Quantitative Research

• Overview: Quantitative research is a systematic and objective approach to

investigating phenomena and testing hypotheses. It involves the collection and
analysis of numerical data to understand concepts, opinions, and experiences.
Quantitative research aims to generate broad, generalizable knowledge
through deductive reasoning and statistical analysis.
• Research Strategy:
◦ Deductive Reasoning: Quantitative research typically follows a deductive
approach, where researchers start with a theory or hypothesis and then
collect data to test it.
◦ Theory Testing: Quantitative research is often used to test existing theories
and models, evaluating the relationships between variables.
◦ Hypothesis Formulation: Researchers formulate specific, testable
hypotheses based on the theory or conceptual framework.
• Data Collection and Analysis:
◦ Statistical Analysis: Quantitative research relies heavily on statistical
methods to analyze the collected data, including descriptive and
inferential statistics.
◦ Modeling: Researchers may use various statistical models, such as
regression analysis, to understand the relationships between variables
and make predictions.
◦ Data Sources: Quantitative research often utilizes pre-determined data
sources, such as census data, performance data, attitude data, and
observational data.
• Methodological Approaches:
◦ Survey Research: Quantitative researchers may employ survey methods to
collect data from a large, representative sample.
◦ Experimental Research: Quantitative research can also involve experimental
designs, where researchers manipulate variables and observe the
effects.
• Strengths and Limitations:
◦ Strengths: Quantitative research provides broad, generalizable knowledge
and allows for statistical analysis and hypothesis testing.
◦ Limitations: Quantitative research may lack the depth and context provided
by qualitative approaches, and it may not be suitable for exploring
complex, subjective phenomena.

Research Design and Methods

• Overview: Research design and methods refer to the overall plan and specific
techniques used to conduct research. This includes the philosophical
underpinnings, strategies of inquiry, and the detailed methods employed to
collect and analyze data.
• Philosophy of Research:
◦ Quantitative research is primarily deductive, focused on testing theories and
hypotheses through numerical data and statistical analysis.
◦ Qualitative research is primarily inductive, focused on generating new
theories and understanding phenomena through textual data and
interpretive analysis.
◦ Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative
approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding.
• Inquiry Strategies:
◦ Quantitative Strategies: Survey research, experimental research
◦ Qualitative Strategies: Ethnography, grounded theory, case study,
phenomenological research, narrative research
◦ Mixed Methods Strategies: Sequential, concurrent, transformative designs
• Specific Methods:
◦ Quantitative Methods: Predetermined, instrument-based questions,
performance/attitude/observational data, statistical analysis
◦ Qualitative Methods: Emerging, open-ended questions,
interview/observational data, thematic analysis
◦ Mixed Methods: Both predetermined and emerging methods, open and
closed-ended questions, multiple forms of data, integrated analysis
• Key Considerations:
◦ Developing well-formulated research questions is crucial to guide the study
design and analysis.
◦ Qualitative research questions are typically inductive, exploratory, and
focused on a single phenomenon or concept.
◦ Researchers must be sensitive to the appropriateness of different methods
for their research goals and context.
◦ Qualitative research should report on the relevance of the question,
sampling strategy, data collection, and analysis procedures to ensure
rigor.
◦ Common criticisms of qualitative research include lack of reproducibility,
generalizability, and potential for researcher bias.
◦ Conceptual models or theories can provide a framework for understanding
the phenomenon of interest.

Qualitative Research
• Overview: Qualitative research is a strategy for the systematic collection,
organization, and interpretation of textual information. It contributes to
understanding a phenomenon through inductive reasoning to generate
broader generalizations based on the perspectives of members of a group.
Qualitative research generates comprehensive descriptions of processes,
mechanisms, or settings.
• Research Strategy:
◦ Qualitative research is primarily concerned with generating rich data.
◦ It is an inductive, exploratory approach (no assumptions or hypotheses) that
is framed as a research question, aim, or objective.
◦ Qualitative research focuses on a single phenomenon, concept, or idea and
uses natural or non-directional language.
◦ Well-formulated research questions are key for good qualitative research as
they define the purpose, determine appropriate methods, guide study
planning, and frame analysis and findings.
• Inductive Reasoning:
◦ Qualitative research follows an inductive approach: Observation → Pattern
→ Proposition → Theory.
◦ This is in contrast to the deductive approach of quantitative research:
Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → (Dis)Confirmation.
• Theory Building:
◦ Qualitative research is a theory-building approach, generating new insights
and theories about phenomena that are difficult to measure
quantitatively.
◦ It can produce recurrent themes or hypotheses, survey instrument
measures, and conceptual models or theories.
• Observation, Pattern Recognition, and Proposition Development:
◦ Qualitative researchers use their subjectivity as a research tool, observing
patterns and developing propositions.
◦ Purposeful sampling is used to select specific participants based on shared
characteristics.
◦ Qualitative research involves an iterative process of interpreting data,
gathering more data, and reinterpreting.
• Research Methods:
◦ Common qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups,
observations, case studies, and action research.
◦ Qualitative research is flexible and adaptable, allowing for modifying the line
of inquiry and following up on non-verbal cues.
◦ Qualitative research can be used before, after, or in parallel with quantitative
methods to support interpretations, expand understanding, or develop
survey instruments.
• Data Analysis:
◦ Qualitative data analysis focuses on identifying themes and patterns in the
textual information.
◦ The analysis aims to characterize participant perspectives, behaviors, group
interactions, and individual perceptions.
◦ The findings can inform the development of testable hypotheses by
identifying salient factors and relationships.
• Sampling and Research Design:
◦ Qualitative research typically uses purposeful, small but rich samples, in
contrast to the random, large representative samples of quantitative
research.
◦ The research design involves the intersection of philosophy, strategy of
inquiry, and specific methods.
◦ Qualitative research designs include ethnography, grounded theory, case
studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research.
◦ Mixed methods designs combine quantitative and qualitative approaches,
either sequentially, concurrently, or transformatively.

