‫قســــــــــــــــــــــــــــم الرياضيــــــــــــــــــــــــــــات‬

‫‪Lectures in‬‬
‫‪Mathematics 1‬‬

‫‪For Computers and‬‬

‫‪Information Students‬‬
‫‪-1-‬‬
 CONTENTS

Types of Functions 3

Limits 46

Conyinuity 54

The Derivatives 59

L’Hopital Theorem 95

Indefinite Integral 109

Method of Integration 121

The Definite Integral 161

Area 173

Bibliography 193

-2-
 Types of Functions
❶ Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function of degree 𝑛 is a function that can be written in the form

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,

where 𝑛 is positive integer, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.

𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are numbers called coefficients, and all coefficients are real
numbers.

Special cases

1- Constant function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 , 𝑎0 constant.

2- Linear function:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

3- Quadratic function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

4- Cubic function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

5- Power function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

Examples:

Ex 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 1

Which is a polynomial of degree 0, as 0 is the highest power of 𝑥 in the formula.

This is called a constant function.

-3-
 3

y 1
1

1
4 2 0 2 4

Ex 2: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 + 5

Which is a polynomial of degree 1 , as 1 is the highest power of 𝑥 . This is

called a linear function.

10

y 3x 5

10
20 10 0 10 20

Ex 3: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥 + 2

Which is a polynomial of degree 2, as 2 is the highest power of 𝑥 . This is called

a quadratic function.

20

15

10

y x^2 4x 2

5
5 0 5 10

Ex 4: 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 2

-4-
Which is a polynomial of degree 3, as 3 is the highest power of 𝑥. This is called
a cubic polynomial, or just a cubic.

Ex 5: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 − 4 𝑥 5 + 1

Which is a polynomial of degree 7, as 7 is the highest power of 𝑥.

Notice here that we don’t need every power of 𝑥 up to 7: we need to know only
the highest power of 𝑥 to find out the degree.

Functions containing other operations, such as square roots, are not polynomials.
For example,

Ex 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4 𝑥 −2 + 1

This is not a polynomial as it contains a negative integer.

Ex 2: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 4 √𝑥 + 1

This is not a polynomial as it contains a square root.

5 𝑥 6 −4 𝑥 5 +1
Ex 3: 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

This is not a polynomial as it contains a divide by 𝑥.

❷ Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are the functions sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,

secant, and cosecant. The values of these functions at a real number x are
denoted by sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 , csc 𝑥, respectively.

𝜋
Trigonometric functions of an acute angle 𝜃 (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ ) can be described in
2

terms of ratios of lengths of sides of right triangle

-5-
 𝜃

opposite BC 𝑎
Sin of 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = = =
hypotenuse AB ℎ

adjacent AC 𝑏
Cosine of 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = = =
hypotenuse AB ℎ

opposite BC 𝑎
Tangent of 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = = =
adjacent AC 𝑏

Notice that the three ratios [csc 𝜃 , sec 𝜃 , cot 𝜃] are reciprocals of the ratios
[sin 𝜃 , cos 𝜃 , tan 𝜃]

The connection between these functions.

opp 1 1
sin 𝜃 = = hyp =
hyp csc 𝜃
opp

adj 1 1
cos 𝜃 = = hyp =
hyp sec 𝜃
adj

-6-
 opp 1 1
tan 𝜃 = = adj =
adj cot 𝜃
opp

opp
opp hyp sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = = adj = tan 𝜃 =
adj cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
hyp

adj
adj hyp cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
cot 𝜃 = = opp = cot 𝜃 =
opp sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
hyp

• Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

⊗ Sine function: sin 𝑥

Properties of sine function:

1- Period: 2𝜋
sin 𝑥 = sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋),
sin 𝑥 = sin(𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋), where k ∈ integers.
2- The sine function is odd, therefore, symmetric with respect to origin:
sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
3- Domain: [−∞, ∞] or ℝ
4- Range: [−1,1]

⊗ Cosine function: cos 𝑥

-7-
Properties of cosine function:

1- Period: 2𝜋
cos 𝑥 = cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋),
cos 𝑥 = cos(𝑥 + 2𝑘𝜋), where k ∈ integers.
2- The cosine function is even, therefore, symmetric with respect to 𝑦 axis:
cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥
3- Domain: [−∞, ∞] or ℝ
4- Range: [−1,1]

⊗ Tangent function: tan 𝑥

Properties of tangent function:

1- Period: 𝜋
tan 𝑥 = tan(𝑥 + 𝜋) ,
tan 𝑥 = tan(𝑥 + 𝑘𝜋), where k ∈ integers.
2- The tangent function is odd, therefore, symmetric with respect to origin:
sin(−𝑥) − sin 𝑥
tan(−𝑥) = = = − tan 𝑥
cos(−𝑥) cos 𝑥
𝜋
3- Domain: ℝ − { + 𝑘 𝜋}, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
2

4- Range: ℝ
𝜋
5- Lines 𝑥 = + 𝑘 𝜋 are vertical asymptotes.
2

⊗ Cotangent function: cot 𝑥

-8-
Properties of cotangent function:

1- Period: 𝜋
cot 𝑥 = cot(𝑥 + 𝜋) ,
cot 𝑥 = cot(𝑥 + 𝑘𝜋), where k ∈ integers.
2- The cotangent function is odd, therefore, symmetric with respect to origin:
cos(−𝑥) cos 𝑥
cot(−𝑥) = = = − cot 𝑥
sin(−𝑥) − sin 𝑥

3- Domain: ℝ − {𝑘 𝜋}, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
4- Range: ℝ
5- Lines 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝜋 are vertical asymptotes.

⊗ Secant function: sec 𝑥

-9-
⊗ Cosecant function: csc 𝑥

• Formulas and Identities

Tangent and Cotangent Identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

- 10 -
 Reciprocal Identities
1 1
sin 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
csc 𝑥 tan 𝑥
1 1
cos 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 =
sec 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1 1
tan 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
cot 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Pythagorean Identities
sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1
1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦

cos (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦

tan 𝑥±tan 𝑦
tan(𝑥 ± 𝑦) =
1∓ tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦

Double Angle Formulas

sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = { 2 cos2 𝑥 − 1
1 − 2sin2 𝑥
2 tan 𝑥
tan 2𝑥 =
1 − tan2 𝑥

Half Angle Formulas

1
sin2 𝑥 = [1 − cos 2𝑥]
2
1
cos 2 𝑥 = [1 + cos 2𝑥]
2
1 − cos 2𝑥
tan2 𝑥 =
1 + cos 2𝑥

- 11 -
 Sum to Product Formulas
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 = −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2

Product to Sum Formulas

1
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [cos (𝑥 − 𝑦) + cos (𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2
1
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [cos (𝑥 − 𝑦) − cos (𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2
1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [sin (𝑥 + 𝑦) + sin (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
1
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [sin (𝑥 + 𝑦) − sin (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2

Even / Odd Formulas

sin(− 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 cot(−𝑥) = − cot 𝑥

cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 sec(− 𝑥) = sec 𝑥

tan(−𝑥) = − tan 𝑥 csc(− 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥

Periodic Formulas If 𝑛 is an integer.

sin( 𝑥 + 2𝜋 𝑛) = sin 𝑥 cot(𝑥 + 𝜋 𝑛) = cot 𝑥

cos( 𝑥 + 2𝜋 𝑛) = cos 𝑥 sec(𝑥 + 2𝜋 𝑛) = sec 𝑥

tan( 𝑥 + 𝑛 𝜋) = tan 𝑥 csc(𝑥 + 2𝜋 𝑛) = csc 𝑥

❸ Exponential Function

Consider a function of the form

- 12 -
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ , 𝑎 > 0.

We can take three different cases

Case I: 𝑎 = 1, then

𝑓(𝑥) = 1𝑥 = 1

So this just gives us the constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1.

Case II: 𝑎 > 0, to examine this case, take a numerical example. Suppose
that 𝑎 = 2, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

3
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
2

1 (0,1)
0

1
4 2 0 2 4

What is the effect of varying 𝑎? We can see this by looking at sketches of a few
graphs of similar functions.

4 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥
3

2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
1
(0,1)

1
2 1 0 1 2

1 1 𝑥
Case III: 0 < 𝑎 < 1, suppose that 𝑎 = , then 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) = 2− 𝑥
2 2

- 13 -
 5

4
𝑓(𝑥) = 2−𝑥
3

1
(0,1)

1
4 2 0 2 4

Properties of the 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥

1- If 𝑎 > 0, the graph increases.

2- If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, the graph decreases.
3- The domain is all real numbers.
4- The range is all positive real numbers (never zero).
5- Single-valued function.

A particularly important example of an exponential function arises when 𝑎 = 𝑒,

where 𝑒 is the number such that:

1 𝑛 1
𝑒 = lim (1 + ) = lim (1 + 𝑛)𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→0

The value of 𝑒 accurate to eight places is 2.71828183.

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural exponential function.

𝑥 𝑛 1
𝑒 𝑥 = lim (1 + ) = lim (1 + 𝑥 𝑛)𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→0

−𝑥
𝑥 𝑛 1
𝑒 = lim (1 − ) = lim (1 − 𝑥 𝑛) 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→0

We can sketch the graphs of the exponential functions

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥

- 14 -
 5

3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
2
(0,1)
1

1
2 1 0 1 2

Domain: ℝ , Range: (0, ∞)

Basic properties of natural exponential function.

𝑒 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 𝑒𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦
𝑒𝑦

(𝑒 𝑥 )𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 =
1
𝑒𝑥

𝑒0 = 1 𝑒1 = 𝑒

𝑒∞ =∞ 𝑒 −∞ = 0

❹ Logarithm function

The logarithmic function is defined as:

𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑥 > 0.

The base of the logarithm is 𝑎.

• If 𝑎 > 0, to examine this case, suppose that 𝑎 = 3

- 15 -
 3

1
𝑓(𝑥) = log 3 𝑥
0

3
0 2 4 6 8

1
• If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, to examine this case, suppose that 𝑎 =
3

1
𝑓(𝑥) = log 1 𝑥
3
2

3
0 2 4 6 8

Properties of Logarithmic Functions of the Form 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥.

1- The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 consists of all positive real numbers:(0, ∞)

or ℝ+ .
2- The range of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 consists of all real numbers:(−∞, ∞) or ℝ.
3- The graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the point (0,1).
The 𝑥-intercept is 1. There is no 𝑥-intercept.
4- If 𝑎 > 0, 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 has a graph that goes up to the right and is an
increasing function.
5- If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 has a graph that goes down to the right and is a
decreasing function.

- 16 -
 1
6- log 𝑎 𝑏 = , 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1.
log𝑏 𝑎

7- log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑥 × log 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0

For the special case where 𝑎 = 𝑒 we often write ln 𝑥 instead of log 𝑒 𝑥.

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 is called the natural logarithm function.

𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥

• The relationship between exponential functions and logarithm functions

We can see the relationship between the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and
the logarithm function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 by looking at their graphs.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 : Domain: ℝ Range: (0, ∞)

𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥: Domain: (0, ∞) Range: ℝ

You can see straight away that the logarithm function is a reflection of the
exponential function in the line represented by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. In other words, the
axes have been swapped: 𝑥 becomes 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑓(𝑥) becomes 𝑥.

- 17 -
The exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is the inverse of the logarithm
function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥.

If 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦

If 𝑦 = log10 𝑥 𝑥 = 10𝑦

If 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦

Properties of the natural logarithm function.

ln (𝑥 𝑦) = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 𝑥
ln ( ) = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦
𝑦
𝑎
ln 𝑥 = 𝑎 ln 𝑥 ln lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ln 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
ln (𝑒 𝑥 )
=𝑥 𝑒ln 𝑥
=𝑥
ln 𝑒 = 1 ln 1 = 0
ln 0 = −∞ ln ∞ = ∞

Note that:

∵ log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 × log 𝑎 𝑒

log 𝑎 𝑥
∴ log 𝑎 𝑒 =
ln 𝑥

1
∵ ln 𝑎 = log 𝑒 𝑎 =
log 𝑎 𝑒

1 log 𝑎 𝑥
∴ =
ln 𝑎 ln 𝑥

∴ ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑎 × log 𝑎 𝑥

Put 𝑎 = 10, we get

- 18 -
ln 𝑥 = ln 10 × log 𝑥

∴ ln 𝑥 = 2.3026 log 𝑥 ∴ log 𝑥 = 0.43429 ln 𝑥

Example 1

Prove that: ln(𝑥 𝑦) = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦

Solution

let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑢

𝑣 = ln 𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑣

l. H. S = ln(𝑒 𝑢 𝑒 𝑣 ) = ln(𝑒 𝑢+𝑣 )

= 𝑢 + 𝑣 = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦

Example 2

Find the following limits

2 3𝑛
i. lim (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Solution
3
2 3𝑛 2 𝑛
lim (1 + ) = [ lim (1 + ) ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

= [𝑒 2 ]3 = 𝑒 6

4 𝑛−1
ii. lim (1 − )
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛

- 19 -
 Solution
4 𝑛−1 4 𝑛 4 −1
lim (1 − ) = lim [ (1 − ) (1 − ) ]
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 3𝑛

4 𝑛 4 −1
3 3
= lim (1 − ) lim (1 − )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

4 4
= 𝑒 −3 × 1 = 𝑒 −3

𝑛−3 2𝑛−7
iii. lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+4

Solution

3 2𝑛−7
𝑛−3 2𝑛−7 1−
𝑛
lim ( ) = lim ( 4 )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+4 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛

3 2𝑛 3 −7
1− 1−
𝑛 𝑛
= lim ( 4 ) × lim ( 4 )
𝑛→∞ 1+ 𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛 𝑛

3 𝑛 2
1−
𝑛
= [ lim ( 4 ) ] ×1
𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛

3 𝑛 2
lim (1− )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
= [ 4 𝑛
]
lim (1+ )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

2
𝑒 −3
= [ ]
𝑒4

= [ 𝑒 −7 ]2 = 𝑒 −14

ln(1+𝑛)
iv. lim
𝑛→0 𝑛

Solution
- 20 -
 ln(1+𝑛) 1
lim = lim ln(1 + 𝑛)
𝑛→0 𝑛 𝑛→0 𝑛

1
= lim ln(1 + 𝑛)𝑛
𝑛→0

1
= ln lim (1 + 𝑛)𝑛
𝑛→0

= ln 𝑒 = 1

1 1+𝑥
v. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
ln √
1−𝑥

Solution
1
1 1+𝑥 1+𝑥 2𝑥
lim ln √ = lim ln ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑥→0 1−𝑥

1
1 2
1+𝑥 𝑥
= ln [ lim ( ) ]
1−𝑥
𝑥→0

1
1 2
lim (1+𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0
= ln [ 1 ]
lim (1−𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0

1
𝑒 2
= ln [ ]
𝑒 −1

1
= ln [ 𝑒 2 ]2

= ln 𝑒 = 1

vi. lim 𝑥 [ln(𝑥 + 5) − ln 𝑥]

𝑥→∞

Solution

- 21 -
 𝑥+5
lim 𝑥 [ln(𝑥 + 5) − ln 𝑥] = lim 𝑥 ln ( )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

5 𝑥
= lim ln (1 + )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

5 𝑥
= ln lim (1 + ) = ln 𝑒 5 = 5
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

❺ Hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic functions sinh 𝑥,cosh 𝑥, tanh 𝑥 etc are certain combinations of
the exponential functions 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 . The notation implies a close relationship
between these functions and the trigonometric functions sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 etc.
The close relationship is algebraic rather than geometrical.

