himself noted in "Moral Education," this shift from traditional
moral instruction to secular, rationalistic education weakens shared moral convictions.
• Mass media and entertainment present multiple, often conflicting worldviews and lifestyles, making
it difficult to maintain a singular collective consciousness. This is evident in how global streaming
platforms expose audiences to diverse cultural narratives and value systems.
• The rise of scientific rationality, as Weber discussed in his concept of "disenchantment," challenges
traditional collective beliefs and replaces them with empirical, individualized ways of understanding
the world.
Contemporary evidence supporting Durkheim's argument:
• Modern legal systems increasingly emphasize individual rights over collective obligations, reflecting
the shift from repressive to restitutive law that Durkheim predicted.
• The rise of social media and digital technology creates personalized information bubbles, further
fragmenting shared experiences and beliefs, as noted by contemporary sociologists like Manuel
Castells.
• Cultural pluralism in modern societies leads to multiple value systems coexisting within the same
society, weakening the unified moral framework characteristic of traditional societies.

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 • The growth of specialized knowledge and expert systems, as analyzed by Anthony Giddens, replaces
traditional wisdom and collective beliefs with professional expertise.
• Globalization exposes societies to diverse cultural influences, challenging the homogeneity of local
collective consciousness through what Robertson calls "glocalization."
• The emergence of identity politics and social movements based on particular group interests, rather
than society-wide concerns, fragments the collective consciousness into competing narratives and
claims.
• Consumer culture, as analyzed by Zygmunt Bauman, promotes individualized lifestyle choices and
personal branding, replacing collective identities with market-driven individual expressions.
• The rise of alternative family structures and living arrangements challenges traditional collective
norms about family, marriage, and social relationships, as evidenced by increasing acceptance of
diverse family forms in modern societies.
Conclusion:
While Durkheim's prediction about the weakening of conscience collective in modern society has largely
been validated, new forms of collective consciousness continue to emerge through global movements and
shared digital experiences. The challenge for contemporary societies lies in maintaining social cohesion
while accommodating increasing differentiation and individualization.

4. (b) Discuss T.H. Marshall’s theory of citizenship with reference to civil, political, and social rights. 20
Approach:
• Define citizenship according to T.H. Marshall in introduction.
• Explain the civil, political, and social rights embedded in his theory of citizenship.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
T. H. Marshall defined citizenship as a status, which is enjoyed by a person who is a full member of a
community. He proposed that full citizenship encompasses three types of rights: civil, political, and social:
ㅤ

• Civil rights necessary for individual freedoms and is institutionalised in the law courts. Civil rights are
fundamental to a liberal society and allow individuals to participate in the economic and social life of
their community. According to Marshall, the earliest phase of citizenship development was the
establishment of civil citizenship during the 18th century. This period was marked by struggles for
individual liberties and legal equality.
• Political rights guarantee the right to participate in the exercise of political power in the community,
either by voting, or by holding political office. Political rights empower citizens to shape the laws and
policies that govern their society. The evolution of citizenship entered a new phase in the 19th century
with the expansion of political citizenship. This era was characterized by movements advocating for
broader political participation and the extension of voting rights.
• Social rights are the right to participate in an appropriate standard of living; this right is embodied in
the welfare and educational systems of modern societies. The 20th century saw the emergence and
consolidation of social citizenship. This era was marked by the establishment of welfare states and
the implementation of policies to address social and economic inequalities.
With the emergence of globalisation, the concept of nation-state has become obsolete and with it the
concept of citizenship has also lost its sheen. Now, in place of state citizenship, there is talk of global
citizenship. Upanishadic vision of Vasudhaiva Kutumbkam is on the verge of realisation. There is also
greater demand for dual citizenship in view of large-scale migration of population from one country to
another.
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4. (c) “What the bourgeoisie therefore produces are its own grave-diggers.” Comment. 10
Approach:

• Introduce answer with Karl Marx’s intention behind this statement.

• Briefly state what Marx believed would happen to Capitalist society/class.
• Say which assumptions did and did not materialize
• Conclude by stating the relevance of Marx by stating the changing form of conflict.
Answer:
Introduction:
Marx believed that the class struggle was the driving force behind forces of social changes. And with the
development of Modern Industry, the bourgeoisie produces "its own grave-diggers, its fall and the victory
of the proletariat are equally inevitable."
Body:
Marx believed that following aspects of Bourgeoisie would eventually lead to the proletariat from being
in ‘class in itself’ to a ‘class for itself’:
• It promotes big industries which leads to isolation of workers replaced by association.
• It promotes technological advancement, as technology advances difference between skilled, semi-
skilled will be obliterated and proletariat will become homogenous.
• It kills competition from petty bourgeoisies/ small businesses who sink into proletariat
• It increases its own profits and pauperizes proletariat and contrast between two classes becomes
more stark.
Some of the predictions that have taken place are as follows:

• Increased concentration and centralization of capital: capitalism expanding to take over more and
more parts of the economy. There is decrease in petty bourgeoisie, increase in technology, increase
ㅤ

in MNCs, increase in inequality, growth of monopolies, large corporations, and complex organizational
structures.
• Globalization: This is often considered to be a contemporary development, but Marx described and
analyzed its beginnings in the middle ages and its expansion as industrial capitalism became
established and increasingly spread its influence across the globe. Marx expected this trend to
continue and contemporary developments demonstrate this.
• Cycles of expansion and contraction: Expansion of capitalist economies has not been a smooth
process but is characterized by periods of overenthusiastic and speculative expansion, with rising
profits and wages. Marx predicted that this would not continue but there would be periodic declines,
with bankruptcies, declining production, unemployment, and poverty. These ups and downs have
characterized capitalism ever since the time of Marx.
Despite these, there isn’t any revolution to overthrow capitalist society because:

• Increase in technology did not decrease in skill set as predicted but instead gave rise to new skills.
• Decrease in petty bourgeoisie did not made them to sink into proletariat instead the managerial
middle class expanded.
• Increase in inequality did not create disillusioned proletariat instead proletariat has developed a
stake in capitalism.
• According to Ralf Dahrendorf working class has become more heterogeneous not homogeneous, also
trade unions enable workers to negotiate with capitalists and participates in legislative debate.