2024 SPD-QL Session 4 Data

analysis_SHM
Grounded Theory
• Overview: Grounded Theory is a qualitative research methodology that involves a
cyclical process of data collection and analysis, constant comparison,
sampling until saturation, and several phases of coding. The aim is to develop
a saturated theory that is grounded in the data.
• Cyclical Process:
◦ Data collection and analysis are conducted in a cyclical manner until
theoretical saturation is achieved.
◦ This involves a combination of inductive and deductive techniques.
◦ Constant comparison is used to identify patterns and develop the theory.
◦ There are several phases of coding, including open, axial, and selective
coding.
• Saturated Theory Development:
◦ The goal of Grounded Theory is to develop a comprehensive, saturated
theory that is firmly rooted in the data.
◦ The theory emerges through the iterative process of data collection and
analysis.
◦ Sampling continues until no new themes or categories emerge, indicating
theoretical saturation.
• Complexity and Time Consumption:
◦ Conducting a Grounded Theory study is a complex and very time-
consuming process.
◦ It is usually not recommended for master's students due to the extensive
time and effort required.
◦ The cyclical nature of data collection and analysis, as well as the need to
achieve theoretical saturation, make Grounded Theory a labor-intensive
approach.
Analysis Pitfalls
• Overview: Qualitative data analysis can be prone to several pitfalls that
researchers should be aware of and avoid. These include failure to actually
analyze the data, using interview questions as themes, weak or unconvincing
analysis, mismatch between data and research questions, and missing crucial
information.
• Failure to Analyze Data:
◦ Highlighting nice quotes without conducting a thorough analysis of the data.
• Using Interview Questions as Themes:
◦ Treating the data collection questions from interviews as the 'themes' to
report, rather than deriving themes from the data.
• Weak Analysis:
◦ Themes do not 'work', are not consistent, or are not coherent.
• Mismatch with Research Questions:
◦ The data, research questions, and/or analysis do not align.
• Missing Crucial Information:
◦ The analysis fails to pick up on important or crucial information present in
the data.

Qualitative Data Analysis

• Overview: Qualitative data analysis is a systematic process of examining and
interpreting non-numerical data to uncover patterns, themes, and meanings. It
involves a cyclical process of data collection, analysis, and interpretation to
gain a deeper understanding of the research topic.
• Data Collection:
◦ Determine where, when, and from whom the data will be obtained.
◦ Consider various qualitative research approaches, such as interviews, focus
groups, observations, and document analysis.
• Analysis Techniques:
◦ Thematic content analysis: Aims to detect patterns (themes) within the data
through a cyclical process of coding and constant comparison.
◦ Grounded theory: Develops a theory inductively from the data, rather than
testing an existing theory.
◦ Other methods: Discourse analysis, narrative analysis, phenomenology, etc.
• Research Purposes:
◦ Describe, explain, or understand a phenomenon.
◦ Solve a problem or generate new hypotheses.
• Conceptual Framework:
◦ Identify relevant theories and concepts that guide the research.
◦ Helps to frame the research questions and analysis.
• Research Questions:
◦ Determine what you want to know about the research topic.
◦ Qualitative research often focuses on "how" and "why" questions.
• Sampling Strategy:
◦ Decide on the appropriate sampling method, such as purposive, snowball,
or theoretical sampling.
◦ Ensure the sample is representative and provides rich data.
• Qualitative Research Approaches:
◦ Inductive: Developing a theory from the data.
◦ Deductive: Testing an existing theory.
◦ Combination of inductive and deductive approaches.

Data Transcription
• Overview: Data transcription is the process of converting audio or video recordings
into written text. It involves carefully listening to the recordings and accurately
documenting the spoken words, including any relevant contextual information
such as pauses, emotions, and nonverbal cues. Transcription is an important
step in qualitative data analysis, as it provides a detailed record of the data for
further examination and coding.
• Manual Transcription:
◦ Manual transcription is a good way to familiarize yourself with the data, as it
involves closely listening to the recordings and actively engaging with
the content.
◦ However, manual transcription can be time-consuming and may not always
be the most efficient approach, especially for large datasets.
• Software Tools:
◦ There are various software tools available that can assist with the
transcription process, such as the built-in transcription function in
Microsoft Teams/Office365.
◦ While these tools can save time, it is important to carefully check the
accuracy of the transcriptions, as they may not always capture the text
and punctuation correctly, or may miss important contextual
information.
◦ When using software tools, be aware of potential costs and limitations,
especially when working with trial versions.
• Transcription Accuracy:
◦ Ensuring the accuracy of the transcription is crucial, as it forms the
foundation for the subsequent data analysis.
◦ Transcripts should be checked against the original recordings to verify the
accuracy of the text and the inclusion of relevant contextual information.
• Ethical Considerations:
◦ When working with confidential or sensitive data, it is important to be mindful
of participant expectations and risk management.
◦ Raw footage containing identifiable information should be deleted as soon
as clean transcriptions are made.
◦ Careful consideration should be given to the storage and handling of the
transcripts to protect participant privacy and confidentiality.