The hyperbolic sine function, written sinh 𝑥, is defined for all values of 𝑥 by the
relation 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 =
2
Similarly the hyperbolic cosine function, cosh 𝑥, is defined by
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
cosh 𝑥 =
2

Definitions of Hyperbolic Functions

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 =
2 2

sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = = coth 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥

1 2 1 2
sech 𝑥 = = csch 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥

- 22 -
• Graphs of the hyperbolic functions

⊗ Hyperbolic Sine function: sinh 𝑥

Domain: ℝ
Rang: ℝ
Odd function
sinh 0 = 0
sinh ∞ = ∞
sinh −∞ = −∞

⊗ Hyperbolic Cosine function: cosh 𝑥

Domain: ℝ
Rang: [1, ∞)
Even function
cosh 0 = 1
cosh ∞ = ∞
cosh −∞ = ∞

⊗ Hyperbolic Tangent function: tanh 𝑥

Domain: ℝ
Rang: (−1,1)
Odd function
𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 tanh 0 = 0
tanh ∞ = 1
tanh −∞ = −1

⊗ Hyperbolic Cotangent function: coth 𝑥

- 23 -
Domain: ℝ − {0} Rang: ℝ − [−1,1]
coth 0+ = ∞ coth 0− = −∞
coth ∞ = 1 coth −∞ = −1
Odd function

⊗ Hyperbolic Secant function: sech 𝑥

1.5

1.0

0.5
𝑦 = sech 𝑥

0.0

0.5
4 2 0 2 4

Domain: ℝ Rang: (−1,1]

sech ∞ = 0 sech −∞ = 0
Even function

⊗ Hyperbolic Cosecant function: csch 𝑥

1.0

Domain: ℝ − {0}
0.5 Rang: ℝ − {0}
𝑦 = csch 𝑥 Odd function
0.0 csch 0+ = ∞
csch 0− = −∞
0.5 csch ∞ = 0
csch −∞ = 0
1.0
10 5 0 5 10

- 24 -
The fundamental identity for hyperbolic functions

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥

1 1
sinh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 =
csch 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
1 1
cosh 𝑥 = sech 𝑥 =
sech 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
1 1
tanh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 =
coth 𝑥 sinh 𝑥

cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
1 − tanh2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
coth2 𝑥 − 1 = csc 2 𝑥

sinh (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

cosh (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦

tanh 𝑥 ± tanh 𝑦
tanh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) =
1 ± tanh 𝑥 tanh 𝑦

sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥

cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥
cosh 2𝑥 = { 2 cosh2 𝑥 − 1
1 + 2sinh2 𝑥
2 tanh 𝑥
tanh 2𝑥 =
1 + tanh2 𝑥

1
sinh2 𝑥 = [cosh 2𝑥 − 1]
2
1
cosh2 𝑥 = [cosh 2𝑥 + 1]
2
cosh 2𝑥 − 1
tanh2 𝑥 =
cosh 2𝑥 + 1

- 25 -
 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
sinh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑦 = 2 sinh ( ) cosh ( )
2 2
𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
sinh 𝑥 − sinh 𝑦 = 2 sinh ( ) cosh ( )
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cosh 𝑥 + cosh 𝑦 = 2 cosh ( ) cosh ( )
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cosh 𝑥 − cosh 𝑦 = 2 sinh ( ) sinh ( )
2 2

1
sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 = [cosh (𝑥 + 𝑦) − cosh (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
1
cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 = [cosh (𝑥 + 𝑦) + cosh (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
1
sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 = [sinh (𝑥 + 𝑦) + sinh (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2
1
cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 = [sinh (𝑥 + 𝑦) − sinh (𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2

sinh(− 𝑥) = − sinh 𝑥 coth(−𝑥) = − coth 𝑥

cosh(−𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 sech(− 𝑥) = sech 𝑥

tanh(−𝑥) = − tanh 𝑥 csch(− 𝑥) = − csch 𝑥

Example 3

Prove that: cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1

Solution

𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 2
L. H. S = ( ) −( )
2 2
1 1
= [𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − (𝑒 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )] = [4] = 1 = R. H. S
4 4

- 26 -
 Example 4
Prove that:

sinh (𝑥 + 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

Solution

R. H. S = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦
=( )×( )+( )×( )
2 2 2 2

𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑥+𝑦 − 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑦) 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑥+𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 − 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑦)

= +
4 4

2 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 − 2 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑦)
=
4

𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 − 𝑒 −(𝑥+𝑦)
= = sinh (𝑥 + 𝑦) = L. H. S
2

Example 5

Solve the equation: 5 cosh 𝑥 − 4 sinh 𝑥 = 3

Solution
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
∵ cosh 𝑥 = , sinh 𝑥 =
2 2
𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥
∴ 5( )−4 ( )=3
2 2

∴ 5 𝑒 𝑥 + 5 𝑒 −𝑥 − 4 𝑒 𝑥 + 4 𝑒 −𝑥 = 6

∴ 𝑒 𝑥 + 9 𝑒 −𝑥 = 6 𝑒 2𝑥 − 6 𝑒 𝑥 + 9 = 0

∴ (𝑒 𝑥 − 3)2 = 0 𝑒𝑥 − 3 = 0

∴ 𝑒𝑥 = 3 𝑥 = ln 3

- 27 -
 Example 6

Solve the equation: 2 cosh 2𝑥 + 10 sinh 2𝑥 = 5

Solution
𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥
∵ cosh 2𝑥 = , sinh 2𝑥 =
2 2
𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥
∴ 2( ) + 10 ( )=5
2 2

𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 5 𝑒 2𝑥 − 5𝑒 −2𝑥 = 5

6 𝑒 2𝑥 − 4𝑒 −2𝑥 = 5 6 𝑒 4𝑥 − 4 = 5𝑒 2𝑥

6 𝑒 4𝑥 − 5𝑒 2𝑥 − 4 = 0

(3 𝑒 2𝑥 − 4 ) (2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1) = 0

∴ 3 𝑒 2𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 = 0

4 1
∴ 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 2𝑥 = −
3 2

The only real solution occurs

4 1 4
∴ 2𝑥 = ln 𝑥= ln
3 2 3

Example 7

Solve the equation: cosh (ln 𝑥) − 2 sinh (ln 𝑥) = 1

Solution
𝑒 ln 𝑥 +𝑒 − ln 𝑥 𝑒 ln 𝑥 −𝑒 − ln 𝑥
∵ cosh (ln 𝑥) = , sinh (ln 𝑥) =
2 2
𝑒 ln 𝑥 +𝑒 − ln 𝑥 𝑒 ln 𝑥 −𝑒 − ln 𝑥
∴( )−2 ( )=1
2 2

- 28 -
 1 1
∴ 𝑒 ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 ln𝑥 − 2𝑒 ln 𝑥 + 2𝑒 ln𝑥 = 2
1
ln 𝑥 ln 1
∴ −𝑒 + 3𝑒 𝑥 =2 −𝑥 + 3 =2
𝑥

∴ −𝑥 2 + 3 = 2 𝑥 𝑥2 + 2 𝑥 − 3 = 0

∴ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 𝑥 = 1 , 𝑥 = −3

The only real solution occurs 𝑥=1

❻ Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse trigonometric functions represent another group of basic functions that
are added to our library of elementary functions. These functions are used in
many applications and mathematical developments, and will be particularly
useful to us when we solve trigonometric equations.

⊗ Inverse Sine function: sin−1 𝑥 or arcsin 𝑥

The inverse sine function is defined by:

𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , − ≤𝑦≤
2 2

To graph 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 , take each point on the graph of the restricted sine
function and reverse the order of the coordinates.

𝜋 𝜋
For example, because (− , −1) , (0,0) and ( , 1) are on the graph of the
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
restricted sine function, then (−1, − ) , (0,0) and (1, ) are on the graph of the
2 2

inverse sine function. Using these three points provides us with a quick way of
sketching the graph of the inverse sine function. A more accurate graph can be
obtained by using a calculator.

- 29 -
Properties of the inverse sine function:

i. sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥, if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋
ii. sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥, if − ≤𝑥≤
2 2
1
iii. sin−1 𝑥 ≠ [(sin 𝑥)−1 = = csc 𝑥]
sin 𝑥

1 1 1
Ex: sin (sin−1 ) = , since −1 ≤ ≤ 1
2 2 2

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Ex: sin−1 (sin ) = , since − ≤ ≤
4 4 2 4 2

⊗ Inverse Cosine function: cos −1 𝑥 or arccos 𝑥

The inverse cosine function defined by:

𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 𝑥 = cos 𝑦

−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , 0≤𝑦≤𝜋

Compares the graphs of the restricted cosine function and its inverse. Notice that
𝜋
(0,1), ( , 0) and (𝜋, 0) are on the restricted cosine graph. Reversing the
2

coordinates gives us three points on the graph of the inverse cosine function.

- 30 -
Important Rules

i. cos(cos −1 𝑥) = 𝑥, if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
ii. cos −1 (cos 𝑥) = 𝑥, if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
1
iii. cos −1 𝑥 ≠ [(cos 𝑥)−1 = = sec 𝑥]
cos 𝑥

Ex: cos(cos −1 0.2) = 0.2, since −1 ≤ 0.2 ≤ 1

𝜋 𝜋
Ex: cos −1 (cos 𝑥) = , since 0≤ ≤𝜋
0 2

⊗ Inverse Tangent function: tan−1 𝑥 or arctan 𝑥

The inverse tangent function is defined by:

𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tan 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
−∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞ , − ≤𝑦≤
2 2
Compares the graphs of the restricted tangent function and its inverse. Notice
𝜋 𝜋
that (− , 1) , (0,0) and ( , 1) are on the restricted tangent graph. Reversing the
4 4

coordinates gives us three points on the graph of the inverse tangent function.
Also note that the vertical asymptotes become horizontal asymptotes for the
inverse function.

• tan(tan−1 𝑥) = 𝑥, if −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞.
𝜋 𝜋
• tan−1 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥, if − ≤𝑥≤ .
2 2

- 31 -
⊗ Inverse Cotangent, Secant, and Cosecant Functions

We include the definitions and graphs of the inverse cotangent, secant, and
cosecant functions.