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 Conclusion:
Thereby, the failure of this prediction is often considered to demonstrate the incorrectness of his views
but conflict became institutionalized rather than threatening and bourgeoisie adopted the welfare
mechanism to assuage the differences class structure.

SECTION ‘B’
5. Write a short note on each of the following in not more than 150 words. 10x5=50
(a) Discuss how Durkheim’s study of suicide demonstrates the impact of social structure on individual
behavior. 10
Approach:

• Write about Durkheim’s study of suicide in introduction.

• Explain how this study demonstrates the impact of social structure on individual behavior.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Durkheim argued that social structures, through the mechanisms of integration and regulation, have a
powerful impact on individual behavior by shaping people’s sense of connection, purpose, and moral
guidance within society.

• Social Integration: Integration refers to the extent to which individuals feel connected to a group or
community. High levels of social integration mean individuals feel a strong sense of belonging and
solidarity with others, whereas low levels of integration can lead to feelings of isolation and
detachment.
o Excessive integration: Altruistic Suicide happens when individuals are overly integrated into a
group, to the extent that they may sacrifice their lives for the group’s benefit. This type is common
in collectivist settings where the group's needs are prioritized over individual ones, like in cases of
ㅤ

soldiers sacrificing themselves for their country

o Low integration: Egoistic Suicide occurs when individuals feel disconnected or isolated from their
social groups, leading to a sense of meaninglessness. In societies where individualism is
emphasized, or where social bonds are weak, individuals may experience egoistic suicide.
• Social Regulation: Regulation refers to the rules, norms, and values that guide behavior within a
society. It provides a moral framework that helps individuals understand what is expected of them
and gives structure to their lives.
o Excessive regulation: Fatalistic suicide happens when individuals experience excessive regulation
and oppression. This can occur in environments where people feel trapped by harsh rules or
circumstances, like in prisons or oppressive households, leading them to feel that suicide is the
only escape.
o Low regulation: Anomic suicide occurs in times of social or economic upheaval, where norms and
values are disrupted, leading to a sense of confusion and lack of direction. Durkheim found that
events such as financial crises or rapid societal change can lead to an increase in suicides because
individuals experience a breakdown in the social regulation that guides their behavior and
aspirations.
Durkheim’s study illustrated that suicide rates are influenced by broader social forces, showing that even
a deeply personal act like suicide can have sociological explanations.

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5. (b) What does Karl Marx mean by 'alienation'? How does alienation impact workers in a capitalist mode
of production? 10
Approach:

• Introduce by explaining the concept of alienation.

• Write the impact of alienation on workers in a capitalist mode of production.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Karl Marx’s concept of alienation describes the estrangement or disconnection workers feel in a capitalist
society, which he saw as a central feature of exploitation. In a capitalist system, Marx argued, workers are
alienated from multiple aspects of their existence, which leads to feelings of powerlessness, isolation, and
meaninglessness.
Impact of alienation on workers in a capitalist mode of production:
• Alienation from the Product of Labor: In capitalist societies, workers create products but have no
control or ownership over them; the products are owned and sold by capitalists. The worker’s own
creation becomes an external object that he or she cannot use or benefit from directly.
o E.g., a shoemaker who produces shoes for someone else to profit from is alienated from the
product of their own labor.
• Alienation from the Process of Labor: Workers are also alienated from the act of production itself.
Under capitalism, workers often perform repetitive, monotonous tasks in which they have no say. The
labor process is controlled by someone else, usually the capitalist or manager, which means that
workers have little control over how or when they work, leading to a sense of powerlessness and
dissatisfaction.
o E.g., a call center employee following a strict script and time limit, with no say in how they interact
with customers.
• Alienation from Other People: In a capitalist system, relationships between people become market-
ㅤ

based and transactional, leading to alienation among workers and even between workers and
capitalists. Instead of viewing each other as equals or collaborators, people see each other as
competitors or simply as means to an economic end, which isolates individuals from genuine human
connections.
o E.g., in a corporate office, instead of forming meaningful relationships, coworkers may view each
other as rivals due to competition against one another for promotions, bonuses, or even job
security, fostering a sense of isolation.
• Alienation from Self: Marx believed that labor is an expression of human creativity and fulfillment.
However, when labor is solely a means to survive, workers become estranged from their own human
potential or "species-being." They lose the ability to find meaning and self-expression in their work,
becoming disconnected from their essence as creative and purposeful beings.
o E.g., a chef working in a fast-food chain prepares standardized meals with pre-set recipes and
ingredients, leaving little room for culinary expression.
Alienation thus underscores the exploitative nature of capitalist societies, where workers’ labor benefits
capitalists rather than themselves, deepening social and personal estrangement.