Analysis Techniques Comparison

• Overview: This topic explores different qualitative data analysis methods, focusing
on Thematic Content Analysis and Grounded Theory. It discusses the key
principles, strengths, and considerations for selecting an appropriate analysis
technique based on the research purpose, available resources, and the
research team's experience.
• Thematic Content Analysis:
◦ Cyclical process of data collection and analysis, constant comparison,
sampling until saturation, and several phases of coding.
◦ Aims to detect patterns (themes) within the data.
◦ Provides a rich and detailed account of the data.
◦ Often regarded as a relatively simple method, but can yield a detailed
analysis.
◦ Time-consuming process.
• Grounded Theory:
◦ Also a cyclical process of data collection and analysis, constant comparison,
sampling until saturation, and several phases of coding.
◦ Aims to develop a saturated theory, grounded in the data.
◦ More complex and time-consuming than Thematic Content Analysis.
◦ Usually not recommended for master's students due to the extensive time
and resource requirements.
• Method Selection Criteria:
◦ Fit with the research aim (describe, explain, understand, solve a problem)
◦ Available resources and funding
◦ Time constraints
◦ Experience and preference of the research team
• Time and Resource Considerations:
◦ Qualitative data analysis, regardless of the method, is a time-consuming
process.
◦ Researchers should allocate sufficient time to complete all phases of the
analysis adequately, without rushing or giving a "once-over-lightly"
approach.
◦ The choice of method should be informed by the available time and
resources.
Print de lijst ql-research _
StudyGo
Thematic Analysis
• Overview: Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting
patterns (themes) within qualitative data. It is a widely used approach in
qualitative research that allows researchers to systematically organize and
describe their data set in rich detail.
• Familiarizing:
◦ Making notes during interviews
◦ Recording and transcribing data
◦ Reading and re-reading the data
◦ Noting down initial ideas
• Generating Initial Codes:
◦ Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion
◦ Collating data relevant to each code
• Searching for Initial Themes:
◦ Combining codes into potential themes
◦ Gathering all data relevant to each potential theme
• Reviewing Themes:
◦ Checking if the themes 'work' in relation to the raw data and the codes
◦ Generating a thematic 'map' of the analysis
• Defining and Naming Themes:
◦ Refining the specifics of each theme through ongoing analysis
◦ Determining the overall story the analysis tells
◦ Generating clear definitions and names for each theme
• Producing the Report:
◦ Final opportunity for analysis
◦ Selection of vivid, compelling extract examples
◦ Final analysis of selected extracts
◦ Relating the analysis back to the research question and literature
◦ Producing a report of the analysis (e.g., conference paper, graduation
report, research presentation)

Research Validity
• Overview: Research validity refers to the quality and rigor of a study, ensuring that
the findings are faithful to the participants' experiences. There are two main
approaches to research validity: transactional and transformative.
• Transactional Validity:
◦ Techniques and attempts to achieve a higher level of accuracy and
consensus by revisiting facts, feelings, experiences, or beliefs.
◦ Strategies include triangulation, member checking, thick description,
prolonged engagement in the field, discussing negative cases, peer
debriefs, and external auditors.
• Transformative Validity:
◦ A more rational approach that challenges the notion of validity.
• Types of Validity:
◦ Descriptive Validity: The factual accuracy of the data.
◦ Interpretive Validity: The match between the meaning attributed to
participants' behavior and the participants' perspective.
◦ Theoretical Validity: The ability to explain the phenomenon studied.
◦ Evaluative Validity: The ability to describe and understand data without
being evaluative or judgmental.
• Strategies to Enhance Validity:
◦ Triangulation: Using multiple sources, methods, investigators, or theoretical
perspectives to confirm a point or set of interpretations.
◦ Member Checking: Involving participants in the research process to ensure
their perspectives are accurately represented.
◦ Thick Description: Providing rich, detailed descriptions to allow for
transferability to other contexts.
◦ Prolonged Engagement in the Field: Spending sufficient time in the research
setting to build trust and gain a deeper understanding.
◦ Discussing Negative Cases: Actively seeking out and analyzing cases that
challenge the emerging findings.
◦ Peer Debriefs: Engaging with other researchers to discuss the research
process and interpretations.
◦ External Auditors: Involving independent researchers to review the research
process and findings.

Rigor of Studies
• Overview: Rigor in qualitative research refers to the credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability of the study findings. Researchers employ
various strategies to enhance the validity and trustworthiness of their
qualitative studies.
• Credibility:
◦ Strategies to establish credibility include triangulation, member checking,
thick description, prolonged engagement in the field, discussing
negative cases, peer debriefs, and using an external auditor.
◦ Triangulation involves using multiple data sources, methods, investigators,
or theoretical perspectives to corroborate findings.
• Transferability:
◦ Transferability refers to the extent to which the findings of a qualitative study
can be applied or transferred to other contexts while retaining their
context-specific richness.
◦ Thick description is a key strategy to enhance transferability by providing
detailed, elaborative clarification of the research context.
• Dependability:
◦ Dependability concerns the stability and consistency of the data over time
and across researchers.
◦ Strategies to ensure dependability include maintaining an audit trail,
member checking, and dialogic engagement.
• Confirmability:
◦ Confirmability refers to the degree to which the research findings can be
confirmed or corroborated by others.
◦ It does not seek objectivity but requires that the findings can be confirmed
through the data.
◦ Strategies include triangulation, reflexivity, and maintaining an audit trail.