Example 8

Prove that

sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥 √1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 √1 − 𝑥 2 )

Solution

- 32 -
Let 𝛼 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝛼

𝛽 = sin−1 𝑦 𝑦 = sin 𝛽

∴ cos 𝛼 = √1 − sin2 𝛼 = √1 − 𝑥 2

cos 𝛽 = √1 − sin2 𝛽 = √1 − 𝑦 2

∵ sin (𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽

∴ sin(sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦) = 𝑥 √1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 √1 − 𝑥 2

∴ sin−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥 √1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 √1 − 𝑥 2 )

Example 9
𝜋
Prove that: sin−1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑥 =
2

Solution
Let 𝛼 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝛼

𝛽 = cos −1 𝑥 𝑥 = cos 𝛽

𝜋
∴ sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑧 𝛼+𝛽 =
2

𝜋
∴ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = sin−1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑥 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 =
2

Example 10

Prove that: sin(2 sin−1 𝑥) = 2 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Solution 1 𝑥

Let 𝛼 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝑦

√1 − 𝑥 2

∴ L. H. S = sin(2 sin−1 𝑥) sin 𝑦 = 𝑥

cos 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2

- 33 -
 = sin 2𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Example 11
1−𝑥 2
Prove that: cos( 2 tan−1 𝑥) =
1+𝑥 2

Solution

let 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tan 𝑦

∴ L. H. S = cos( 2 tan−1 𝑥)
√1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥
= cos 2𝑦

= cos 2 𝑦 − sin2 𝑦 1
𝑥
sin 𝑦 =
√1 + 𝑥 2
1 𝑥2 1−𝑥 2 1
= − = cos 𝑦 =
1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥 2

❼ Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

⊗ Inverse hyperbolic sine: sinh−1 𝑥

𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦

−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ , −∞ < 𝑦 < ∞

Domain: ℝ
Range: ℝ
Odd function
sinh−1 0 = 0

- 34 -
⊗ Inverse hyperbolic cosine: cosh−1 𝑥

𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦

1≤𝑥<∞ , 0≤𝑦<∞

Domain: [1, ∞)
Range: [0, ∞)
cosh−1 1 = 0

⊗ Inverse hyperbolic tangent: tanh−1 𝑥

𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦

−1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , −∞ < 𝑦 < ∞

Domain: [−1,1]
Range: (−∞, ∞)
tanh−1 1 = ∞
tanh−1 −1 = −∞

⊗ Inverse hyperbolic cotangent: coth−1 𝑥

𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥 𝑥 = coth 𝑦

𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) , 𝑦 ∈ ℝ − {0}

- 35 -
 Domain: (−∞, −1) ∪
(1, ∞)
Range: ℝ − {0}

⊗ Inverse hyperbolic secant: sech−1 𝑥

𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sech 𝑦

0<𝑥≤1 , 0≤𝑦<∞

Domain: (0,1]
Range: [0, ∞)

⊗ Inverse hyperbolic cosecant: csch−1 𝑥

𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 𝑥 = csch 𝑦
𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0} , 𝑦 ∈ ℝ − {0}

Domain: ℝ − {0}
Range: ℝ − {0}

- 36 -
 Example 12
Prove that: sinh−1 𝑥 = ln[ 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ] , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Solution

let 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦

𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒𝑦
∴ 𝑥= 𝑥= ×
2 2 𝑒𝑦

𝑒 2𝑦 −1
∴ 𝑥= 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1
2 𝑒𝑦

∴ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 ) − 1 = 0 (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 ) − 1 = 0
𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = − 2 𝑥 , 𝑐 = −1
2 𝑥 ± √4 𝑥2 +4
∴ 𝑒𝑦 = −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
2 𝑒𝑦 =
2𝑎
= 𝑥 ± √ 𝑥2 + 1

∵ √𝑥 2 + 1 > 𝑥 𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 1 < 0

∵ 𝑒 𝑦 > 0, thus we must take 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √ 𝑥 2 + 1

Taking the ln to both sides, we obtain

ln 𝑒 𝑦 = ln[ 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ]
∴ 𝑦 = ln[ 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ]
∴ sinh−1 𝑥 = ln[ 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ]

- 37 -
 Example 13
Prove that: cosh−1 𝑥 = ln[ 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1 ] , 𝑥 ≥ 1

Solution

let 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦

𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒𝑦
∴ 𝑥= 𝑥= ×
2 2 𝑒𝑦

𝑒 2𝑦 +1
∴ 𝑥= 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑦 + 1
2 𝑒𝑦

∴ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 ) + 1 = 0
(𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 ) + 1 = 0
𝑎 = 1 ,𝑏 = − 2 𝑥 ,𝑐 = 1
2 𝑥 ± √4 𝑥2 −4
∴ 𝑒𝑦 = −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
2 𝑒𝑦 =
2𝑎
= 𝑥 ± √ 𝑥2 − 1

Taking the ln to both sides, we obtain

ln 𝑒 𝑦 = ln[ 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1 ]
∴ 𝑦 = ln[ 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1 ]
∴ cosh−1 𝑥 = ln[ 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1 ]

Example 14

Prove that:
1 1+𝑥
tanh−1 𝑥 = ln ( ) , −1 < 𝑥 < 1
2 1−𝑥
Solution

let 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦

- 38 -
 𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒𝑦
∴ 𝑥= 𝑥= ×
𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒𝑦

𝑒 2𝑦 −1
∴ 𝑥= 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑦 + 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1
𝑒 2𝑦 +1

1+𝑥
∴ 1 + 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥) 𝑒 2𝑦 𝑒 2𝑦 =
1−𝑥

Taking the ln to both sides, we obtain

1+𝑥 1+𝑥
ln 𝑒 2𝑦 = ln ( ) 2𝑦 = ln ( )
1−𝑥 1−𝑥

1 1+𝑥 1 1+𝑥
𝑦= ln ( ) tanh−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥

Example 15
1
Prove that: csch−1 𝑥 = sinh−1
𝑥

Solution

let 𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 𝑥 = csch 𝑦

1 1 1
∴ = = sinh 𝑦
𝑥 csch 𝑦 𝑥

Taking the inverse hyperbolic sine, we obtain

1 1
sinh−1 = sinh−1 (sinh 𝑦) 𝑦 = sinh−1
𝑥 𝑥
1
∴ csch−1 𝑥 = sinh−1
𝑥

- 39 -
 Exercises

❶ Polynomial functions

1- Which of the following functions are polynomial functions?

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 2 + 2

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 13 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 + √𝑥

(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 12 − 4 𝑥 5 + 3 𝑥 2

(d) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + 1

2
(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 12 −
𝑥

(f) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 11 − 2 𝑥 12

❷ Trigonometric functions

(1) Graph each of the following functions.

(i) 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = csc 𝑥

(2) Find the domain and range of the following functions:

(i) 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = cot 𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = sec 𝑥

(3) Verify the identity.

i. (1 − sin2 𝑥) (1 + tan2 𝑥) = 1
1
ii. csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥
= csc 𝑥 + cot 𝑥

iii. 2 sin2 2𝑥 + co s 4𝑥 = 1

- 40 -
 iv. cot 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 csc 𝑥
v. cos 4 𝑥 − sin4 𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
vi. sin 5𝑥 + 2 sin 3𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = 4 cos2 𝑥 sin 3𝑥
(4) Express co s 3𝑥 + co s 7𝑥 as a product.
co s 𝑥 − co s 3𝑥
(5) Prove that = tan 𝑥 tan 2𝑥.
co s 𝑥 + co s 3𝑥

(6) Prove that sin 3𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑥 − 4 sin3 𝑥.

❸ Exponential function
1. Find the inverse function of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 .
2. Graph each of the following functions.

(i) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = 4𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = 3𝑥

3. Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(i) 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = 5𝑥
4. Solve for 𝑥 : 103𝑥−1 = 22𝑥+1
5. Find the following limits

3 𝑛+1
i. lim (1 − )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

2 2𝑥
ii. lim (1 + )
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥
1
iii. lim(1 + 2 𝑥)3 𝑥
𝑥→0

𝑥 3𝑥
iv. lim ( )
𝑥→∞ 1+ 𝑥

𝑛+3 5𝑛+2
v. lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛−4

3𝑛−2 3𝑛−4
vi. lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛+5
𝑛
1+𝑛
vii. lim (√ )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛−1

- 41 -
 ❹ Logarithm function

1- Find the inverse function of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥.

2- What is the relationship between the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 and the
graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ?
3- Graph each of the following functions.

(i) 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = log 𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥

4- Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(i) 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 (ii) 𝑦 = log 𝑥 (iii) 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥.
5- Solve for 𝑥 log 5 (2𝑥 + 3) = 3.
6- Write as one logarithm: 3ln 𝑥 + 2 ln 𝑥 − 5 ln 𝑥
𝑥
7- Prove that ln ( ) = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦
𝑦

8- Find the following limits

ln(1+𝑛)
i. lim
𝑛→0 𝑛

ln(1+𝑛3 )
ii. lim
𝑛→0 𝑛3

iii. lim 𝑥 [ln(𝑥 − 2) − ln 𝑥]

𝑛→∞

❺ Hyperbolic functions

1. Discuss the graph of 𝑦 = tanh 𝑥.

2. Prove that

i. cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
ii. cosh2 3𝑥 − sinh2 3𝑥 = 1
iii. sinh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sinh 𝑦 cosh 𝑥
iv. cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
v. cosh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
vi. sinh 3𝑥 = 3 sinh 𝑥 + 4 sinh3 𝑥

- 42 -
 vii. sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
3. Solve the following equations

3
i. sinh 𝑥 =
4

ii. 5 cosh 𝑥 − 4 sinh 𝑥 = 3

iii. cosh (ln 𝑥) − 2 sinh (ln 𝑥) = 1
iv. 4 cosh 𝑥 + sinh 𝑥 = 4
v. 3 sinh 𝑥 − cosh 𝑥 = 1
vi. 4 tanh 𝑥 = 1 + sech 𝑥
vii. 12 cosh2 𝑥 + 7 sinh 𝑥 = 24
viii. 9 sech2 𝑥 − 3 tanh 𝑥 = 7

❻ Inverse trigonometric functions

1- Find exact values without using a calculator.

−1
i. sin−1 ( )
2

ii. sin−1 (si n 1.2)

2
iii. cos (sin−1 )
3
5
iv. tan (sin−1 )
13
2
v. tan (cos −1 )
3
3 1
vi. cos (sin−1 + cos −1 )
4 4
3 1
vii. sin (sin−1 − cos −1 )
4 4

2- Prove that
𝜋
i. sin−1 3𝑥 + cos −1 3𝑥 =
2

ii. sin(4 sin−1 𝑥) = 4 𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥 2 )√1 − 𝑥 2

1 1+𝑥
iii. cos ( cos −1 𝑥) = √
2 2

- 43 -
 1−𝑥 4
iv. cos( 2 tan−1 𝑥 2 ) =
1+𝑥 4
2𝑥
v. sin−1 (2 tan−1 𝑥) =
1+𝑥 2
2𝑥
vi. 2 tan−1 𝑥 = sin−1 ( )
1+𝑥 2

vii. sin−1 𝑥 − sin−1 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥 √1 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 √1 − 𝑥 2 )

viii. cos −1 𝑥 + cos −1 𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑥 𝑦 − √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 )

i. cos −1 𝑥 − cos −1 𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑥 𝑦 + √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑦 2 )

ii. cos −1 𝑥 + cos −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋
1 𝜋
iii. tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 =
𝑥 2
1
iv. cot −1 𝑥 = tan−1
𝑥
1
v. sec −1 𝑥 = cos −1
𝑥
1
vi. csc −1 𝑥 = sin−1
𝑥

❼ Inverse hyperbolic functions

1- Express each of the following in logarithmic form.

3
i. sinh−1
4

ii. cosh−1 2
1
iii. tanh−1
2

iv. sech−1 0.7

2- Find 𝑥 if

i. sinh 𝑥 = 4
ii. cosh 𝑥 = 1.1
iii. tanh 𝑥 = 0.8
3- Solve the following equations

𝑥−2
i. 2 tanh−1 ( ) = ln 2
𝑥+4

- 44 -
 ii. sinh−1 𝑥 + cosh−1 (𝑥 + 2) = 0
4- Prove that

1 𝑥+1
i. coth−1 𝑥 = ln ( ) , |𝑥| > 1
2 𝑥−1

1+√1−𝑥 2
ii. sech−1 𝑥 = ln [ ] , 0<𝑥≤1
𝑥

1+√1+𝑥 2
iii. csch−1 𝑥 = ln [ ] 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 − {0}
𝑥

iv. cosh−1 𝑥 − cosh−1 𝑦 = cosh−1 (𝑥𝑦 − √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑦 2 − 1)

1
v. coth−1 𝑥 = tanh−1 ( )
𝑥
1
vi. sech−1 𝑥 = cosh−1 ( )
𝑥

- 45 -
 Limits & Continuity

❶ Limits

Definition 1: We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐿 as x approaches 𝑎 and

write this as

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥 sufficiently

close to 𝑎, from both sides, without actually letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.

Definition 2: Right-handed limit

We say lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎+

Provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥 sufficiently

close to 𝑎 and 𝑥 > 𝑎 without actually letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.

Definition 3: Left-handed limit

We say lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎

Provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥 sufficiently

close to 𝑎 and 𝑥 < 𝑎 without actually letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.

Example 1

Estimate the value of the following limits.

(i) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) (ii) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 <0
Where, 𝑓(𝑥) = {
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥0

Solution

- 46 -
(i) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (1) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

(ii) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (0) = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Example 2

𝑥 2 −4
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−2

Examine the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2.

Solution

Let us compute some values of 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 close to 2, as in the tables below.