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5. (c) "The informal sector serves as both a safety net and a trap in developing economies." Critically
examine. 10
Approach:
• Mention the important role being played by informal sector.
• Discuss how informal sector is a safety net as well as trap.
• Give way forward in the conclusion.
Answer:
Introduction:
The informal sector, characterized by unregistered economic activities outside state regulation, plays a
complex dual role in developing economies. While providing immediate economic opportunities for
millions, it simultaneously poses challenges for long-term development and worker welfare.
Informal sector as a safety net:
• Provides employment opportunities for unskilled and semi-skilled workers who cannot find jobs in
the formal sector. For instance, in India, the informal sector employs over 80% of the workforce, as
noted by ILO reports.
• Acts as an economic buffer during economic downturns and crises. During the 2008 financial crisis,
the informal sector absorbed workers laid off from formal industries in many developing countries, as
studied by Hernando de Soto.
• Enables survival strategies for marginalized groups through flexible work arrangements. Women in
developing countries often engage in informal work like domestic service or street vending to balance
economic needs with household responsibilities.
• Serves as an entry point for rural migrants into urban economies. As observed in cities like Lagos and
Mumbai, informal activities provide initial foothold for migrants seeking urban opportunities.
• Creates entrepreneurial opportunities with low entry barriers. Street vendors and small-scale
manufacturers can start businesses with minimal capital, as highlighted by Keith Hart's studies in
Ghana.
ㅤ

Informal sector as a trap:

• Perpetuates economic vulnerability through lack of social security and labor protections. Workers
often face exploitation, unsafe working conditions, and absence of benefits like health insurance or
pension.
• Creates a low-productivity cycle due to limited access to credit, technology, and markets. Barbara
Harris-White's research shows how informal enterprises often remain trapped in low-value activities.
• Leads to tax evasion and reduced state capacity, limiting public investment in infrastructure and social
services. The World Bank estimates significant revenue losses in developing countries due to informal
economic activities.
• Results in skill stagnation as workers remain confined to low-skill jobs without formal training
opportunities. This perpetuates intergenerational poverty and limited social mobility.
• Hinders formal sector growth by creating unfair competition through non-compliance with
regulations. This phenomenon, studied by Lewis's dual economy model, shows how informality can
impede economic modernization.
Conclusion:
While the informal sector provides crucial immediate economic opportunities in developing economies,
its persistence can trap workers and enterprises in a cycle of poverty and low productivity. Policy
approaches need to balance the sector's safety net function while creating pathways for gradual
formalization and improved worker protection.
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5. (d) Examine the role of ideology in driving social transformation in a democracy. 10
Approach:

• Introduction - Define ideology and its role in democracy briefly.

• Body: Role of ideology in driving social transformation in a democracy with arguments of thinkers and
their concepts. Also briefly provide a counter view.
• Conclusion: Conclude on a positive note emphasizing the importance of ideology in social
transformation in democracy.
Answer:
Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, values and ideas that shape an individual’s worldview and guide their
actions. In democratic societies, ideology shapes and influences public opinion, policymaking, and social
movements, and thus plays a pivotal role in driving social transformation.
Role of ideology in driving social transformation in a democracy:
1. Marx’s View on Ideology and Class Struggle:
○ Class Interests: Marx argued that ideology reflects the interests of the ruling class, often driving
workers to seek transformation.
○ Lenin also argued that even the proletariats need an ideology to restrict the bourgeoise ideology
from overpowering them, which he referred to as the “ideology of scientific socialism.”
○ Example: In India, socialist ideologies inspired movements for land reform, seeking to empower
the lower classes and redistribute land ownership.
2. Antonio Gramsci’s Hegemony Theory:
○ Cultural Dominance: Gramsci believed dominant ideologies maintain control through “cultural
hegemony,” however, social change emerges when alternative ideologies gain acceptance.
○ Example: Feminist and Dalit ideologies in India have fostered social change by challenging
traditional norms and promoting gender equality and caste rights.
3. Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic and Capitalist Growth:
ㅤ

○ Religious Ideology’s Role: Weber suggested that ideology, such as the Protestant ethic, influenced
capitalism’s development, showing how belief systems can alter economic structures.
○ Example: Gandhian ideology encouraged nonviolent resistance and influenced India’s freedom
struggle, altering the nation’s political and ethical landscape.
4. Louis Althusser on Ideological State Apparatuses:
○ Institutional Reinforcement: Althusser argued that ideologies perpetuated by institutions
(education, media) shape individual perspectives and can promote transformative shifts.
○ Example: Education in India now emphasizes secularism and diversity, promoting values that drive
social inclusiveness and tolerance.
However, some scholars have a more pessimistic approach towards the role of ideology in democracies.
For instance, Daniel Bell argues that post-industrial society reflects the end of ideology due to the
increasing dominance of technical elites. Similarly, Raymond Aron argues that ideology is nothing more
than “opium for the intellectuals”.
Nevertheless, in democracies like India, ideology fosters social transformation by shaping public
consciousness and mobilizing collective action. Through political, cultural, and educational institutions,
ideologies continue to play a vital role in guiding democratic societies toward social progress and reform.

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5. (e) How does reference group lead to relative deprivation and eventually criminal behaviour? 10
Approach:

• Introduction: brief definition of both reference group and relative deprivation.