Mixed Research Methods

• Overview: Mixed research methods involve the integration of both qualitative and
quantitative research approaches within a single study or program of inquiry.
This allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem
by drawing on the strengths of both methodologies.
• Sequential Mixed Methods:
◦ This approach involves conducting one method (either qualitative or
quantitative) and then building on the findings with the other method.
◦ The purpose is to elaborate on or expand the findings of the earlier method.
• Concurrent Mixed Methods:
◦ In this approach, the researcher merges or converges the qualitative and
quantitative data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research
question.
◦ The two forms of data are collected and analyzed at the same time.
• Transformative Mixed Methods:
◦ This approach uses a theoretical lens as an overarching perspective within a
study.
◦ The lens provides a framework for topics of interest, methods for data
collection and analysis, and expected outcomes or changes.
• Validity Considerations:
◦ Transactional validity: Techniques and attempts to achieve a higher level of
accuracy and consensus by revisiting the data.
◦ Transformative validity: Focuses on the way that researchers can affirm that
their findings are faithful to participants' experiences.
◦ Strategies to enhance validity include triangulation, member checking, thick
description, prolonged engagement, discussing negative cases, peer
debriefs, and external audits.
• Triangulation:
◦ A set of processes that the researcher uses to enhance the validity of a
study.
◦ Different forms include methodological, data, investigator, theoretical, and
perspective triangulation.
◦ The goal is to make sure the researcher has engaged in a systematic and
rigorous pursuit of trustworthy data collection.
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research:
◦ Qualitative research is a strategy for the systematic collection, organization,
and interpretation of textual information. The goal is theory building.
◦ Quantitative research aims to test theories through the collection and
analysis of numerical data. The goal is theory testing.

Quantitative Research
• Overview: Quantitative research is a systematic and objective approach to
collecting and analyzing numerical data to investigate phenomena and test
hypotheses. It focuses on quantifying relationships, patterns, and trends
through statistical analysis.
• Research Strategy:
◦ Deductive approach: Starts with a theory, develops hypotheses, and tests
them through observations and data collection.
◦ Quantitative approach aims to be a theory tester, while qualitative approach
aims to be a theory builder.
◦ Quantitative research follows a linear process of theory, hypothesis,
observation, and (dis)confirmation.
• Research Methods:
◦ Experimental and survey methods are commonly used in quantitative
research.
◦ Mixed research methods can also be employed, including sequential,
concurrent, and transformative approaches.
• Validity:
◦ Validity refers to the extent to which the research findings accurately
represent the phenomenon being studied.
◦ Two main approaches to validity: Transactional (techniques to achieve
higher accuracy and consensus) and Transformative (more rational
approach challenging the notion of validity).
◦ Types of validity: Descriptive, interpretive, theoretical, and evaluative.
• Rigor of Studies:
◦ Concerns for rigor: Credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability.
◦ Transferability: The extent to which the findings can be applied or
transferred to a broader context while maintaining the context-specific
richness.
◦ Dependability: The stability of the data.
◦ Confirmability: The ability to confirm the findings, rather than seeking
objectivity.
• Ways to Increase Validity:
◦ Strategies of triangulation, member checking, thick description, prolonged
engagement in the field, discussing negative cases, peer debriefs, and
external auditor.
◦ Triangulation: Using different sources, methods, investigators, theories, or
perspectives to enhance the validity of a study.
• Bias:
◦ Bias refers to the systematic deviation of research findings from the "true"
patterns.
◦ Potential sources of bias include failure to keep track of consistency of
answers, interviewers over-displaying disagreement, and failure of the
sample to represent diverse perspectives.
• Sequence Focus Group:
◦ The sequence of a focus group can include opening, introductory, transition,
and key phases.

Qualitative Research
• Overview: Qualitative research is a strategy for systematically collecting,
organizing, and interpreting textual information. It aims to build theory rather
than test it, using inductive reasoning, observation, pattern identification,
proposition, and theory development.
• Research Strategy:
◦ Qualitative Approach Goal: Theory Builder
◦ Quantitative Approach Goal: Theory Tester
◦ Qualitative Approach Steps: Inductive reasoning, observation, pattern,
proposition, theory
◦ Quantitative Approach Steps: Theory, hypothesis, observation,
(dis)confirmation
• Research Methods:
◦ Qualitative methods include narrative research, phenomenology,
ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies.
◦ Quantitative methods include experimental and survey research.
◦ Mixed methods research can be sequential, concurrent, or transformative.
• Data:
◦ Qualitative data includes interview data, observational data, documented
data, and audiovisual data.
• Validity:
◦ Concerns for rigor of studies: Credibility, transferability, dependability,
confirmability
◦ Transferability: The way qualitative studies can be applicable or transferable
to a broader context while remaining context-specific.
◦ Dependability: The stability of the data.
◦ Confirmability: The ability to confirm the findings, rather than seeking
objectivity.
• Ways to Increase Validity/Establish Credibility:
◦ Strategies of triangulation, member checking, thick description, prolonged
engagement in the field, discussing negative cases, peer debriefs, and
using an external auditor.
• Triangulation:
◦ A set of processes the researcher uses to enhance the validity of a study,
commonly involving different sources or methods to challenge and/or
confirm a point or set of interpretations.
◦ Goals of triangulation strategies: Ensure a systematic and rigorous pursuit of
trustworthy data collection that allows for the most authentic and stable
interpretations to emerge.
◦ Forms of triangulation: Methodological, data, investigator, theoretical, and
perspective.
• Action Research:
◦ A term for many forms of action-related research, indicating diversity in
theory and practice among action researchers.
◦ Cyclical 4 steps: 1. Planning, 2. Taking action, 3. Evaluating action, 4.
Leading to further planning.
◦ 3-step cycle of implementing: 1. Pre-step, 2. Six main steps (data gathering,
data feedback, data analysis, action planning, implementing,
evaluation), 3. Types of inquiries (pure inquiry, exploratory inquiry, skill
development, learning in action, journal keeping).
• Bias:
◦ Systematic deviation of research findings from 'true' patterns.
◦ Probes used to address bias: Detailed, elaborative clarification.
◦ Probes types: Silent, echo, neutral, direct, phased assertion, detail, clarify.
• Grounded Theory:
◦ A critical process of data collection and analysis, involving constant
comparison, sampling until saturation, and several phases of coding.
• Thematic Analysis:
◦ A method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within
data.
◦ 6 phases: 1. Familiarizing, 2. Initial coding, 3. Searching for initial themes, 4.
Reviewing themes, 5. Defining and naming themes, 6. Producing the
report.