We see from the first table that 𝑓(𝑥) is getting closer and closer to 4 as 𝑥
approaches 2 from the left side. We express this by saying that “the limit of
𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2 from left is 4", and write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→2−

- 47 -
Similarly, by looking at the second table, we say that “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 2 from right is 4", and write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→2+

We call lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) one-sided limits. Since the two one-sided
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

limits of 𝑓(𝑥) are the same, we can say that “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2
is 4 ", and write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→2

Note that since 𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2), we can write

𝑥2 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
= lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2

where we can cancel the factors of (𝑥 − 2) since in the limit as 𝑥 → 2, 𝑥 is

close to 2, but 𝑥 ≠ 2, so that 𝑥 − 2 ≠ 0. Below, find the graph of 𝑓(𝑥), from
which it is also clear that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4:
𝑥→2

⊗ Basic properties of limits

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 then:
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(1) Constant rule

lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 For any constant 𝑘

𝑥→𝑎

- 48 -
(2) Sum and Difference rule
lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim [𝑓 (𝑥 )] ± lim [ 𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝐿 ± 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(3) Multiple rule

lim [𝑘 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 𝑀, for any constant 𝑘
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(4) Product rule

lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim [𝑓(𝑥)] ∗ lim [ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ∗ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(5) Quotient rule

𝑓(𝑥) lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝐿

lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 [𝑔(𝑥)] = , if lim [𝑔(𝑥)] ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑀 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

(6) Power rule

𝑛
lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(7) Root Law

𝑛 𝑛
lim [ √𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(8) If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists and positive, then

𝑥→𝑎

lim [ln(𝑓(𝑥))] = ln [lim [𝑓(𝑥)]] = ln 𝐿 , 𝐿>0

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(9)
lim |𝑓(𝑥)| = |lim [𝑓(𝑥)]| = |𝐿|
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

• Rules of limits
- 49 -
(1) sin 𝑥 sin 𝑘𝑥
lim =1 , lim =𝑘
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

(2) tan 𝑥 tan 𝑘𝑥

lim =1 , lim =𝑘
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

(3)
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛
lim =𝑛𝑎 , lim 𝑚 𝑚 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 −𝑎 𝑚

(4)
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥
1
lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒 , lim (1 + 𝑥 𝑛) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→0

(5)
1 1
lim =0 , lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
(6)
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 < 𝑛
𝑚
𝑎𝑚 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 > 𝑛
lim = { 𝑎𝑚
𝑥→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛
𝑎𝑛

Example 3

Find the following limits

𝑥 3 −27 √𝑥−2
(i) lim (ii) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→4 𝑥−4

Solution

- 50 -
 𝑥 3 −27 0
(i) Since lim = , so we cannot evaluate the limit by direct
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 0

substitution

𝑥 3 −27 (𝑥−3) (𝑥 2 +3 𝑥+9)

∴ lim = lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3

= lim (𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 9) = 27
𝑥→3

Another solution

𝑥 3 −27 𝑥 3 −33
∴ lim = lim = 3 × 32 = 27
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3

√𝑥−2 0
(ii) Since lim = , so we cannot evaluate the limit by direct
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 0

substitution

√𝑥−2 (√𝑥−2)
∴ lim = lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 (√𝑥−2)(√𝑥+2)

1 1
= lim =
𝑥→4 (√𝑥+2) 4

Another solution
1 1 1 1
√𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −4 2 1 1 1
∴ lim = lim = 42−1 = ( ) =
2
𝑥→3 𝑥−4 𝑥→3 𝑥−4 1 2 2 4

Example 4

Find the following limits

sin 5 𝑥 tan 3𝑥
(i) lim (ii) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 7𝑥

1−cos 𝑥 𝜋
(iii) lim (iv) lim𝜋 ( − 𝑥) sec 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥2 2
𝑥→
2

- 51 -
 Solution

sin 5 𝑥 0
(i) Since lim = , so we cannot evaluate the limit by direct
𝑥→0 𝑥 0

substitution

sin 5 𝑥
∴ lim =5
𝑥→0 𝑥

tan 3𝑥 tan 3𝑥
tan 3𝑥 lim 3
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
(ii) lim = lim sin 7𝑥 = sin 7𝑥 =
𝑥→0 sin 7𝑥 𝑥→0 lim 7
𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥
1−cos 𝑥 1−(1−2 sin2 )
2
(iii) lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2

𝑥 𝑥 2
2 sin2 sin
2 2
= lim = 2 (lim )
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥

1 2 1 1
= 2 ( ) =2× =
2 4 2

𝜋 𝜋
(iv) Let 𝑦 = − 𝑥 𝑥 = −𝑦
2 2

𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 → 𝑦→0
2

𝜋
𝜋 −𝑥
∴ lim𝜋 ( − 𝑥) sec 𝑥 = lim𝜋 2
𝑥→ 2 𝑥→ cos 𝑥
2 2

𝑦 𝑦
= lim 𝜋 = lim =1
𝑦→0
cos ( 2 − 𝑦) 𝑦→0 sin 𝑦

Example 5
Find the following limits

3 𝑥 5 +4 𝑥 2 +7
i. lim
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 2 +5 𝑥

- 52 -
 3 𝑥 3 +4 𝑥 2 +7
ii. lim
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +5 𝑥

3 𝑥 5 +4 𝑥 2 +7
iii. lim
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 5 −3 𝑥+2

Solution

3 𝑥 5 +4 𝑥 2 +7
(i) lim = ∞ , [𝑚 = 5, 𝑛 = 2, 𝑚 > 𝑛]
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 2 +5 𝑥

3 𝑥 3 +4 𝑥 2 +7
(ii) lim = 0 , [𝑚 = 3, 𝑛 = 4, 𝑚 < 𝑛]
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +5 𝑥

3 𝑥 5 +4 𝑥 2 +7 3
(iii) lim = , [𝑚 = 5, 𝑛 = 5, 𝑚 = 𝑛]
𝑥→∞ 4 𝑥 5 −3 𝑥+2 4

- 53 -
 ❷ Continuity

For functions that are "normal" enough, we know immediately whether or not
they are continuous at a given point. Nevertheless, the continuity of a function is
such an important property that we need a precise definition of continuity at a
point:

Note that for 𝑓(𝑥) to be continuous at 𝑐, the definition in effect requires three
conditions:

(i) That 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at 𝑐, so 𝑓(𝑐) exists.

(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑐

(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)

𝑥→𝑐

Definition: (continuity)
A function is said to be continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is continuous at
each point in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏].

Examples

Continuous

Not Continuous (hole)

- 54 -
 Not Continuous (jump)

Not Continuous (vertical asymptote)

A function 𝑓 is not continuous called discontinuous.

Example 6
sin 2𝑥
, 𝑥 ≠0
If 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 , is 𝑓(𝑥) continuous at 𝑥 = 0 ?
2 , 𝑥=0

Solution

(i) 𝑓(c) = 𝑓(0) = 2

sin 2𝑥
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim =2
𝑥→c 𝑥→0 𝑥

(iii) 𝑓(0) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2

𝑥→0

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 0

- 55 -
 Example 7

𝑥 2 −9
, 𝑥 ≠3
If 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3 , is 𝑓(𝑥) continuous at 𝑥 = 3 ?
2 , 𝑥=3

Solution

(i) 𝑓(c) = 𝑓(3) = 2

𝑥 2 −9 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim =6
𝑥→c 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3

(iii) 𝑓(3) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0.

Example 8

𝑥 2 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = { 5, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1 , is 𝑓(𝑥) continuous at 𝑥 = 1 ?
3𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1

Solution

(i) 𝑓(c) = 𝑓(1) = 5

∵ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (3 𝑥 + 1) = 4

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 2 = 1

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

(ii) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0

- 56 -
 Exercise
❶Limits

(1) Find the following limits

i. lim (5 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→2

ii. lim (5 𝑥 − 7)
𝑥→−1
𝑥 2 −9
iii. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥−3
iv. lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −9
𝑥 3 +27
v. lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3

𝑥 3 −𝑎3
vi. lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 5 −𝑎5

√𝑥−2
vii. lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

√𝑥−4
viii. lim
𝑥→16 𝑥−16

(2) Find the following limits

sin 3𝑥
i. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 7𝑥
ii. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin2 2𝑥
iii. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
1−sin 𝑥
iv. lim
𝑥→0 cos 𝑥
1−cos 𝑥
v. lim
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥

sin3 𝑥
vi. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
sin 5𝑥
vii. lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥
cos 𝑥−1
viii. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

- 57 -
 cos 𝑥−1
ix. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
tan 𝑥
x. lim
𝑥→0 1−cos 𝑥
𝑥−sin 𝑥
xi. lim
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥
sin 3𝑥
xii. lim
𝑥→0 sin 4𝑥
tan 7𝑥
xiii. lim
𝑥→0 tan 2𝑥
sin 5𝑥
xiv. lim
𝑥→0 tan 4𝑥
tan 9𝑥
xv. lim
𝑥→0 sin 3𝑥

(3) Find the following limits

5𝑥+3
i. lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥+1
2𝑥−1
ii. lim
𝑥→−∞ √𝑥 2 +3
1 1
iii. lim ( 2 + 3)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥

3 𝑥 10 −2 𝑥 6 +5
iv. lim
𝑥→∞ 6 𝑥 10 +2 𝑥 4 +1

2+𝑥 2
v. lim √
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 (𝑥+3)

2+3 𝑥
vi. lim
𝑥→∞ 5−7 𝑥

❷ Continuity

Discuss the continuity of the following functions

𝑥 2 −4
, 𝑥≠2
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2 at 𝑥 = 2
4 , 𝑥=2
𝑥 3 −8
, 𝑥≠2
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2−4 at 𝑥 = 2
1 , 𝑥=2

- 58 -
 sin3 𝑥
, 𝑥≠0
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
3 , 𝑥=0
1−cos 𝑥
, 𝑥≠0
iv. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
1 , 𝑥=0
|𝑥|
, 𝑥≠0
v. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
1 , 𝑥=0
|𝑥|
, 𝑥≠0
vi. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0
0 , 𝑥=0
𝑥, 𝑥<0
2
vii. 𝑓(𝑥) = {2 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1 at 𝑥 = 1
3 𝑥 2, 𝑥≥1
𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 ≤ −1
viii. 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 , −1 < 𝑥 < 1 at 𝑥 = 1
3 − 𝑥, 𝑥≥1
2𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
, 𝑥≠2
ix. 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2−3𝑥+2 at 𝑥 = 2
8 , 𝑥=2

- 59 -
 The Derivatives

⊛ The Definition of the Derivative

Definition:
The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 is the function 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and is
defined as,
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim .
ℎ→0 ℎ
If the limit exists and is finite.

Note:

i. There are many ways to write the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 ′ (𝑥), , 𝑦 (1) (𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), and .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

ii. 𝑑𝑥 does not mean 𝑑 times 𝑥

iii. The derivative of a function describes how changes in one variable are
related to changes in another. One representation of this concept in
geometry is in the slope of the tangent to a curve.

Example 1
Using the definition of derivative, find the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

Solution

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)2

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
- 60 -
 ′ (𝑥)
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
∴ 𝑓 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 2 +2 ℎ 𝑥+ℎ2 −𝑥 2 (2 𝑥+ℎ) ℎ
= lim = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim (2 𝑥 + ℎ)
ℎ→0

=2𝑥

Example 2

Using the definition of derivative, find the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
√9 − 4 𝑥

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

√9−4 (𝑥+ℎ) − √9−4 𝑥

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

√9−4 (𝑥+ℎ) − √9−4 𝑥 √9−4 (𝑥+ℎ)+ √9−4 𝑥

= lim ×
ℎ→0 ℎ √9−4 (𝑥+ℎ)+ √9−4 𝑥

9−4 𝑥−4 ℎ−(9−4 𝑥)

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ [√9−4 (𝑥+ℎ)+ √9−4 𝑥 ]

−4 ℎ 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ [√9−4 (𝑥+ℎ)+ √9−4 𝑥 ]

1
= −4 lim
ℎ→0 √9−4 (𝑥+ℎ)+ √9−4 𝑥

1 2
= −4 × =−
2 √9−4 𝑥 √9−4 𝑥

- 61 -
Important theorem

i. If 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑎. The

inverse is not always.
ii. If the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at the point 𝑥 = 𝑎, then it is not
differentiable at this point.

Example 3
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous at 𝑥 = 0, but it is not
differentiable at 𝑥 = 0.

Solution

𝑥 𝑥 ≥0
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥 𝑥<0

(i) 𝑓(0) = 0
(ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 ℎ→0

(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑥→0

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous at 𝑥 = 0

𝑓(0+ℎ)−𝑓(0) |0+ℎ|−|0| ℎ
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ =1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓(0+ℎ)−𝑓(0) |0+ℎ|−|0| −ℎ
lim− lim − = lim− = −1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→=0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

∴ lim+ 𝑓(0) ≠ lim− 𝑓(0)

ℎ→0 ℎ→0

- 62 -
It follows that lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
ℎ→0

Therefore 𝑓 ′ (0) does not exist, so 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0

How can a function fail to be differentiable?

• There are three main possibilities:

i. If a graph of a function 𝑓(𝑥) has a “corner” or “kink” in it, then the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) has no tangent at this point and 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable there.
ii. If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable
at 𝑎.
iii. If a graph of a function 𝑓(𝑥) has a vertical tangent line when 𝑥 = 𝑎, then
𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiable at 𝑎.

• Rules of differentiation

If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both differentiable, and c is a constant, then

𝑑
(1) Constant rule (𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥

(2) Factor rule 𝑑 𝑑

[𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 [ 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 63 -
(3) Sum and difference rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = [ 𝑓(𝑥)] ± [ 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(4) Product rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

[ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)] + 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(5) Quotient rule 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)]− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
[𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
[ ]= [𝑔(𝑥)]2
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

(6) The Chain rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢

𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑓(𝑢) , where 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Derivatives for functions

❶ Derivatives of Polynomials

If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 then 𝑦 ′ = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1

Proof:

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛

′ (𝑥)
(𝑥 + ℎ)𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑛
∴ 𝑓 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥+ℎ)𝑛 −𝑥 𝑛 (𝑥+ℎ)𝑛 −𝑥 𝑛
= lim = lim = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1
ℎ→0 (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥 𝑥+ℎ→𝑥 (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥

In general
𝑦 = [𝜑(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑦 ′ = 𝑛 [𝜑(𝑥)]𝑛−1 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)

- 64 -
Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑦′ = 3 𝑥2

Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 5 𝑥 + 6 𝑦′ = 3 𝑥2 − 5

1 −1
Ex: 𝑦 = = 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ′ = − 𝑥 −2 =
𝑥 𝑥2

Ex: 𝑦 = (3 𝑥 + 5)9 𝑦 ′ = 9 (3 𝑥 + 5)8 × 3 = 27 (3 𝑥 + 5)8

Example 4
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

(i) 𝑦 = 13𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 7
(ii) 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 + √𝑥)(6𝑥 2 − 3)
𝑥 3 +2𝑥
(iii) 𝑦=
2𝑥 2 −7

Solution

(i) 𝑦 ′ = 52 𝑥 3 − 18 𝑥 2 − 1
1
(ii) 𝑦 ′ = (𝑥 3 + √𝑥)(12 𝑥) + (6𝑥 2 − 3)(3𝑥 2 + )
2√𝑥
3 1
= 30 𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 √𝑥 −
2 √𝑥

(2𝑥 2 −7)(3𝑥 2 +2)−(𝑥 3 +2𝑥)(4𝑥)

(iii) 𝑦′ =
(2𝑥 2 −7)2

6𝑥 4 +4𝑥 2 −21𝑥 2 −14−4𝑥 4 −8𝑥 2 2𝑥 4 −25𝑥 2 −14

= =
(2𝑥 2 −7)2 (2𝑥 2 −7)2

⊛ Implicit differentiation
i. If the variable 𝑦 can be expressed in terms of another variable 𝑥 in form
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then we say that 𝑦 is an explicit function of 𝑥.
Conversely,

- 65 -
ii. If the variable 𝑥 can be expressed in terms of another variable 𝑦 in form
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) then we say that 𝑥 is an explicit function of 𝑦.
iii. In some case there is a relation of 𝑥 and 𝑦 which can not be expressed in
any of the above forms. These relations are called implicit functions, i.e.
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0

Example 5
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟑𝒙 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟎

ii. 𝑦 3 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 3
iii. 𝑥3 + 3 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦3 = 7 𝑥 + 𝑦

Solution

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥.

3𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ + 6 𝑥𝑦 + 6 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 ′ + 3𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ = 0

∴ (3𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 ) 𝑦 ′ + (3𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 ) = 0

(3𝑥 2 +6 𝑥 𝑦+3𝑦 2 )
∴ 𝑦 ′ = − (3𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ = −1
+6 𝑥 𝑦+3𝑦 2 )

ii. Sol.
∴ 3 𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ − 4𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 ′ − 2 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 2

∴ (3 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 𝑦 )𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 2 𝑦 2

3𝑥 2 +2 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑦′ =
3 𝑦 2 −4𝑥 𝑦

iii. Sol. Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥.

- 66 -
 3 𝑥2 + 3 𝑥 𝑦′ + 3 𝑦 + 3 𝑦2 𝑦′ = 7 + 𝑦′

∴ [3 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 2 − 1 ] 𝑦 ′ = 7 − 3 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑦

7−3 𝑥 2 −3 𝑦
∴ 𝑦′ =
3 𝑥+ 3 𝑦 2 −1

❷ Derivatives of trigonometric functions

The derivatives of all six trigonometric functions:

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦′ =
𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
cot 𝑥 −csc 2 𝑥
sec 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
csc 𝑥 −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥

Example 6
𝑑
Prove that sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof
∵ sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 =
𝑥−𝑦 𝑥+𝑦
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 2 sin cos
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim 2 2
ℎ→0 ℎ
∴ sin (𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
sin(𝑥+ℎ)−sin 𝑥 𝑥+ℎ−𝑥 𝑥+ℎ+𝑥
= lim = 2 sin cos
ℎ→0 ℎ 2 2

ℎ ℎ
ℎ ℎ = 2 sin 2 cos(𝑥 + 2 )
2 sin cos(𝑥+ )
2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ
sin ℎ
2
= 2 lim × lim cos(𝑥 + )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 2

1
=2× × cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
2

- 67 -
 Example 7
𝑑
Prove that cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Proof
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ∵ cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 =
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
−2 sin sin
cos(𝑥+ℎ)−cos 𝑥 2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
∴ 𝑐os(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑐os 𝑥
ℎ ℎ 𝑥+ℎ+𝑥 𝑥+ℎ−𝑥
−2 sin(𝑥+ ) sin( ) = −2 sin sin
2 2
= lim 2 2
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ ℎ
= −2 sin(𝑥 + 2 ) sin(2 )
ℎ
sin ℎ
2
= −2 lim × lim sin(𝑥 + )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 2

1
= −2 × × sin 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
2

Note:
d d sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥)−sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥 )
[tan 𝑥] = [ ]=
d𝑥 dx cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 1
= = = sec 2 𝑥
cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

Note:
𝑑 𝑑 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥)− cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 )
[cot 𝑥] = [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥

cos2 𝑥 +sin2 𝑥 1
=− =− = −csc 2 𝑥
sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥

Note:
𝑑 𝑑 1 cos 𝑥 (0)− 1 (− sin 𝑥 )
[sec 𝑥] = [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥

sin 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥
= = = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥

- 68 -
 Note:
𝑑 𝑑 1 sin 𝑥 (0)− 1 (cos 𝑥 )
[csc 𝑥] = [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
cos 𝑥
=− = −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
sin2 𝑥

Example 8
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥
ii. 𝑦=
1+cos 𝑥

Solution

Differentiate with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦
i. = 𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 × 3 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (1+cos 𝑥 ) cos 𝑥 −sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥)

ii. = (1+cos 𝑥 )2
𝑑𝑥

cos 𝑥+cos2 𝑥+sin2 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 1

= (1+cos 𝑥 )2
= (1+cos =
𝑥 )2 1+cos 𝑥

The versions of the chain rule that corresponding to the differentiation of the
trigonometric functions.

𝑦 𝑦′

sin φ(𝑥) cos φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)

cos φ(𝑥) −sin φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)
tan φ(𝑥) sec 2 φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)
cot φ(𝑥) −csc 2 φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)
sec φ(𝑥) sec φ(𝑥) tan φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)
csc φ(𝑥) −csc φ(𝑥) cot φ(𝑥) . φ′ (𝑥)

- 69 -
 Example 9

Prove that

𝑑
sin φ(𝑥) = cos φ(𝑥) φ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Proof

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

sin(𝜑(𝑥+ℎ))−sin(𝜑(𝑥))
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥) 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)+𝜑(𝑥)
2 sin cos
2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥) 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)+𝜑(𝑥)
2 sin cos 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥)
2 2
= lim ×
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥)

𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥)
𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)+𝜑(𝑥) sin 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥)
2
= lim cos × lim 𝜑(𝑥+ℎ)−𝜑(𝑥) × lim
ℎ→0 2 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
2

= co s[𝜑(𝑥)] × 1 × 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) = co s[𝜑(𝑥)] 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)

Ex: If 𝑦 = sin 3𝑥

∴ 𝑦 ′ = cos 3𝑥 × 3 = 3 cos 3𝑥

Ex: If 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 2

∴ 𝑦 ′ = sec 2 𝑥 2 × 2 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 2

Ex: If 𝑦 = cos (tan 𝑥) ∴ 𝑦 ′ = − sin(tan 𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = − sec 2 𝑥 sin(tan 𝑥)

Ex: If 𝑦 = cos 2 (tan 3𝑥)

∴ 𝑦 ′ = 2 cos (tan 3𝑥) × [− sin (tan 3𝑥) ] × sec 2 3𝑥 × 3

- 70 -
 = −6 sec 2 3𝑥 sin (tan 3𝑥) cos (tan 3𝑥)

Example 10

𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥 2
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 cos 4 3𝑥 2
iii. 𝑦 3 + 3 𝑥 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 2

Solution

Differentiate with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦
i. = 𝑥 3 × cos 3𝑥 2 × 6𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 2 × 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

= 6 𝑥 4 cos 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 sin 3𝑥 2

ii. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 5 × 4 cos 3 3𝑥 2 × (− sin 3𝑥 2 ) × 6𝑥

+ cos 4 3𝑥 2 × 5 𝑥 4

= −24 𝑥 5 cos 3 3𝑥 2 sin 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 4 cos 4 3𝑥 2

iii. Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥.

3𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ + 6𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 ′ + 3 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑥 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 2 × 2𝑥

∴ [3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 2 ] 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑦 − 3 𝑦 2

2𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑦−3 𝑦 2

∴ 𝑦′ =
3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑦+𝑥 2

❸ Derivatives of exponential function

Example 11
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
Prove that 𝑑𝑥

- 71 -
 Proof
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥 𝑛
𝑒 𝑥+ℎ −𝑒 𝑥 ∵ 𝑒 𝑥 = lim (1 + 𝑛)
= lim 𝑛→∞
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛−1) 𝑥 𝑥
= lim [1 + 𝑛 + (𝑛 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑛 )𝑛 ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2
𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 ℎ −1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
=1+ + + + ⋯+ +⋯
1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
ℎ ℎ2 ℎ3
[1+ + + +⋯ −1]
1! 2! 3!
= 𝑒 𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ ℎ2
= 𝑒 𝑥 lim [ 1 + + + ⋯]
ℎ→0 2! 3!

= 𝑒 𝑥 .1 = 𝑒 𝑥

Example 4.12
𝑑 𝑥
Prove that 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Proof 𝑥
∵ 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎

𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ln 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

The chain rule version of this formula is

𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜑(𝑥) 𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝜑(𝑥) 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)

𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑎𝜑(𝑥) 𝑦 ′ = 𝑎𝜑(𝑥) ln 𝑎 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)

Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑒 4 𝑥 𝑦′ = 𝑒4 𝑥 × 4 = 4 𝑒4 𝑥

- 72 -
 3 3 3
Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦′ = 𝑒 𝑥 × 3 𝑥2 = 3 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥
Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥
Ex: 𝑦 = sin 𝑒 4𝑥
∴ 𝑦 ′ = cos 𝑒 4𝑥 × 𝑒 4𝑥 × 4 = 4𝑒 4𝑥 sin 𝑒 4𝑥
Ex: 𝑦 = 𝑎2𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝑎2𝑥 × ln 𝑎 × 2 = 2 ln 𝑎 𝑎2𝑥

Ex: 𝑦 = 𝜋 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝜋 𝑥 ln 𝜋

Example 13
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 cos 𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝜋 𝜋𝑥
iii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 sin 3𝑥 3tan 𝑥
5 𝑒𝑥
iv. 𝑦=
3 𝑒 𝑥 +1

Solution
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥.

𝑑𝑦
i. = 𝑥 5 × 𝑒 cos 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) + 𝑒 cos 𝑥 × 5 𝑥 4 = − 𝑥 5 sin 𝑥 𝑒 cos 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥

5 𝑥 4 𝑒 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
ii. = 𝑥 𝜋 × 𝜋 𝑥 ln 𝜋 + 𝜋 𝑥 × 𝜋 𝑥 𝜋−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
iii. = 3 𝑥 2 × 𝑒 sin 3𝑥 3tan 𝑥 + 𝑒 sin 3𝑥 (3 cos 3𝑥) 𝑥 3 3tan 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥

3tan 𝑥 ln 3 sec 2 𝑥 × 𝑥 3 𝑒 sin 3𝑥

3
= 𝑥 3 𝑒 sin 3𝑥 3tan 𝑥 [ + 3 cos 3𝑥 + ln 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 ]
𝑥

𝑑𝑦 (3 𝑒 𝑥 +1) 5 𝑒 𝑥 − 5 𝑒 𝑥 ∗3 𝑒 𝑥
iv. =
𝑑𝑥 (3 𝑒 𝑥 +1)2

15 𝑒 2𝑥 +5 𝑒 𝑥 −15 𝑒 2𝑥 5 𝑒𝑥
= =
(3 𝑒 𝑥 +1)2 (3 𝑒 𝑥 +1)2

- 73 -
 ❹ Derivatives of logarithmic functions

Example 14
Prove that 𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Proof
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) ln(𝑥+ℎ)−ln 𝑥
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

1
1 𝑥+ℎ 𝑥+ℎ ℎ
= lim ln ( ) = lim ln ( )
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥 ℎ→0 𝑥

1
1
1 ℎ 1 1
= ln lim (1 + ℎ) = ln 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑒 =
ℎ→0 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 15
𝑑 1
Prove that log 𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎

Proof
ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Since log 𝑎 𝑥 = =
log𝑒 𝑎 ln 𝑎

𝑑 𝑑 ln 𝑥 1 𝑑
∴ log 𝑎 𝑥 = ( ) = ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎

1 1 1
= × =
ln 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎

The chain rule version of this formula is

1
If 𝑦 = ln[𝜑(𝑥)] 𝑦′ = 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)
𝜑(𝑥)

1
If 𝑦 = log 𝑎 [𝜑(𝑥)] 𝑦′ = 𝜑 ′ (𝑥)
𝜑(𝑥) ln 𝑎

- 74 -
 1 𝑑
If 𝑦 = ln[function] 𝑦′ = [function]
function 𝑑𝑥

Ex: 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 1)

1 2 𝑥 +3
∴ 𝑦′ = × (2 𝑥 + 3) =
(𝑥 2 +3 𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 +3 𝑥+1

1
Ex: 𝑦 = ln sin 𝑥 𝑦′ = cos 𝑥 = tan 𝑥
sin 𝑥

1
Ex: 𝑦 = sin ln 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = cos ln 𝑥 ×
𝑥

1 3
Ex: 𝑦 = (ln 𝑥)3 𝑦 ′ = 3 (ln 𝑥)2 = ln2 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

Ex: 𝑦 = log 𝑎 (5 𝑥 + 7)

1 5
∴ 𝑦 ′ = (5 × 5 = (5
𝑥+7) ln 𝑎 𝑥+7) ln 𝑎

1 1 1
Ex: 𝑦 = ln ln 𝑥 𝑦′ = × =
ln 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Example 16
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 3𝑒 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 3 ln 𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 ln(3𝑥 2 + 1)
ln 𝑥
iii. 𝑦=
1+ ln 𝑥

Solution

- 75 -
 𝑑𝑦 1
i. = 3𝑒 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 3 × + 10 ln 𝑥 × 3 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

= 3𝑒 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 + 30 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥

1
ii. 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 × × 6 𝑥 + ln(3𝑥 2 + 1) × 2𝑥 × ln 2
3𝑥 2 +1

6𝑥
= 2𝑥 + ln 2 2𝑥 ln(3𝑥 2 + 1)
3𝑥 2 +1

1 1
(1 + ln 𝑥) × − ln 𝑥 ×
iii. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 𝑥
(1 + ln 𝑥) 2

1 1 1
+ ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= 2
=
(1+ln 𝑥) 𝑥 (1+ln 𝑥)2

⊛ Logarithmic differentiation

Logarithmic differentiation is a procedure in which logarithms are used to

convert the task of differentiating sums and differences. It is especially valuable
as a means for handling complicated product or quotient and exponential
functions where variables appear in both the base and the exponent.