• Body:
o Explain how comparison with reference group leads to relative deprivation.
o Explain how relative deprivation leads to criminal behaviour.
• Conclusion.
Answer:
A reference group is a social group that individuals use as a benchmark for evaluating their own status,
achievements, and aspirations. Relative deprivation in simple terms is defined as, people’s sense of
disadvantage, when they compare themselves to a reference group.
The link between crime and relative deprivation can be better understood using Robert Agnew’s General
Strain Theory (GST). Messner & South, in their study of robbery, victimization, they assessed relative
deprivation based on income. Stolzenberg, Eitle, & D’Alessio also looked at the pattern of income
inequality and crime from a primary economic measure.
However, relative deprivation is the outcome of social processes, not just economic processes, which are
conducted via comparisons among reference groups. When taking one's aspirations and exposure to
relative deprivation into account, these perceived injustices can be predictors of delinquency.
How does relative deprivation lead to criminal behaviour:
1. When individuals compare themselves to refernce groups and perceive a gap between their current
situation and the life or possessions of others, they experience relative deprivation.
2. According to strain theory, this perceived gap between one’s aspirations and reality creates strain—
a psychological pressure that can lead to frustration, resentment, and disillusionment. This strain is
amplified if the individual believes they cannot realistically attain their goals through legitimate
ㅤ

means, especially if they are part of a structurally disadvantaged group with limited access to
education, employment, or social mobility.
3. It can sometimes push individuals to pursue illegitimate means to achieve the lifestyle or status they
desire. Merton's strain theory outlines various adaptations to this strain, and innovation is a common
response where individuals engage in criminal or deviant behavior to "bridge the gap" and gain what
they feel deprived of.
4. Runciman also highlighted three dimensions of social inequality: class, status, and power. These
aspects contribute to feelings of relative deprivation, which can lead to Criminal behavior.
Therefore, comparison with reference group creates a notion of perceived deprivation affecting
aspirations and expectations, with unfulfilled expectations causing more frustration than unachieved
aspirations, eventually leading to criminal beahviour.

6. (a) How does the feminization of labor impact the economic independence and social status of women
in developing societies? 20
Approach:

• Introduction: Explain concept of feminization of labour.

• Body:
o Explain impact of feminization of labour on economic independence of women.
o Explain impact of feminization of labour on social status of women.
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 o Make sure to add context of developing societies in the answer.
o Give both perspectives.
• Give a balanced conclusion.
Answer:
The phrase ‘feminisation of labour force’ or ‘feminization of work’ was first used by Guy Standing of the
International Labour Organisation. Feminization means increase in female labour force participation. He
also points out ‘feminization’’ of many jobs traditionally held by men. It also includes Flexiblisation of
labour where women are expected to work in informal, part time, contractual or home based activities.
Positive impact of feminization of labor on the economic independence of women in developing
societies:
1. Modernization theorists argue that modernization leads to women’s emancipation from traditional
subordinated roles by integrating them with new job opportunities in the industrial and service sector.
2. Earning their income allows women greater control over financial decisions, reducing dependency on
male family members.
3. In dual-income households, women’s financial contributions can improve family welfare. Their
financial input also provides resilience during economic downturns.
Positive impact of feminization of labor on the social status of women in developing societies:
1. It elevates women’s standing within the family and community as they contribute economically. This
shift challenges traditional gender roles.
2. Economic contributions give women a stronger voice and bargaining power in family decisions.
3. It also helps redefine societal expectations around gender, leading to greater acceptance of women
in public life, leadership, and education.
The other side of story of feminization of labor in developing societies:
In developing societies, capitalists deliberately seek out a feminized workforce as women are socialized
ㅤ

to be obedient to males and to work hard. Patriarchal cultures also entitle managers to pay women lower
salaries compared to male workforce. Gender hierarchies are reproduced in workplaces with male
owners, managers, and supervisors, and women assembly workers. There are many repeated cases of
sexual harassment inside and outside the premises.
The work conditions in export processing zones are abysmal by any standards. Women who come to work
in these units accept wages much lower than the male industrial work force in the lowest rung. Further,
the wage structure in the units is designed to increase work intensity to the maximum. The Exploitation
Theory, Dependency and World System Theories explain the women’s status in the labour market with
Marxist analysis of the society. They say that the nature of demand for women’s labour in the capitalists
economic development limit their participation and status in the economy.
Jaya Mehta explains, ‘On the higher end of the service sector, well-paying jobs have been created in the
knowledge and information intensive branches for male and at the other end of the sector, low-paid,
highly feminized jobs are created in the labour intensive and low-skilled areas. These include jobs like data
processing or nursing, services in distributive trade, personal services and occupations like cleaning,
unskilled catering, home-helping and so on- especially for females.’
Esther Bosrup’s ‘Women’s role in Economic Development’ says that “Economic progress benefits men as
wage earners in the modern sector, while the position of women is left unchanged, and even deteriorates”
Developmentalists explained that the erosion of women’s role in traditional sector forced them to take

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 up jobs in the informal sector, petty trading, domestic work etc. Besides, their domestic tasks within the
household resulted in the ‘double burden’ of work.
Feminization of labor’s impact on the economic independence and social status of women in developing
societies is associated with both opportunities for women’s empowerment and challenges. The full
potential of this shift requires addressing traditional barriers and fostering societal support for women’s
economic and social empowerment.

6. (b) How do educational disparities contribute to the perpetuation of poverty and social exclusion?
Discuss with reference to contemporary society. 20
Approach:

• Give gist of topic in introduction.