2024 SPD-QL Session 2_SHM

Learning and Assessment
• Overview: Learning and assessment are key components of the educational
process. This involves various activities such as self-study, exercises and
quizzes, guest lectures, individual exams, and practice questions to facilitate
learning and evaluate student understanding.
• Discussion of Research Results:
◦ Discussing the results of exercises and quizzes to review key learnings
◦ Identifying areas for improvement and clarification
• Exercises and Quizzes:
◦ Multiple choice and open-ended questions to assess understanding
◦ Provide opportunities for self-study and practice
• Guest Lectures:
◦ Presentations by experts to provide insights into research in practice
◦ Complement the theoretical content with real-world applications
• Individual Exam:
◦ Summative assessment to evaluate overall understanding
◦ Includes a re-sit option for students
• Practice Questions:
◦ Sample questions to help students prepare for the individual exam
◦ Allows students to apply their knowledge and identify areas needing more
practice

Qualitative Research
• Overview: Qualitative research is a research approach that contributes to
understanding a phenomenon by answering the "what", "how", and "why"
questions. It involves inductive reasoning to generate broader generalizations
based on the perspectives of members of a group. Qualitative research
generates rich, comprehensive descriptions of processes, mechanisms, or
settings.
• Research Approaches:
◦ Interview study
◦ Action research
◦ Case study (single or multiple)
◦ Focus group study
◦ Participant observation study
• Research Methods:
◦ Interviews
◦ Focus groups
◦ Observations
◦ Document analysis
• Research Questions:
◦ Inductive/exploratory
◦ Framed as a question, aim, or objective
◦ Precise with a specific focus
◦ Lead to feasible research
◦ Essential for the success of the study and guide the choice of method and
set boundaries for analysis
• Data Collection and Analysis Techniques:
◦ Data: Textual (words, behaviors)
◦ Sampling: Purposeful (small but rich sample)
◦ Analysis: Iterative interpretation
◦ Aim: Build new theory (explore, understand)
◦ Results: In-depth knowledge (narrow)
◦ Setting: Natural (not controlled)
The key differences between qualitative and quantitative research approaches are in
the research questions, methods, data, approach, sampling, analysis, aim, results,
and setting.
Research Methods
• Overview: Research methods refer to the various approaches, strategies, and
techniques used to collect, analyze, and interpret data in order to answer
research questions or solve problems. This includes both qualitative and
quantitative methods.
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative:
◦ Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding phenomena, answering
"what, how, why" questions, using inductive reasoning to generate new
theories. Methods include interviews, focus groups, observations, case
studies.
◦ Quantitative Research: Focuses on testing hypotheses, answering "how
many, how often" questions, using deductive reasoning to assess
existing theories. Methods include surveys, experiments, clinical data
analysis.
• Pros and Cons of Methods:
◦ Qualitative Methods: Provide rich, context-dependent data but can be
time-consuming and difficult to generalize.
◦ Quantitative Methods: Provide broad, generalizable data but may lack
depth and context.
• Suitability for Research Questions:
◦ Qualitative methods are more suitable for exploratory, explanatory research
questions.
◦ Quantitative methods are more suitable for descriptive, predictive research
questions.
• Threats to Trustworthiness:
◦ Potential biases, subjectivity, and lack of generalizability in qualitative
research.
◦ Potential issues with validity, reliability, and representativeness in
quantitative research.
• Strategies for Trustworthiness:
◦ Qualitative: Triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, reflexivity.
◦ Quantitative: Randomization, control groups, statistical analysis, replication.

Research Approaches
• Overview: Research approaches in qualitative research aim to contribute to
understanding a phenomenon by answering the "what", "how", and "why"
questions. These approaches often involve inductive reasoning to generate
broader generalizations based on the perspectives of members of a group.
Qualitative research generates rich, comprehensive descriptions of processes,
mechanisms, or settings.
• Interview Study:
◦ Pros: Flexible and adaptable, allows modifying the line of inquiry,
investigating underlying motives, and interpreting non-verbal cues.
◦ Cons: Time-consuming, securing cooperation from participants.
• Action Research:
◦ Pros: Suitable for studying a contextualized and complex phenomenon,
studying a series of events and actions over time, and fundamentally
about change.
◦ Cons: Requires pre-understanding of the organizational
system/environment, researcher as an instrument, and potential lack of
impartiality.
• Case Study (Single/Multiple):
◦ Pros: Provides context-dependent, concrete knowledge, suitable for
studying complex phenomena in their natural setting, and allows for
replication and theory building.
◦ Cons: Deciding which cases to include, difficulty in generalizing from a
single case.
• Focus Group Study:
◦ Pros: Allows identification of variety in views, attitudes, and experiences,
and enables participants to learn from each other.
◦ Cons: Securing cooperation, difficulty in discussing sensitive topics, and the
influence of dominant participants.
• Participant Observation Study:
◦ Pros: Naturalistic way of collecting data, provides insight into the context in
which people interact, and flexibility for researchers.
◦ Cons: Time-consuming, not everyone likes to be observed, and relies
heavily on the skills of the researcher.
• Mixed Methods Approach:
◦ Combines different qualitative methods or qualitative and quantitative
methods to support the interpretation of findings, questionnaire
development, or parallel data collection.