Main steps in logarithmic differentiation

(1) Take logarithms of both sides of a given complicated equation.

(2) Use the laws of logarithms to simplify.
(3) Differentiate implicitly with respect to 𝑥.
(4) Solve the resulting equation for 𝑦 ′ .

We use this technique in the following two cases:

Case 1: Differentiating exponential functions where variables appear in both the

base and the exponent:
𝑣(𝑥)
𝑦 = (𝑢(𝑥))

We first take the logarithm of both sides

- 76 -
 𝑣(𝑥)
ln 𝑦 = ln(𝑢(𝑥)) ln 𝑦 = 𝑣(𝑥) ln 𝑢(𝑥)

Next, differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 1
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑣(𝑥) × 𝑢′ (𝑥) + ln 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑣 ′ (𝑥)
𝑦 𝑢(𝑥)

′
𝑢′ (𝑥)
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑦 [ 𝑣(𝑥) + 𝑣 ′ (𝑥) ln 𝑢(𝑥)]
𝑢(𝑥)

Case 2: Differentiating complicated product and/or quotient functions: 𝑦=

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)
𝑙(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥)

We first take the logarithm of both sides

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑥)

ln 𝑦 = ln ( )
𝑙(𝑥) 𝑚(𝑥)

Apply properties of logarithms

ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑓 + ln 𝑔 + ln ℎ − ln 𝑙 − ln 𝑚

Next, differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝑦′ = 𝑓′ + 𝑔′ + ℎ′ − 𝑙′ − 𝑚′
𝑦 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑙 𝑚

𝑓𝑔ℎ 𝑓′ 𝑔′ ℎ′ 𝑙′ 𝑚′
∴ 𝑦′ = [ + + − − ]
𝑙𝑚 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑙 𝑚

Example 17
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)sin 𝑥
4
iii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3

- 77 -
 (𝑥 2 +7)3 𝑒 sec 2𝑥 ln 3𝑥
iv. 𝑦=
tan 𝑥 5cos 𝑥

v. 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥 = 2 𝑥𝑦

Solution
i. Take the logarithm of both sides
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 1
𝑦′ = 𝑥 × + ln 𝑥 × 1
𝑦 𝑥

𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 [1 + ln 𝑥] ∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 𝑥 [1 + ln 𝑥]

ii. Take the logarithm of both sides

ln 𝑦 = ln(1 + 𝑥)sin 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 ln(1 + 𝑥)

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 1 sin 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = sin 𝑥 × + ln(1 + 𝑥) × cos 𝑥 ∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 [ + ln(1 + 𝑥) cos 𝑥]
𝑦 1+𝑥 1+𝑥

sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑦 ′ = (1 + 𝑥)sin 𝑥 [ + ln(1 + 𝑥) cos 𝑥]
1+𝑥

iii. Take the logarithm of both sides

4
ln 𝑦 = ln[𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3 ]

Apply properties of logarithm

4
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 5 + ln 𝑒 −3 𝑥 + ln ln 7𝑥 3

ln 𝑦 = 5 ln 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 4 + ln ln 7𝑥 3

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 1 1 1
𝑦 ′ = 5 × − 12𝑥 3 + × × 21 𝑥 2
𝑦 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3 7𝑥 3

- 78 -
 5 3
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 [ − 12𝑥 3 + ]
𝑥 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3

4 5 3
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3 [ − 12𝑥 3 + ]
𝑥 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3

Another solution

4 4 21𝑥 2 4
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 5𝑥 4 × 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3 + 𝑒 −3 𝑥 (−12𝑥 3 ) × 𝑥 5 ln 7𝑥 3 + × 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑥
7𝑥 3

4 4 4
= 5𝑥 4 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 7 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7 𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 4 𝑒 −3 𝑥

4 5 3
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3 [ − 12𝑥 3 + ]
𝑥 𝑥 ln 7𝑥 3

iv. Take the logarithm of both sides

(𝑥 2 +7)3 𝑒 sec 2𝑥 ln 3𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln ( )
tan 𝑥 5cos 𝑥

Apply properties of logarithms

ln 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 + 7)3 + ln 𝑒 sec 2𝑥 + ln ln 3𝑥 − ln tan 𝑥 − ln 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

ln 𝑦 = 3 ln(𝑥 2 + 7) + sec 2𝑥 + ln ln 3𝑥 − ln tan 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 ln 5

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥

1 2𝑥 1 1 1
𝑦′ = 3 + 2 sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 + 3− sec 2 𝑥 + ln 5 sin 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 2 +7 ln 3𝑥 3𝑥 tan 𝑥

10 𝑥 1 1
∴ 𝑦′ = 𝑦 [ + 2 sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 + − + ln 5 sin 𝑥]
𝑥 2 +7 𝑥 ln 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

(𝑥 2 +7)3 𝑒 sec 2𝑥 ln 3𝑥 10 𝑥 1 1
∴ 𝑦′ = [ + 2 sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 + − +
tan 𝑥 5cos 𝑥 𝑥 2 +7 𝑥 ln 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

ln 5 sin 𝑥]

v. let 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑦𝑥
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2𝑥 𝑦 𝑢′ + 𝑣 ′ = 2𝑥 𝑦 ′ + 2 𝑦

- 79 -
∵ 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 ∵ 𝑣 = 𝑦𝑥

∴ ln 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 𝑦 ∴ ln 𝑣 = ln 𝑦 𝑥

∴ ln 𝑢 = 𝑦 ln 𝑥 ∴ ln 𝑣 = 𝑥 ln 𝑦

1 1 1 1
𝑢′ = 𝑦 + ln 𝑥 𝑦 ′ 𝑣 ′ = 𝑥 𝑦 ′ + ln 𝑦
𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑦

𝑦 𝑥
∴ 𝑢′ = 𝑢 ( + ln 𝑥 𝑦 ′ ) ∴ 𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 ( 𝑦 ′ + ln 𝑦)
𝑥 𝑦

𝑦 𝑥
∴ 𝑢′ = 𝑥 𝑦 ( + ln 𝑥 𝑦 ′ ) ∴ 𝑣 ′ = 𝑦 𝑥 ( 𝑦 ′ + ln 𝑦)
𝑥 𝑦

𝑦 𝑥
∴ 𝑥 𝑦 ( + ln 𝑥 𝑦 ′ ) + 𝑦 𝑥 ( 𝑦 ′ + ln 𝑦) = 2𝑥 𝑦 ′ + 2
𝑥 𝑦

𝑦
2− 𝑥 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑥 ln 𝑦
′ 𝑥
∴𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦 ln 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 −2𝑥
𝑦

❺ Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

Rules of differentiating the hyperbolic functions are listed in the following table.

Proof: The first two of these formulas are easily verified using the definition of
sinh 𝑥 and cosh 𝑥 .

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
(sinh 𝑥) = ( )= = cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
(cosh 𝑥 ) = ( ) = = sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦′ =
𝑑𝑥
sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
tanh 𝑥 sech2 𝑥
coth 𝑥 −csch2 𝑥
sech 𝑥 − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
csch 𝑥 −csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
- 80 -
Also,

𝑑 𝑑 sinh 𝑥
[tanh 𝑥] = [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥

cosh 𝑥 (cosh 𝑥 ) − sinh 𝑥 (sinh 𝑥 )

=
cosh2 𝑥

cosh2 𝑥− sinh2 𝑥 1
= = = sech2 𝑥
cosh2 𝑥 cosh2 𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 1 sinh 𝑥 (0)− 1 (cosh 𝑥 )

[csch 𝑥] = [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sinh 𝑥 sinh2 𝑥

− cosh 𝑥 1 cosh 𝑥
= =− ×
sinh2 𝑥 sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥

= −csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥

Example 18
𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 4 cosh 2𝑥
ii. 𝑦 = sinh7 𝑥 + 𝑒 sech 𝑥

Solution
i. Take the logarithm of both sides
𝑦 ′ = 3 𝑥 4 × sinh 2𝑥 × 2 + 3 cosh 2𝑥 × 4 𝑥 3

= 6 𝑥 4 sinh 2𝑥 + 12 𝑥 3 cosh 2𝑥

ii. 𝑦 ′ = 7 sinh6 𝑥 × cosh 𝑥 + 𝑒 sech 𝑥 × (− sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥)

= 7 cosh 𝑥 sinh6 𝑥 − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑒 sech 𝑥

❻ Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

- 81 -
 Example 19 𝑑 −1
1
sin 𝑥 =
Prove that
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Proof
To find the derivative of sin−1 𝑥,
1 𝑥
we use the fact that,
𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑦 = sin −1
𝑥 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 sin 𝑦 =
1
1
cos 𝑦 = √1+𝑥 2
Differentiate 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
1 = cos 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2

𝑑 1 𝑑
sin−1 ([function]) = ([function])
𝑑𝑥 √1−[function]2 𝑑𝑥

Example 20 𝑑 −1
1
tan 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
Prove that

Proof
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑥 = tan 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
1 = sec 2 𝑦 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sec2 𝑦 1+tan2 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

- 82 -
 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions
𝑦 𝑦′
1
sin−1 𝑥
√1−𝑥 2
−1 −1
cos 𝑥
√1−𝑥 2

tan−1 𝑥 1
1+𝑥 2

cot −1 𝑥 −1
1+𝑥 2

sec −1 𝑥 1
𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1

−1
csc −1 𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1

1
Ex: 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥 2 ) 𝑦′ = 2𝑥
√1−𝑥 4

−1
Ex: 𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑦′ = 𝑒𝑥
√1−𝑒 2 𝑥

1 1
Ex: 𝑦 = tan−1 (ln 𝑥) 𝑦′ =
1+[ln 𝑥]2 𝑥

Ex: 𝑦 = cos −1 (ln 5 𝑥 2 )

1 10 𝑥 2
∴ 𝑦′ = × =
√1−(ln 5 𝑥 2 )2 5 𝑥2 𝑥 √1−(ln 5 𝑥 2 )2

2
Ex: 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑒 2𝑥 )

2
′ 1 2𝑥 2 4 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 2 ×𝑒 × 4𝑥 = 2
1+[𝑒 2𝑥 ]2 1+[𝑒 2𝑥 ]2

Example 21

𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝑥 + sin−1 ln 𝑥

- 83 -
 ii. 𝑦 = 𝑒 √2𝑥 tan−1 3𝑥
iii. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin−1 𝑥 2
iv. 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥 sin−1 2 𝑥 2
v. 𝑦 = cot −1 tan 𝑥

Solution
1 1
i. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 𝜋 × 𝜋 𝑥 × ln 𝜋 + 𝜋 𝑥 × 𝜋 𝑥 𝜋−1 + ×
√1−[ln 𝑥]2 𝑥

1
= ln 𝜋 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝑥 + 𝜋 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝜋−1 +
𝑥 √1 − [ln 𝑥]2

1 2
ii. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 √2𝑥 × × 3 + tan−1 3𝑥 × 𝑒 √2 𝑥
1+9 𝑥 2 2 √2 𝑥
3 1
= 𝑒 √2𝑥 + 𝑒 √2𝑥 tan−1 3𝑥
1+9 𝑥 2 √2 𝑥

1
iii. 𝑦′ = 𝑥3 × 2𝑥 + sin−1 𝑥 2 × 3𝑥 2
√1−𝑥 4
2𝑥 4
= + 3𝑥 2 sin−1 𝑥 2
√1−𝑥 4

1
iv. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 3𝑥 × × 4𝑥 + sin−1 2 𝑥 2 × 𝑒 3𝑥 × 3
√1−4𝑥 4
4𝑥
= 𝑒 3𝑥 + 3 𝑒 3𝑥 sin−1 2 𝑥 2
√1 − 4𝑥 4

−1 sec2 𝑥
v. 𝑦′ = × sec 2 𝑥 = − = −1
1+ tan2 𝑥 sec2 𝑥

❼ Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions

- 84 -
 Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions

𝑦 𝑦′
1
sinh−1 𝑥
√1+𝑥 2
cosh−1 𝑥 1
√𝑥 2 −1

tanh−1 𝑥 1
1−𝑥 2

coth−1 𝑥 −1
𝑥 2 −1

sech−1 𝑥 −1
𝑥 √1−𝑥 2

−1
csch−1 𝑥
𝑥 √1+𝑥 2

Example 22 𝑑 1
sinh−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2
Prove that

Proof

Let 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦

Differentiate 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
1 = cosh 𝑦 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cosh 𝑦 √1+sinh2 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 √1+𝑥 2

𝑑 1 𝑑
sinh−1 ([function]) = ([function])
𝑑𝑥 √1 + [function]2 𝑑𝑥

Example 4.23

- 85 -
 𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

i. 𝑦 = sin 3𝑥 tanh−1 (5𝑥)

ii. 𝑦 = tanh−1 (sin 𝑥) + sinh−1 (tan 𝑥)
iii. 𝑦 = tan−1 (sinh 𝑥)

Solution
1
i. 𝑦 ′ = sin 3𝑥 × × 5 + tanh−1 (5𝑥) × cos 3𝑥 × 3
1−25 𝑥 2
5
= sin 3𝑥 + 3 cos 3𝑥 tanh−1 (5𝑥)
1−25 𝑥 2

1 1
ii. 𝑦′ = × cos 𝑥 + × sec 2 𝑥
1−sin2 𝑥 √1+tan2 𝑥
1 1
= cos 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥
cos2 𝑥 sec 𝑥