• Discuss how structural mechanisms create educational inequality.
• Mention contemporary manifestations and consequences of the same.
• Give conclusion as way forward.
Answer:
Introduction:
Educational disparities reflect and reproduce broader social inequalities through both overt and hidden
mechanisms. As Bowles and Gintis argue through their "Correspondence Principle," schools mirror
workplace hierarchies, preparing students for their predetermined positions in the capitalist system.
Structural mechanisms of educational inequality:
• The hidden curriculum, as identified by Bowles and Gintis, shows how schools socialize different
classes differently – private schools emphasize leadership and creativity while working-class schools
stress obedience and punctuality, directly corresponding to their future workplace roles.
• Paul Willis's study "Learning to Labour" demonstrates how working-class kids get working-class jobs
ㅤ

through a process of cultural reproduction, where they develop counter-school cultures that
inadvertently lead them to manual labor.
• Schools reproduce social divisions through what Bourdieu calls 'symbolic violence' – the imposition
of middle-class values and cultural capital as the legitimate culture, disadvantaging working-class
students who lack this cultural currency.
• The marketization of education through school choice policies, as analyzed by Stephen Ball, creates a
two-tier system where middle-class parents use their economic and cultural capital to secure
advantages for their children.
• Internal school processes like setting and streaming (tracking) tend to concentrate disadvantaged
students in lower sets, affecting their self-esteem and academic expectations.
• Parental educational background influences children's academic achievement through what
sociologist Melvin Kohn terms "occupational conditions," where parents' work experiences shape
their parenting styles and educational values.
• The school funding model in many countries, tied to local property taxes, creates stark resource
disparities between wealthy and poor districts, perpetuating what Jonathan Kozol calls "apartheid
schooling."
• Schools' assessment systems often favor students whose cultural experiences align with standardized
tests, what Claude Steele identifies as "stereotype threat" affecting marginalized students'
performance.

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 Contemporary manifestations and consequences:
• The digital divide during COVID-19 exposed how class inequalities affect access to educational
resources, with working-class students lacking necessary technology and quiet study spaces.
• Educational credentials increasingly function as what Patricia Hill Collins calls 'cultural currency' in
the job market, making educational inequality directly translate into economic inequality.
• Middle-class parents' ability to invest in private tutoring, enrichment activities, and cultural
experiences creates what Annette Lareau terms "concerted cultivation," providing their children
significant advantages in educational achievement.
• The growing emphasis on STEM education often disadvantages students from schools in poorer areas
that lack advanced science facilities and qualified teachers.
• The intersection of class with other forms of inequality (race, gender, disability) creates what Patricia
Hill Collins calls "matrix of domination," compounding educational disadvantages for certain groups.
• The rise of international education and study abroad opportunities create new forms of educational
advantage accessible mainly to economic elites, contributing to what Louise Archer calls
"transnational cultural capital."
• Zero-tolerance policies and disciplinary practices disproportionately affect students from marginalized
backgrounds, creating what has been termed the "school-to-prison pipeline."
• The growing importance of extracurricular activities in college admissions creates additional barriers
for working-class students who often need to work part-time jobs, as highlighted in research by
Annette Lareau.
Conclusion:
Educational disparities are not merely about differential access but involve complex processes of social
and cultural reproduction. As highlighted by Marxist and Bourdieusian analyses, it is crucial for developing
effective interventions that can truly challenge rather than reinforce existing inequalities.

6. (c) Examine how religious beliefs and institutions shape political ideologies and policies, and vice versa.
ㅤ

10
Approach:

• Introduction: Define religion/religious beliefs

• Body:
o Explain how religious beliefs and institutions shape political ideologies.
o Explain how political ideologies shape religious beliefs and institutions.
• Conclusion
Answer:
Religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds sacred or considers
to be spiritually significant. Religious beliefs and institutions play a critical role in shaping political
ideologies and policies, and the relationship is reciprocal i.e. political ideologies and policies also influence
religious beliefs.
Impact of religious beliefs on political ideologies and policies:
Religious beliefs and institutions provide a foundation for political ideologies by offering moral codes,
social values, and visions of social order.
1. Legitimacy to Authority: Weber’s traditional authority and sometimes even Charismatic authority are
often religiously derived, influencing political structures by fostering collective belief.
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 2. Development of conscience collective/collective will: Durkheim observed that sacred beliefs help
establish a collective conscience, creating shared moral standards that can underpin laws and policies.
For example, policies on issues like abortion, marriage, gender roles, etc. are often influenced by
prevailing religious values.
3. Stability and cohesion: Talcott Parsons viewed religion as a mechanism that integrates society by
providing stability and cohesion.
4. Religion shapes community identities, fostering a sense of belonging that can translate into political
movements. Eg. Israel, where Jewish identity influences political alignments.
Impact of Impact of political ideologies and policies on religious beliefs:
1. Bryan Wilson, through the concept of secularization, explains that political policies promote a
separation between religion and the state, often relegating religion to the private sphere.
2. Peter Berger argued that in pluralistic societies, religions are forced to coexist, which often leads to a
softening of exclusive doctrines as they adapt to a multi-faith context.
3. Hindu nationalism in India, as studied by Ashis Nandy, shows how political movements use religious
symbols to construct national identity, rallying the population around religious-based ideals.
4. Political agendas can reshape religious doctrines to align with nationalist or ideological goals, leading
to "civil religion".
Therefore, religious beliefs and institutions significantly shape political ideologies and policies by providing
moral frameworks and political ideologies and policies influence religious practices and beliefs by
incorporating religious elements to align with political goals. This reciprocal relationship shapes modern
societies, where religion and politics remain intertwined.

7. (a) “A study of power inevitably involves an investigation of social class”. Critically examine. 20
Approach:

• Give a brief sociological stand on the given statement.

ㅤ

• Discuss how class is a determinant of power relations.