ppt session 3 slides 2024

Interview Techniques
• Overview: Interview techniques are the various approaches and strategies used to
conduct effective qualitative interviews. These techniques aim to elicit rich and
insightful information from interviewees by guiding the conversation and
probing for deeper understanding.
• Open Questions:
◦ Open-ended questions that cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no".
◦ Encourage the interviewee to provide reflective and wide-ranging answers.
◦ Examples: "Can you tell me more about...?", "What was your experience
with...?"
• Follow-up Questions:
◦ Used to delve deeper into a topic or clarify responses.
◦ Includes detail probes, elaboration probes, and clarification probes.
◦ Examples: "Can you give me an example of that?", "Could you explain that
in more detail?", "I'm not sure I understand, could you clarify that for
me?"
• Neutral Questions:
◦ Questions that do not lead the interviewee or suggest a particular answer.
◦ Avoid biased or leading questions.
◦ Examples: "What are your thoughts on...?", "How did you feel about...?"
• Detail Probes:
◦ Questions that fill in the blanks (who, what, where, when) to get more
specific information.
◦ Help build a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
• Elaboration Probes:
◦ Questions that encourage the interviewee to provide more details and
expand on their responses.
◦ Examples: "Can you tell me more about that?", "What else can you share
about...?"
• Clarification Probes:
◦ Questions used to ensure the interviewer fully understands the interviewee's
responses.
◦ Help resolve any ambiguity or confusion.
◦ Examples: "I want to make sure I understand correctly, did you mean...?",
"Could you clarify what you meant by...?"

Types of Qualitative Interviews

• Overview: Qualitative interviews are conversations with a purpose, aimed at
generating insights around a research topic while remaining open to what the
interviewee has to share. There are three main types of qualitative interviews:
structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.
• Structured Interview:
◦ Uses the same set of questions for each participant, with fixed question
wording and order.
◦ Provides standardized open-ended questions.
• Semi-Structured Interview:
◦ Uses an interview guide to cover relevant topics, but remains open to the
natural flow of conversation.
◦ Allows for open-ended questions and flexibility in the order and wording of
questions.
• Unstructured Interview:
◦ Most open-ended approach, relying on the natural flow of conversation.
◦ Focuses on the topic but does not follow a predetermined set of questions.
◦ Allows for in-depth exploration of the participant's perspectives and
experiences.
• Types of Interview Questions:
◦ Behavioral questions: about what people do
◦ Opinion, value, goal, intention, belief, and attitude questions: about what
people think
◦ Feeling and emotion questions: about how people feel
◦ Sensory questions: about what people sense (taste, touch, etc.)
• Considerations for Qualitative Interviews:
◦ Asking singular, clear, and neutral questions to avoid bias
◦ Encouraging reflective and wide-ranging answers from the interviewee
◦ Actively listening, remaining neutral, and being curious
◦ Capitalizing on the responses already given and clarifying if needed

Sampling in Qualitative Research

• Overview: Sampling in qualitative research involves carefully selecting participants
or cases that can provide rich and in-depth information to address the
research question(s). The sampling strategies aim to ensure the inclusion of
diverse perspectives and information-rich cases.
• Sampling Criteria:
◦ Consider the research question and include different perspectives (e.g.
designers and clients)
◦ Select participants with vivid memories of the events/phenomena of interest
(e.g. recently finished or ongoing projects/collaborations)
◦ Include participants with first-hand experience (e.g. employees rather than
directors)
◦ Continue data collection until reaching saturation, where no new information
is being learned
• Purposeful Sampling Strategies:
◦ Criterion-based case selection: Select cases that meet predetermined
criteria
◦ Intensity sampling: Select information-rich cases that manifest the
phenomenon intensely
◦ Maximum variation: Select a wide range of cases to capture diverse
perspectives
◦ Homogeneous sampling: Select cases that are very similar to study what
they have in common
◦ Typical case sampling: Select average or normal cases to understand what
is typical
◦ Snowball/network sampling: Initial participants identify additional relevant
contacts
• Case Selection Methods:
◦ Confirming and disconfirming cases: Seek additional cases that are
variations or exceptions
◦ Politically important cases: Add or exclude cases to attract or curb attention
◦ Causal pathway cases: Select examples of mechanisms in action or inaction
to understand their causal powers
◦ Utilization-focused sampling: Select cases that support identifying key
factors to inform decision-making
• Saturation:
◦ In qualitative research, data collection often continues until saturation is
reached, where no new information is being learned.