= sec 𝑥 + sec 𝑥

= 2 sec 𝑥

1
iii. 𝑦′ = × cosh 𝑥
1+sinh2 𝑥
1 1
= cosh 𝑥 = = sech 𝑥
cosh2 𝑥 cosh 𝑥

- 86 -
 Exercises
⊛Using the definition of derivative, compute the derivative of the following
functions

1. 𝑦 = 3
2. 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 7
3. 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 + 9
4. 𝑦 = √𝑥
1
5. 𝑦 =
√𝑥
𝑥
6. 𝑦 =
𝑥+1

7. 𝑦 = √5𝑥 − 8
8. 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1
1
9. 𝑦 =
√𝑥

10.𝑦 = √9 − 3 𝑥 2
2𝑥−1
11.𝑦 =
5 𝑥+7

12.𝑦 = tan 𝑥
13.𝑦 = cot 𝑥
14.𝑦 = sec 𝑥
15.𝑦 = csc 𝑥
16.𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

❶ Derivatives of Polynomials

1) 𝑦 = 5 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 + 7
2) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 − 3 𝑥 4 + 2 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 1

- 87 -
 1
3) 𝑦 = 𝑥 9 +
𝑥9
12 4 3
4) 𝑦 = − +
𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥4
3 5
5) 𝑦 = 2 √𝑥 2 + 3 √𝑥
6) 𝑦 = (3 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥) (3 + 7 𝑥)
7) 𝑦 = ( 𝑥 2 − 3) ( 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 + 1)
8) 𝑦 = ( 𝑥 5 − 2 𝑥 3 ) (2 𝑥 3 − 3 𝑥 + 1)
3
9) 𝑦 = √𝑥 (2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
3 𝑥+9
10) 𝑦=
2−𝑥
2 √𝑥
11) 𝑦=
𝑥 2 −3
𝑥 5 −3
12) 𝑦=
𝑥 3 −2 𝑥−1
𝑥 3 +2 𝑥+1
13) 𝑦=
(𝑥+1)3

( 𝑥 2 +1) ( 𝑥 3 +2 𝑥+1)
14) 𝑦=
𝑥 3 +10

15) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 9
16) 𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 3 𝑦
17) 𝑦 3 − 2𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 + 3
18) 𝑦 3 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3 𝑥 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 = 10
19) 𝑥 3 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3 𝑥 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3 = 27

❷ Derivatives of trigonometric functions

(1) 𝑦 = 2 sin 3𝑥
(2) 𝑦 = √tan 𝑥
(3) 𝑦 = csc √𝑥
(4) 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 2 + 1)
(5) 𝑦 = cos(sin 𝑥)
(6) 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 √cot 𝑥

- 88 -
(7) 𝑦 = tan5 (4 𝑥 − 3)
(8) 𝑦 = tan3 (sin(sec 𝑥 5 ))
(9) 𝑦 = (sin 𝑥 2 )5
(10) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥 2
(11) 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥
(12) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥 2
(13) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 cos4 3𝑥 2
(14) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 cos(cot 𝑥)
cos 𝑥
(15) 𝑦 =
1+ sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥
(16) 𝑦 =
1− cos 𝑥
1+ sin 𝑥
(17) 𝑦 =
1− cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥
(18) 𝑦 =
𝑥+ sin 𝑥

(19) 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 + 𝑦)
(20) 𝑦 2 = sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑦 − 3
(21) tan 𝑥 𝑦 + sec 𝑥 = 1
(22) 𝑦 cot 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = 0
(23) (𝑥 + 𝑦) √csc 𝑥 + sec 𝑦 √𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0

❸ Derivatives of exponential function

(1) 𝑦 = 𝑒 5𝑥
(2) 𝑦 = 37𝑥
(3) 𝑦 = 𝑒 sec 5𝑥
5𝑥
(4) 𝑦 = 3tan 𝑒
(5) 𝑦 = sin 𝑒 5𝑥 + cos 𝑒 −5𝑥
(6) 𝑦 = 𝑒 tan 2𝑥 + 𝑒 cot 3𝑥
(7) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 3)𝑒 −2𝑥

- 89 -
 2 +2
(8) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 √𝑥
(9) 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥
(10) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 5𝑥
(11) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝑥
(12) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
2
(13) 𝑦 =
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
(14) 𝑦 =
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 −1
(15) 𝑦 =
𝑒 2𝑥 +1

(16) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦
(17) 𝑒 𝑦 cos 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 1
(18) 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦 sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑦
(19) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦
(20) 𝑒 tan 𝑥 + 𝑒 cot 𝑦 = 5 𝑥 2 𝑦

❹ Derivatives of logarithmic functions

(1) 𝑦 = ln(5𝑥 + 7)
(2) 𝑦 = log 2 (3𝑥 − 5)
(3) 𝑦 = log 𝑎 (3 + 𝑥)
(4) 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 3 + ln3 𝑥
(5) 𝑦 = ln 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 ln 𝑥
(6) 𝑦 = ln √𝑥 + √ln 𝑥
(7) 𝑦 = ln 𝑒 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 ln cos 𝑥
(8) 𝑦 = ln cos 𝑥 + cos ln 𝑥
(9) 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 3 + log 3𝑎 𝑥
(10) 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln ln 𝑥 + ln ln ln 𝑥

- 90 -
 (11) 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1) ln(2 𝑥 2 + 3)
(12) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 1 ln( 𝑥 2 + 1)
2 𝑥
(13) 𝑦 = ( ) ln( 𝑥 2 + 7)
3

(14) 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥 ln(tan 2𝑥)

(15) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 2 𝑥 ln 3𝑥 2
(16) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sec 𝑒 2 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥
ln 𝑥
(17) 𝑦 =
𝑥
1+ln 𝑥
(18) 𝑦 =
1−ln 𝑥

(19) ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑥𝑦 + ln 𝑦 = 4
(20) ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 3
(21) 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 + cos ln 𝑦 = 𝑥
(22) sin ln 𝑥 + ln sin 𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑦
(23) ln(csc 𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑒 csc 𝑦 = 1

❺ Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

(1) 𝑦 = sinh 2𝑥 + cosh 3𝑥

(2) 𝑦 = ln sinh 𝑥 + sinh ln 𝑥
(3) 𝑦 = sech3 𝑥
(4) 𝑦 = sinh8 𝑥
(5) 𝑦 = tanh(sin 𝑥)
3
(6) 𝑦 = cosh( √𝑥 ) + 𝑒 sech 𝑥
(7) 𝑦 = √sinh 𝑥 + tanh 𝑥
2
(8) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
cosh2𝑥
(9) 𝑦=
𝑥 2 +1
𝑥+csch 𝑥
(10) 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +coth 𝑥

- 91 -
❻ Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

(1) 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 2
(2) 𝑦 = sin−1 3𝑥 + cos −1 3𝑥
(3) 𝑦 = csc −1 (sin 𝑥)
(4) 𝑦 = tan−1 (ln 𝑥) + ln(tan−1 𝑥)
−1
(5) 𝑦 = ln(sin−1 𝑒 𝑥 ) + sin−1 (ln 𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑒 ln(sin 𝑥)

(6) 𝑦 = tan−1 (3𝑥 − 5) + sec −1 √𝑥 2 − 1

(7) 𝑦 = (sin−1 10𝑥 + cos −1 10𝑥)1000
(8) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 sin−1 𝑥 2
(9) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 cos −1 (ln 5 𝑥 2 )
2
(10) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 tan−1 (𝑒 2𝑥 )

(11) 𝑦 = 𝑒 √2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 2𝑥

(12) 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 3 + 3) sec −1 2𝑥
1
(13) 𝑦 = sec 2 (𝑎2𝑥 ) tan−1 (log 𝑎 𝑥 2 )
(14) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 sin 4𝑥 cot −1 2𝑥
(15) 𝑦 = ln(sin−1 (cos 𝑥) + cos −1 (sin 𝑥))
sin−1 𝑥
(16) 𝑦 =
1−𝑥 2

(17) Isin−1 (𝑥 𝑦) = cos −1 (𝑥 + 𝑦)

(18) 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 3 = tan−1 𝑦
(19) 𝑥 tan−1 𝑦 = 𝑦 tan−1 𝑥
(20) 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 ln 𝑥 = sin−1 2𝑥 + 𝑦

❼ Differentiation of inverse hyperbolic functions

(1) 𝑦 = sinh−1 (sin 𝑥 2 )

(2) 𝑦 = cosh−1 (sec 𝑥)
(3) 𝑦 = coth−1 (5 𝑥 2 + 1)

- 92 -
 (4) 𝑦 = sinh−1 (tan−1 𝑒 3𝑥 )
(5) 𝑦 = (sech−1 5𝑥)3
(6) 𝑦 = √𝑥 + sech−1 𝑥
(7) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 sinh−1 𝑥 2
(8) 𝑦 = 𝑥 sinh−1 𝑥 − √1 + 𝑥 2
(9) 𝑦 = ln √𝑥 2 − 1 − 𝑥 tanh−1 𝑥
tanh−1 𝑥
(10) 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +sin 𝑥

⊛ Logarithmic differentiation

𝑑𝑦
Find for the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

(1) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑥
(2) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
2
(3) 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑥
(4) 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
(5) 𝑦 = 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
(6) 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝑥
(7) 𝑦 = (sin 𝑥)cos 𝑥
(8) 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥
(9) 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥
(10) 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)sin 𝑥
(11) 𝑦 = (sinh 𝑥)sin 𝑥
2
(12) 𝑦 = (tan−1 𝑥)𝑥
(13) 𝑦 = (sin−1 𝑥)cosh 𝑥
1
(14) 𝑦 = (sinh−1 𝑥)𝑥2
(15) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥
2 3
(16) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 5𝑥 7𝑥
- 93 -
 2
(17) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 −2 𝑥 ln 5 𝑥 3
(18) 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 sin 3𝑥 tanh−1 2𝑥
(19) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 3 3𝑥
(5𝑥+3)3 (3𝑥+1)5
(20) 𝑦 = ln ( (2𝑥+7)4
)

(𝑥+5) (𝑥−1)
(21) 𝑦 = √
𝑥+2

(𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥+𝑎)
(22) 𝑦 = √(𝑥−𝑏)(𝑥+𝑏)

(𝑥 3 +1)5 𝑒 sin 𝑥
(23) 𝑦 =
tanh−1 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥 4 sin−1 3𝑥 ln cos 5𝑥
(24) 𝑦 = (3−5𝑥) sinh−1 5𝑥
−1 𝑥
(25) 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin + (sinh 𝑥)ln 𝑥
−1 𝑥
(26) 𝑦 = (ln 𝑥)−𝑥 + 𝑒 sinh
(27) 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 + (sin 𝑥)5𝑥
(28) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦
(29) 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦
2 2
(30) 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥 = 2 𝑥𝑦
(31) (tan 𝑥)𝑦 = (tan 𝑦)𝑥
−1 𝑥 3
(32) (ln 𝑥)cosh + tan−1 𝑥 𝑒 sec 𝑥 = 𝑦 cos 𝑥
−1 𝑥
(33) 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin + (sinh 𝑥)ln 𝑥
(34) 𝑥 2+𝑦 + 𝑦 2+𝑥 = 8
tan 𝑥
(35) 𝑦 = (𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑥 )
tan 𝑥
(36) 𝑦 = 𝑥 (𝑦 sin 𝑥)

- 94 -
 L’Hopital Theorem

There are types of indeterminate forms. Such as

0 ±∞
, , 0 × (±∞), ∞ − ∞, 00 , ∞0 , 1∞
0 ±∞

These quantities
L’Hopital Rule:may appearthat
Suppose when evaluating limits of functions.

1. 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑔(𝑥0 ) = 0
2. The functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both differentiable on open
interval (𝑎, 𝑏) that contains the point 𝑥0
3. 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 at every point in (𝑎, 𝑏) except possibly 𝑥0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
Then lim = lim
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔′ (𝑥)

Provided that the limit on the right exist.

0
Proceed to differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) so long as we still get the form at 𝑥0 .
0

But as soon as one of or the other of these derivatives is different from zero at
𝑥 = 𝑥0 we stop differentiating. L’Hopital rule does not apply when either the
numerator or denominator has a finite nonzero limit.