• Also analyze emerging forms of class-power dynamics.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Introduction:
Scholars from Marx to Weber and contemporary sociologists argue, power structures both shape and are
shaped by class relations in society and that the relationship between power and social class represents a
fundamental dynamic in sociological analysis.
Class as a determinant of power relations:
• Karl Marx's analysis emphasizes how economic power translates into political dominance, with the
bourgeoisie controlling state apparatus to maintain their class interests. For instance, corporate
lobbying influences legislation in favor of business interests.
• C. Wright Mills' concept of "power elite" shows how upper class maintains power through interlocking
directorates of corporate, military, and political institutions. The revolving door between Wall Street
and government positions illustrates this interconnection.
• The education system reproduces class-based power relations through what Bourdieu calls "cultural
capital," where elite schools and universities maintain privileged access to positions of power.

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 • Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony explains how ruling classes maintain power through cultural
leadership and manufacturing consent, evident in media ownership concentration among elite
groups.
• Class position influences political participation and representation, with higher classes having greater
access to political resources and decision-making processes.
• Ralph Miliband's analysis shows how state institutions serve capitalist interests through what he
terms "structural dependency," where government policies are constrained by the need to maintain
business confidence and economic stability.
• Erik Olin Wright's concept of "contradictory class locations" reveals how middle-class professionals
exercise power while being subordinate to capitalist class, as seen in corporate managers who both
control workers and are controlled by shareholders.
Emerging forms of class-power dynamics:
• Digital divide and technological access create new forms of class-based power disparities, where
economic resources determine participation in the digital economy.
• Global capitalism creates transnational capitalist class wielding power across national boundaries, as
studied by Leslie Sklair, visible in multinational corporations' influence over global policies.
• Social movements and collective action often emerge along class lines, challenging existing power
structures, as seen in labor movements and anti-globalization protests.
• The intersection of class with other forms of inequality (race, gender) creates complex power
hierarchies, what Patricia Hill Collins terms "matrix of domination."
• The rise of knowledge economy creates new class divisions based on expertise and information
control, what Manuel Castells calls "network society."
• The emergence of what Guy Standing calls the "precariat" demonstrates how neoliberal policies
create new forms of powerlessness among workers through job insecurity and reduced labor
protections.
• The rise of "surveillance capitalism," as theorized by Shoshana Zuboff, shows how tech corporations
accumulate power through data collection and behavioral modification, creating new class-based
ㅤ

digital inequalities.
Conclusion:
While class remains crucial for understanding power relations, contemporary society requires analyzing
multiple dimensions of power beyond economic class alone. The interplay between class, power, and
other social factors continues to shape societal dynamics in increasingly complex ways.

7. (b) Discuss how religious fundamentalism and extremism influence political ideologies and conflict in
society? 20
Approach:
• Try to give a brief idea about the topic in introduction.
• Discuss how do they impact political ideologies.
• Explain how religious conflicts are manifested.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Introduction:
Religious fundamentalism and extremism have emerged as significant forces shaping political ideologies
and social conflicts in contemporary society. The intersection of religious beliefs with political power
creates complex dynamics that affect social stability and democratic values.
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 Impact on political ideologies:
• Religious fundamentalism promotes what Martin Marty calls "reactive movements," seeking to
restore traditional religious values through political action. For instance, the rise of the Christian Right
in American politics influences positions on abortion, gender roles, and education.
• The concept of religious nationalism, as analyzed by Mark Juergensmeyer, shows how religious
identity becomes intertwined with national identity, seen in movements like Hindutva in India or
Jewish nationalism in Israel.
• Religious extremist groups often reject secular democracy, advocating for what Samuel Huntington
termed "religious governance," as seen in the Taliban's implementation of strict Islamic law in
Afghanistan.
• Fundamentalist movements create what sociologist Manuel Castells calls "resistance identities,"
opposing globalization and secular modernization through political mobilization.
• The rise of faith-based political parties in various countries demonstrates how religious ideology
shapes electoral politics and policy-making, as evident in parties like Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.
• The rise of what Olivier Roy calls "neo-fundamentalism" represents a modern phenomenon where
religious extremists use contemporary tools like social media and global networks to spread their
ideology, as seen in ISIS's sophisticated online recruitment campaigns.
• Religious fundamentalism often creates what Karen Armstrong terms "battle for God," where religious
groups view secular modernization as an existential threat, leading to defensive political mobilization,
as witnessed in Iran's Islamic Revolution.
Manifestation of religious conflicts:
• Religious extremism often leads to what Peter Berger terms "desecularization," where religious
conflicts challenge the secular nature of modern states, as seen in sectarian violence in Iraq and Syria.
• The phenomenon of religious terrorism, studied by Mark Sedgwick, shows how extremist
interpretations of religious texts justify violence against perceived enemies.
• Religious conflicts frequently intersect with ethnic and cultural identities, creating what Donald
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Horowitz calls "multiple layers of antagonism," as witnessed in the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar.
• Competition for religious dominance often results in what Rogers Brubaker terms "religious
nationalism," where religious identity becomes a basis for political mobilization and conflict.
• Religious extremism creates what sociologist Randall Collins calls "conflict zones," where religious
differences become focal points for violence and social division.
• Religious fundamentalism can lead to what Nancy Davis calls "gender regime conflicts," where
religious interpretations are used to resist women's rights and gender equality, as seen in restrictions
on women's education and public participation in some societies.
• The phenomenon of "competitive fundamentalism," as termed by Ashis Nandy, where extremist
actions by one religious group trigger similar responses from others, creating cycles of escalating
conflict, as witnessed in communal violence in South Asia.
Conclusion:
Religious fundamentalism and extremism significantly impact political landscapes and social stability by
creating ideological divisions and justifying conflicts. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for
developing effective approaches to promoting religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence in diverse
societies.