Qualitative Research Interviews

• Overview: Qualitative interviews are conversations with a purpose, aimed at
generating insights around a research topic while remaining open to what the
interviewee has to share. They are useful for creating portraits of complicated
processes by combining accounts from different standpoints, and studying
phenomena that are 'invisible' to outsiders.
• Data Collection:
◦ Where, when, and from whom will the data be obtained?
◦ What are the relevant theories?
◦ What do you want to know? Describe? Explain? Understand? Solve a
problem?
• Interview Questions:
◦ Behavior, opinions/values/goals/intentions/beliefs/attitudes,
moods/emotions, experiential information
◦ Open-ended, singular questions to avoid confusion and encourage
reflective, wide-ranging answers
◦ Avoid leading questions
• Probes:
◦ Detail probes (who, where, what, when)
◦ Elaboration probes (encourage telling more)
◦ Clarification probes
• Purposeful Sampling:
◦ Select participants based on relevant criteria to the research question
◦ Can be based on prior literature, e.g., age, experience, socioeconomic
background
◦ Continue sampling until saturation is reached
• Types of Interviews:
◦ Structured - Standardized open-ended
◦ Semi-structured - General interview guide approach
◦ Unstructured - Informal conversational
• Interviewer Role:
◦ Listen more, talk less
◦ Remain neutral
◦ Be curious and listen attentively
◦ Clarify if unclear
◦ Stay professional
• Online Interviews:
◦ Pros: Reach certain groups more easily, save time
◦ Cons: Difficulty "reading the person", dealing with emotions, reaching less
literate participants, potential technical issues
• Focus Groups:
◦ Participants respond to each other, focus on diversity of opinions/practices
◦ Challenges: "the silent ones" vs. "the vocal ones", dealing with emotions,
practicalities
• Case Studies:
◦ In-depth exploration of phenomena within a specific context, using various
data sources and lenses

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Qualitative Interviews
• Overview: Qualitative interviews are a data collection method in qualitative
research that involve asking open-ended questions to gain in-depth insights
and understanding of a phenomenon from the perspective of the interviewee.
This allows for rich, detailed responses rather than simple yes/no answers.
• Open-Ended Questions:
◦ Encourage the interviewee to give reflective and wide-ranging answers.
◦ Allow the interviewee to share their perspective in their own words.
◦ Avoid leading the interviewee towards a particular response.
• Leading Questions:
◦ Should be avoided as they can prompt the interviewee to imagine
themselves in different roles and contexts.
◦ Can bias the interviewee's responses.
• Past Tense Questions:
◦ Encourage the interviewee to provide concrete, first-hand accounts rather
than generalized responses.
◦ Help the interviewee recall and describe specific experiences.
• Establishing Rapport:
◦ Demonstrating agreement with the interviewee's viewpoints is not necessary
to establish rapport.
◦ Rapport is built through active listening, empathy, and creating a
comfortable environment for the interviewee to share openly.

Research Design and Validity

• Overview: Research design and validity are crucial aspects of qualitative research.
Researchers need to carefully consider their approach, data collection
methods, and strategies to ensure the trustworthiness and credibility of their
findings.
• Multiple Case Study:
◦ Allows for the exploration of a phenomenon in different contexts, enabling
comparisons and the identification of patterns.
◦ Helps rule out alternative explanations and increases the generalizability of
findings.
• Triangulation:
◦ Using multiple data sources, methods, or investigators to corroborate
findings.
◦ Enhances the credibility and confirmability of the research.
• Member Checking:
◦ Involves checking the accuracy of the researcher's interpretations with the
participants.
◦ Helps ensure that the researcher's understanding aligns with the
participants' perspectives.
• Dialogic Engagement:
◦ Involves critical reflection on the research process and findings, often
through peer debriefing.
◦ Challenges the researcher's own subjectivity and biases, increasing the
credibility of the study.

Data Collection Methods

• Overview: Data collection methods are the techniques used by researchers to
gather information for their studies. These methods are crucial in qualitative
research to obtain rich, in-depth insights into the phenomenon of interest.
• Interview Guide Development:
◦ Develop open-ended questions that allow participants to share their
experiences and perspectives in detail.
◦ Avoid yes/no questions, multiple questions in one, jargon, and leading
questions.
◦ Structure the interview guide with a logical flow, starting with broader
questions and then moving to more specific topics.
• Sampling Strategies:
◦ Purposive sampling is commonly used in qualitative research, as the goal is
not generalizability but rather in-depth understanding.
◦ Strategies include maximum variation, snowball sampling, and theoretical
sampling.
◦ The sample size is typically smaller than in quantitative research, aiming for
data saturation.
• Threats to Trustworthiness:
◦ Potential threats include participant bias (e.g., "social desirability bias"),
researcher bias, and misunderstandings.
◦ Threats can undermine the credibility, confirmability, and dependability of
the research findings.
• Strategies to Prevent Bias:
◦ Triangulation (e.g., using multiple data sources, methods, or researchers)
◦ Member checking (verifying interpretations with participants)
◦ Researcher reflexivity (acknowledging and addressing one's own biases)
◦ Thick description (providing rich contextual details)
◦ Peer debriefing or external audits

Qualitative Research Validity

• Overview: Qualitative research validity refers to the academic criteria used to
assess the quality and trustworthiness of qualitative research. It encompasses
different types of validity, including descriptive, interpretive, theoretical, and
evaluative validity, as well as the ability to rule out alternative explanations.
• Descriptive Validity:
◦ Concerns the factual accuracy of the researcher's account of what was
observed or said.
◦ Focuses on the match between the researcher's description and the actual
events or behaviors.
• Interpretive Validity:
◦ Concerns the match between the meaning attributed to participants'
behaviors and the actual participants' perspectives.
◦ Focuses on capturing the participants' viewpoints, experiences, and
understandings.
• Theoretical Validity:
◦ Concerns the degree to which a theoretical explanation developed from the
research data fits the data.
◦ Focuses on the ability of the researcher's conceptual framework to explain
the phenomenon under study.
• Evaluative Validity:
◦ Concerns the degree to which the researcher's value judgments or
evaluations of the phenomenon are justified.
◦ Focuses on the researcher's ability to make sound evaluative conclusions
based on the data.
• Ruling Out Alternative Explanations:
◦ Involves considering and systematically ruling out other possible
explanations for the findings.
◦ Strategies like having multiple researchers code the same data, looking at
the data from different theoretical perspectives, and respondent
validation can help rule out alternative explanations.
• Improving Validity:
◦ Strategies to increase validity include triangulation, member checking,
presenting thick description, discussing negative cases, prolonged
engagement in the field, and using peer debriefers or external auditors.