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7. (c) "Social inequality is both a cause and a consequence of social stratification." Discuss. 10
Approach:

• Define social Inequality and social stratification in introduction.

• Explain social inequality as a cause of social stratification.
• Explain social inequality as a consequence of social stratification.
• Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Social Inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and rewards among
different groups within a society. On the other hand, Social Stratification refers to the hierarchical
arrangement of individuals and groups within a society, based on factors such as wealth, income,
occupation, education, and social status.
Social inequality as a cause of social stratification:

• Economic Inequality: Karl Marx argued that economic inequality is the foundation of social
stratification in capitalist societies. He viewed society as divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie
(owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers). According to Marx, economic
inequality leads to class divisions, which create a hierarchical structure where the bourgeoisie occupy
a privileged position and the proletariats are exploited.
• Global Inequality: Immanuel Wallerstein’s world-systems theory explains social stratification on a
global scale, where inequality between nations creates a global stratification system. He argued that
wealthier; core nations exploit poorer, peripheral nations, creating a hierarchical global economy.
Social inequality as a consequence of social stratification:
• Pierre Bourdieu: Bourdieu introduced the concepts of cultural capital, social capital, and economic
capital to analyze how inequalities are produced and reproduced through stratification. He argued
that individuals with high cultural capital (education, skills, cultural knowledge) are more likely to
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succeed in a stratified society, while those with low cultural capital face barriers to upward mobility.
Bourdieu emphasized that social stratification leads to inequalities that manifest in various forms,
reinforcing the advantages of privileged groups while perpetuating the disadvantages of marginalized
ones.
• Weber: Social stratification influences individuals' life chances, including access to education,
healthcare, and employment opportunities. Weber identified status groups as social groups that share
similar lifestyles, values, and prestige. Membership in a particular status group can influence an
individual's social standing and opportunities.
Social inequality and social stratification thus form a reinforcing cycle. Initial inequalities lead to a stratified
structure, which then institutionalizes and maintains these inequalities across generations. Those at the
top of the hierarchy can continue to access resources and opportunities, while those at the bottom face
systemic barriers that reinforce their disadvantaged position.

8. (a) As per Max Weber, differences in prestige and power are as important as differences in economic
reward. Discuss how women are systematically disadvantaged in economic terms. 20
Approach:
• Introduction: brief introduction on importance of power and prestige as marker of stratification.
• Body:
o Explain how differences in prestige and power are as important as differences in economic reward.
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 o Systematic disadvantage of women in economic terms, and impact of power and prestige on it.
• Conclusion based on the above discussion
Answer:
Max Weber argued that social inequality or stratification is a multidimensional phenomenon, where
disparities in prestige and power are as significant as economic differences. This is also exhibited in the
fact that despite achieving high success in education and employment, women still lack social prestige and
power, which contributes to their disadvantaged position.
Weber identified three distinct but interrelated dimensions of social inequality: class, status (prestige),
and power. Each of these dimensions contributes to a person’s social position, access to resources, and
life chances, making the dynamics of social hierarchy more nuanced. His theory highlights that social
inequality is not merely about economic reward; it involves a complex interplay between class, status, and
power. Individuals and groups may hold high standing in one dimension while lacking in another.
This multidimensional approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of social hierarchy by
explaining situations where individuals face mixed levels of privilege and disadvantage. For instance,
women may experience status-based discrimination, like gender discrimination, which restricts their
economic opportunities regardless of individual talent or effort.
Systematic disadvantage of women in economic terms:
1. According to Weber, power and prestige affect the value society assigns to work, and unpaid
domestic labor, primarily performed by women, is often undervalued. This limits women’s
opportunities for economic advancement, as unpaid work reduces the time and energy available for
income-generating activities.
2. In terms of power, women are systematically disadvantaged by limited access to leadership and
decision-making roles.
3. Diane Pearce says that women represent disproportionate percentages of the world’s poor because
of gender biases due to labor Market inequalities.
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4. Gender pay gap: The United Nations Report declares that Women constitute half the world's
population, perform nearly two thirds of its work hours, receive one tenth of the world's income and
own less than one hundredth of the world's property.
5. Karuna Ahmad finds four trends in women’s employment:
a. Pink Collarization of jobs.
b. Clustering either concentrated in low status, low wage occupation, a phenomenon known as
occupational segregation or in the lower rungs of the prestigious professions.
c. Gender pay gap.
d. High proportion of highly educated and professionally trained unemployed women.
6. Gender discrimination and workplace harassment create hostile environments that discourage
women from pursuing certain career paths or advancing within organizations.
Therefore, Weber’s view highlights the complex layers of inequality women face, transcending economic
barriers to include disparities in prestige and power. This results in their consistent disadvantaged position
due to status-based discrimination and limited access to decision-making roles.

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8. (b) Analyze the concept of secularization and discuss how does secularization impact religious
institutions and the public sphere? 20
Approach:

• Define secularization in introduction.

• Discuss the concept of secularization and then discuss its Impact on religious institutions.
• Mention the changes due to such secularization.
• Summarize the answer in conclusion.
Answer:
Introduction:
Secularization, a process through which religion loses its social significance and influence in modern
society, has profoundly transformed both religious institutions and the public sphere. This concept,
initially developed by sociologists like Max Weber and Peter Berger, remains central to understanding
religion's changing role in contemporary society.
Concept of secularization:
• The concept emerged from classical sociological theory, where Max Weber identified it as part of
society's "disenchantment," characterized by the decline of magical and religious worldviews in favor
of rational-scientific explanations.
• Bryan Wilson defines secularization as the process through which religious institutions, actions, and
consciousness lose their social significance. He emphasizes three key dimensions: institutional
differentiation, societal rationalization, and privatization of religion.
• Peter Berger's early work conceptualized secularization as the "desacralization" of the world, where
religious interpretations of reality are replaced by scientific-rational explanations. However, he later
revised his view, acknowledging the persistence of religion in modern society.
• Steve Bruce identifies key features of secularization:
o Social differentiation, where specialized institutions take over functions previously performed by
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religion
o Societalization, where community-based religious control weakens due to urbanization
o Rationalization, where supernatural explanations are replaced by scientific ones
o Religious privatization, where religion becomes a matter of personal choice.

Impact on religious institutions:

• Traditional religious institutions experience what Peter Berger calls "sacred canopy" breakdown,
where their monopoly over meaning-making and moral guidance diminishes. For instance, churches
in Western Europe have seen declining attendance and influence over moral decisions.
• Religious organizations adapt to secularization through what Jose Casanova terms "internal
secularization," modifying their practices and teachings to remain relevant. The Catholic Church's
Vatican II reforms exemplify this institutional adaptation.
• Religious institutions increasingly function as what Grace Davie calls "public utilities," used mainly for
ceremonies like weddings and funerals rather than regular worship, particularly evident in
Scandinavian countries.
• The emergence of what Thomas Luckmann terms "invisible religion," where religious belief becomes
privatized and individualized, weakens traditional religious authority structures.
• Religious institutions face competition from secular alternatives in areas they traditionally dominated,
such as education, healthcare, and social services, leading to reduced institutional influence.

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 Changes in public sphere:
• The principle of separation of church and state leads to what Charles Taylor describes as the
"immanent frame," where public institutions operate without reference to transcendent religious
authority.
• Secularization produces what Jürgen Habermas calls "post-secular society," where religious and
secular worldviews must coexist in public discourse, as seen in debates over bioethics and human
rights.
• Public education becomes increasingly secular, with religious instruction either removed or
transformed into objective study of religions, as witnessed in French schools under laïcité.
• Media representation of religion shifts from reverence to critical examination, treating religious
matters as subject to the same scrutiny as other social institutions.
• Legal systems increasingly base laws on secular rational principles rather than religious doctrines,
particularly in areas like family law and personal rights.
Conclusion:
Secularization fundamentally reshapes both religious institutions and the public sphere, creating new
patterns of religious expression and institutional adaptation. However, this process varies across societies
and doesn't necessarily mean religion's disappearance but rather its transformation and repositioning in
modern social life.

8. (c) What is Social Action? And how is Parsons Social Action different from Weber’s Social Action? 10
Approach:

• Introduction: define social action

• Body:
o Compare both on different parameters.
o Explain how Parsons’ build on Weber's theory.
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• Conclusion.
Answer:
Max Weber and Talcott Parsons have made major contributions to sociological theory of ‘actions’. Social
action refers to actions that are meaningful, intentional, and directed toward others, typically shaped by
individual motivations and social contexts.

Parameter Max Weber’s Social Action Talcott Parsons’ Social Action

Methodological Uses the verstehen (interpretative) Uses a systems approach to examine how
Approach approach to understand the actions fit within broader social structures,
subjective meanings behind social focusing on stability and order. Parsons
actions. identified four sub-systems- Culture
system, Social system, Personality System
and Behavioural System.

Scope and Focus Emphasizes individual motives, Focuses on how actions contribute to
subjective understanding, and the social systems, emphasizing roles, norms,
actor’s perspective. and values that maintain social order.

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 Types of Social Classifies actions into four types Does not classify actions by type but
Action based on motivation: examines them as part of an integrated
1. Zweckrational (goal-oriented), system, oriented toward maintaining
2. Wertrational (value-oriented), societal equilibrium.
3. Traditional
4. Affective.

Definition of Social Social action involves all behavior Social action is behavior where individuals
Action that is meaningful, intentional, and react to external forces with attached
oriented toward others. meanings and motives, operating within
social and cultural environments.

Role of Social Primarily analyzes actions Actions are embedded within and
Systems independently of systems, focusing sustained by social systems that regulate
on individual intentions and behavior through norms and roles,
meanings. contributing to social stability.

Influence of Other Primarily rooted in sociology with Interdisciplinary, incorporating insights

Disciplines emphasis on interpretative analysis. from sociology, psychology, anthropology,
and biology to explain rational action in
various situations.

Examples of Major work: Theory of social action Major work: Towards a General Theory of
Theories and Work based on verstehen, defining four Action co-edited with others, which
types of social action. expands Weber's concept by incorporating
structural functionalism.

Despite these differences, Parsons theory of social action is influenced by Max Weber however he
broadened the concept. Although Talcott Parsons also criticizes Weber for stressing too much the element
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of voluntary subjective meaning of the actor. For Parsons, the action of an actor is involuntary; it is
behavior directed by the meanings attached by actors to things and people.
Therefore, while Weber’s framework is centered on individual meanings, Parsons extends social action
into the realm of broader social structures, positioning it as a component of social systems that help
maintain order and stability in society. Together, these perspectives contribute to a comprehensive
understanding of social actions in sociology.

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