Data Analysis Techniques

• Overview: Data analysis techniques in qualitative research involve various
methods for systematically examining and interpreting data to gain insights
and draw meaningful conclusions. These techniques include coding, grounded
theory, qualitative data analysis, and strategies to achieve validity in the
analysis.
• Coding:
◦ Coding is the process of organizing and categorizing data into meaningful
segments or themes.
◦ Coding can be done inductively (without predetermined categories) or
deductively (using pre-existing theoretical frameworks).
◦ Coding involves multiple stages, such as open/initial coding,
selective/focused coding, and theoretical coding.
• Grounded Theory:
◦ Grounded theory is a method for developing theory inductively from data.
◦ It involves an iterative process of data collection, coding, and constant
comparison to identify patterns and relationships.
◦ Theoretical sampling and saturation are key principles in grounded theory.
• Qualitative Data Analysis:
◦ Qualitative data analysis aims to understand the meaning and context of the
phenomenon being studied.
◦ Techniques include thematic analysis, narrative analysis, discourse
analysis, and phenomenological analysis.
◦ The analysis process often involves identifying themes, patterns, and
relationships within the data.
• Achieving Validity in Analysis:
◦ Strategies to increase validity include triangulation (using multiple data
sources, methods, or researchers), member checks (verifying findings
with participants), and providing thick descriptions.
◦ Reflexivity, peer debriefing, and external audits can also enhance the
trustworthiness of the analysis.
◦ Considerations for validity include credibility, transferability, dependability,
and confirmability of the research findings.

Research Design
• Overview: Research design refers to the overall strategy and structure of a
research study, which guides the selection of specific methods and techniques
for data collection, analysis, and interpretation. It involves making decisions
about the appropriate research approach, sampling, data collection, and
analysis methods to address the research question(s).
• Single-Case Research Design:
◦ Focuses on an in-depth investigation of a single case or unit of analysis.
◦ Suitable for capturing the circumstances and conditions of an everyday or
commonplace situation.
◦ Allows for observing and analyzing a phenomenon previously inaccessible
to social science inquiry.
◦ Less suitable for drawing generalizable conclusions that could apply to
many other cases in the population or for testing well-formulated
theories.
• Multiple-Case Research Design:
◦ Involves the study of two or more cases, allowing for comparison and the
identification of patterns and differences.
◦ Provides a stronger basis for theory building and testing.
◦ Enables the researcher to explore the extent to which findings can be
generalized to other contexts.
◦ Requires more resources and time compared to single-case designs.
• Access to Unobserved Situations:
◦ A rationale for selecting a single-case design is that the researcher has
access to a situation previously inaccessible to scientific observation.
◦ This allows the researcher to gain insights into phenomena that were
previously hidden from social science inquiry.
◦ Examples include Elliot Liebow's (1967) study of a group of African men
living in a poor, inner-city neighborhood, where the author was able to
learn about their lifestyles and coping behaviors through befriending
them.
• Strategies to Increase Trustworthiness:
◦ Triangulation (e.g., investigator, methodological)
◦ Member checking
◦ Dialogic engagement (peer debriefing)
◦ Thick description
◦ Researcher reflexivity
◦ External audits
◦ Discussing limitations and boundary conditions
◦ Identifying avenues for future research

Grounded Theory Method

• Overview: The Grounded Theory Method is an inductive approach to qualitative
research that aims to develop theory from the systematic analysis of data. It
involves an iterative process of data collection, coding, and analysis to identify
patterns and generate theoretical concepts grounded in the data.
• Theoretical Saturation:
◦ Theoretical saturation is achieved when:
▪ Categories are well-developed in terms of their properties and
dimensions.
▪ The relationships among categories are well established and
validated.
▪ No new categories are emerging from the data.
• Inductive Data Analysis:
◦ The grounded theory method involves an inductive approach to data
analysis, where the researcher does not start with a predetermined
theory or hypothesis.
◦ Instead, the theory is developed through the iterative process of data
collection, coding, and analysis.
• Coding Techniques:
◦ Open/Initial Coding: Identifying concepts and categories in the data
through line-by-line analysis.
◦ Selective/Focused Coding: Identifying the most significant or frequent
codes and developing them into broader categories.
◦ Theoretical Coding: Integrating and refining the categories to develop a
coherent theory.

Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

• Overview: Trustworthiness is a key consideration in qualitative research, as it
addresses the credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of
the research findings. Researchers employ various strategies to enhance the
trustworthiness of their qualitative studies.
• Member Checks:
◦ Processes by which researchers 'check in' with participants about different
aspects of the research to see how they think and feel about various
aspects of the research process and the data that pertain to them.
◦ Member checks help the researcher to explore and ascertain the extent to
which their accounts and reconstructions are adequate representations
of the participant's own experiences and realities.
• Credibility:
◦ The researcher's ability to take into account all of the complexities that
present themselves in a study and to deal with patterns that are not
easily explained.
◦ Strategies to enhance credibility include triangulation, prolonged
engagement, peer debriefing, and negative case analysis.
• Confirmability:
◦ Relative neutrality and reasonable freedom from acknowledged researcher
biases at the minimum, explicitness about the inevitable biases that
exist.
◦ Strategies to enhance confirmability include audit trails, reflexivity, and
triangulation.