• Important remarks
1. the right hand side of L’Hopital rule is the limit of ratio of the derivatives,
but not the limits of the limits of the derivatives of the ratio of the two
functions,
𝑓′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) ′
i.e. equal lim ( ′ ), but not equal lim ( )
𝑥→𝑥0𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0

2. L’Hopital rule is also valid for one sided limits 𝑥 → 𝑥0± and for 𝑥 → ±∞.
3. In applying L’Hopital rule we may reach a point where one of the derivatives
is zero at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 and the other is not.
∞ 0
4. L’Hopital rule applies to the indeterminate as well as to .
∞ 0

- 95 -
 0
Forms of type 0

In this case, we apply L’Hopital rule directly

Example 1

Find the following limits

1−cos 𝑥
(i) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
1−cos 3𝑥
(ii) lim
𝑥→0 𝑒 2𝑥 −1−2𝑥
sin 𝑥−𝑥
(iii) lim
𝑥→0 2 𝑒 𝑥 −2−2 𝑥−𝑥 2
ln sin 𝑥
(iv) lim𝜋 2
𝑥→ (𝜋−2𝑥)
2

Solution
1−cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1
(i) lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 2𝑥 𝑥→0 2 2
1−cos 3𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥 9 cos 3𝑥 9
(ii) lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→0 𝑒 2𝑥 −1−2𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑒 2𝑥 −2 𝑥→0 4 𝑒 2𝑥 4
sin 𝑥−𝑥 cos 𝑥−1 −sin 𝑥 −cos 𝑥 1
(iii) lim = lim = lim = lim =−
𝑥→0 2 𝑒 𝑥 −2−2 𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑥→0 2 𝑒 𝑥 −2−2 𝑥 𝑥→0 2 𝑒 𝑥 −2 𝑥→0 2 𝑒 𝑥 2
ln sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 1
(iv) lim𝜋 = lim𝜋 = lim𝜋 =−
𝑥→ (𝜋−2𝑥)2 𝑥→ −4(𝜋−2𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑥→ −4(𝜋−2𝑥) cos 𝑥+8 sin 𝑥 8
2 2 2

∞
Forms of type ∞

In this case, we apply L’Hopital rule directly

Example 2
Find the following limits

- 96 -
 6 𝑥 3 −5 𝑥 2 +7
(i) lim
𝑥→∞ 2 𝑥 3 −5 𝑥+2
ln 𝑥
(ii) lim
𝑥→0 csc 𝑥
𝑒𝑥
(iii) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
𝑥
(iv) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑒 2𝑥

Solution

6 𝑥 3 −5 𝑥 2 +7 18 𝑥 2 −10 𝑥 36 𝑥
(i) lim = lim = lim = lim 3 = 3
𝑥→∞ 2 𝑥 3 −5 𝑥+2 𝑥→∞ 6 𝑥 2 −5 𝑥→∞ 12 𝑥 𝑥→∞
1
ln 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
(ii) lim = lim = −lim tan 𝑥 = −lim lim tan 𝑥
𝑥→0 csc 𝑥 𝑥→0 − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

= −(1)(1) = −1
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
(iii) lim = lim = lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 2 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2
𝑥 1 1
(iv) lim = lim = =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2 𝑒 2𝑥 ∞

There are a number of indeterminate forms other than

0 ∞
or such as(0)(±∞), ∞ − ∞, 1∞ , 00 , ∞0 .
0 ∞

These cases be evaluated by transforming them to the form of a quotient and

then applying L’Hopital rule. We will investigate them in the following three
cases.

Forms of type ∞ − ∞
This case results form lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑥0

Where lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

- 97 -
In order to able to apply L’Hopital rule we trying to convert the difference
[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] into a quotient to which we may apply L’Hopital rule.

Example 3
Find the following limits

i. lim𝜋(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥)
𝑥→
2

1 1
ii. lim+ ( − )
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1
iii. lim ( cot 2 𝑥 − 2 )
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
1 sin 𝑥
i. lim𝜋(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥) = lim𝜋 ( − )
𝑥→ 𝑥→ cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
2 2

1 − sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 0
= lim𝜋 = lim𝜋 = =0
𝑥→ cos 𝑥 𝑥→ sin 𝑥 1
2 2
1 1 sin 𝑥−𝑥
ii. lim+ ( − ) = lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥−1 0
= lim+ =
𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥+sin 𝑥 0

− sin 𝑥 0
= lim+ = =0
𝑥→0 −𝑥 sin 𝑥+2cos 𝑥 2

1 cos2 𝑥 1
iii. lim ( cot 2 𝑥 − 2) = lim ( 2 − 2 )
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→0

𝑥 2 cos2 𝑥−sin2 𝑥
= lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 sin2 𝑥

(𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) (𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)

= lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 sin2 𝑥
𝑥 cos 𝑥−sin 𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑥+sin 𝑥
= lim × lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Appling L’Hopital rule, we get

- 98 -
 cos 𝑥−𝑥 sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥−𝑥 sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥
= lim × lim
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥+ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑥→0 1

−𝑥 sin 𝑥
= lim ×2 (÷ 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥+ 𝑥 sin 2𝑥

sin 𝑥
− −1 −2
𝑥
= 2 lim sin2 𝑥 sin 2 𝑥
=2× =
𝑥→0 + 1+ 2 3
𝑥2 𝑥

Forms of type (0 × ±∞)

This case results form lim [𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑥0

Where lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ±∞

𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0

We treat this case by any one of the following:

𝑓 𝑔
lim 𝑓 𝑔 = lim 1 , or lim 𝑓 𝑔 = lim 1
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑓

Example 4

Find the following limits

i. lim 𝑥 cot 2𝑥
𝑥→0+

ii. lim 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑥→0+

iii. lim (𝜋 − 𝑥) cot 𝑥

𝑥→𝜋
1
iv. lim 𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→∞

Solution
𝑥
i. lim+ 𝑥 cot 2𝑥 = lim+
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 tan 2𝑥
1 1
= lim+ =
𝑥→0 2 sec2 2𝑥 2
1
ln 𝑥 𝑥
ii. lim 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = lim+ 1 = lim 1
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥→0+ −𝑥2

= − lim+ 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0

- 99 -
 𝜋−𝑥
iii. lim (𝜋 − 𝑥) cot 𝑥 = lim
𝑥→𝜋 𝑥→𝜋 tan 𝑥
−1 −1
= lim = = −1
𝑥→𝜋 sec2 𝑥 1

1
1
𝑎𝑥 −1
iv. lim 𝑥 (𝑎 − 1) = lim
𝑥
1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
1
1 1
𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎(− 2 )
𝑥
= lim 1 = lim 𝑎𝑥 ln 𝑎 = ln 𝑎
𝑥→∞ − 2 𝑥→∞
𝑥

Cases: (1∞ , 00 , ∞0 )
𝑔(𝑥)
This case result from lim (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑥0

We treat these cases as follows:

𝑔(𝑥)
(1) Let L= lim (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑥0

(2) Taking the ln to both sides,

𝑔(𝑥)
ln L = ln lim (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑥0

𝑔(𝑥)
= lim ln(𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥→𝑥0

= lim [𝑔(𝑥) ln(𝑓(𝑥))]

𝑥→𝑥0

(3) The product 𝑔(𝑥) ln(𝑓(𝑥)) has indeterminate form (0 × ±∞).

(4) Compute the new limit, if the result is c, thus
ln L = 𝑐 L = 𝑒𝑐

𝑔(𝑥)
∴ L = lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑒𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

Forms of type 00

- 100 -
 Example 5
Find the following limits

i. lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→0
1
𝜋 −1 ln 𝑥
ii. lim ( − tan 𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 2

Solution

i. Let L = lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→0

ln 𝑥
∴ ln L = lim ln 𝑥 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = lim 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

1
𝑥
= lim −1 = − lim 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑥→0

∴ L = lim 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→0

1
𝜋 ln 𝑥
ii. Let L = lim ( − tan−1 𝑥)
2 𝑥→∞

1
𝜋 ln 𝑥
∴ ln L = lim ln ( − tan−1 𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 2

1 𝜋
= lim ln ( − tan−1 𝑥)
𝑥→∞ ln 𝑥 2

𝜋
ln( −tan−1 𝑥) ∞
2
∴ ln L = lim =
𝑥→∞ ln 𝑥 ∞

1 1
𝜋 × (− )
−tan−1 𝑥 1+𝑥2
2
∴ ln L = lim 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

𝑥
= − lim 𝜋
𝑥→∞ ( 2 −tan−1 𝑥) (1+𝑥 2 )

- 101 -
 1
𝑥2 𝑥
= − lim × lim 𝜋
𝑥→∞ 1+𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 2 −tan−1 𝑥

1
− 2
𝑥
= −1 × lim 1
𝑥→∞ −1+𝑥2

1+𝑥 2
= − lim = −1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥2

1
𝜋 −1 ln 𝑥 1
∴ L = lim ( − tan 𝑥) = 𝑒 −1 =
2
𝑥→∞ 𝑒

Forms of type 00

Example 6

Find the following limits

i. lim (cot 𝑥)sin 𝑥

𝑥→0
1
ii. lim (1 + 3 𝑥)2𝑥
𝑥→∞

Solution

i. Let L = lim (cot 𝑥)sin 𝑥

𝑥→0

∴ ln L = lim ln(cot 𝑥)sin 𝑥

𝑥→0

= lim sin 𝑥 ln cot 𝑥 = 0 × ∞

𝑥→0

ln cot 𝑥 ∞
∴ ln L = lim =
𝑥→0 csc 𝑥 ∞

1
×(− csc2 𝑥 ) sin 𝑥
cot 𝑥
∴ ln L = lim = lim =0
𝑥→0 − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos2 𝑥

∴ L = lim (cot 𝑥)sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1

𝑥→0

- 102 -
 1
ii. Let L = lim (1 + 3 𝑥)2𝑥
𝑥→∞

1
∴ ln L = lim ln(1 + 3 𝑥)2𝑥 = 0 × (−∞)
𝑥→∞

ln(1+3 𝑥) ∞
∴ ln L = lim =
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 ∞

3
1+3 𝑥 3 1
∴ ln L = lim = lim =0
𝑥→∞ 2 2 𝑥→∞ 1+3 𝑥

1
∴ L = lim (1 + 3 𝑥)2𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑥→∞

Forms of type 1∞

Example 7

Find the following limits

i. lim𝜋 (tan 𝑥)tan 2𝑥

𝑥→
4

ii. lim+(1 + 4 sin 𝑥)cot 𝑥

𝑥→0

Solution

i. Let L = lim𝜋 (tan 𝑥)tan 2𝑥

𝑥→
4

∴ ln L = ln lim𝜋 (tan 𝑥)tan 2𝑥

𝑥→
4

= lim𝜋 ln(tan 𝑥)tan 2𝑥

𝑥→
4

= lim𝜋 tan 2𝑥 ln tan 𝑥 = ∞ × 0.

𝑥→
4

- 103 -
 ln tan 𝑥 0
∴ ln L = lim𝜋 =
𝑥→ cot 2𝑥 0
4

1
× sec2 𝑥
tan 𝑥
∴ ln L = lim𝜋
𝑥→ −2 csc2 2𝑥
4

cos 𝑥 sin2 2𝑥
= −lim𝜋
𝑥→ 2 sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
4

sin2 2𝑥
= −lim𝜋
𝑥→ sin 2𝑥
4

= −lim𝜋 sin 2𝑥 = −1
𝑥→
4

1
∴ L = lim𝜋 (tan 𝑥)tan 2𝑥 = 𝑒 −1 =
𝑥→ 𝑒
4

ii. Let L = lim+ (1 + 4 sin 𝑥)cot 𝑥

𝑥→0

∴ ln L = lim+ ln(1 + 4 sin 𝑥)cot 𝑥

𝑥→0

= lim+ cot 𝑥 ln(1 + 4 sin 𝑥) = ∞ × 0.

𝑥→0

ln(1+4 sin 𝑥) 0
∴ ln L = lim+ =
𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 0

1
× 4 cos 𝑥
1+4 sin 𝑥
∴ ln L = lim
𝑥→0+ sec2 𝑥

4 cos 𝑥
= lim+ (1+4 sin 𝑥) sec2 𝑥
=4
𝑥→0

∴ L = lim+ (1 + 4 sin 𝑥)cot 𝑥 = 𝑒 4

𝑥→0

- 104 -
 Exercises

L’Hopital Theorem

Find the following limits (Using L’Hopital)

𝑥 2 −4
(1) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −𝑥
(2) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 4 −5 𝑥 2 +2 𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑥+1
(3) lim
𝑥→∞ 3 𝑥 2 − 𝑥+5
𝑥2
(4) lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥
(5) lim
𝑥→∞ ln 𝑥
ln 𝑥
(6) lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1
(7) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥
(8) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin−1 𝑥
(9) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin−1 3𝑥
(10) lim
𝑥→0 sin−1 𝑥
sinh−1 𝑥
(11) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
ln sin 𝑥
(12) lim
𝑥→0 ln sin 3𝑥
1−cos 𝑥
(13) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
1−cos 𝑥
(14) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 4 +𝑥 2
𝑥−sin 𝑥
(15) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3
ln(1+𝑥)
(16) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1−𝑥
(17) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2

- 105 -
 2𝑥 −3𝑥
(18) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
3−3𝑥
(19) lim
𝑥→∞ 5−5𝑥
3 3
3𝑥 −2𝑥
(20) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
cos 𝑥
(21) lim𝜋
𝑥→ 2 𝑥−𝜋
2

1−2 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 2𝑥
(22) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−sin 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1−𝑥
(23) lim
𝑥→0 sin2 𝑥
sin 𝑥
(24) lim
𝑥→0 sinh 𝑥
2 tan 𝑥
(25) lim
𝜋−
𝑥→ 1+sec 𝑥
2

sinh 𝑥−sin 𝑥
(26) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3

𝑥 tan−1 𝑥
(27) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥
x−sin 𝑥
(28) lim
𝑥→0 (𝑒 𝑥 −1)3
𝑒 −𝑥 −1+𝑥
(29) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−ln(1+𝑥)
1−cos 𝑥
(30) lim
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥 −1−𝑥
1−cos 3𝑥
(31) lim
𝑥→0 𝑒 2𝑥 −1−2𝑥
sin 𝑥 2
(32) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥−ln(1+𝑥)

(33) lim𝜋(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥)

𝑥→
2

(34) lim𝜋(sec 2𝑥 − tan 2𝑥)

𝑥→
4

(35) lim (csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥)

𝑥→0

(36) lim (csc 2 𝑥 − cot 2 𝑥)

𝑥→0+
1 1
(37) lim ( − )
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥

- 106 -
 1 1
(38) lim ( 2 − 2)
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥
1 1
(39) lim+ ( 𝑥 − )
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥
1
(40) lim ( 2 − cot 2 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥

(41) lim 𝑥𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑥
(42) lim 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥→0
1
(43) lim 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥→0

(44) lim+ 𝑥 sin 𝑥

𝑥→0
1
(45) lim 𝑥 1−𝑥
𝑥→1
1
(46) lim (1 + 𝑥 2 )𝑥
𝑥→0
2 3𝑥
(47) lim (sec 3 2𝑥)cot
𝑥→0

(48) lim𝜋 tan 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥

𝑥→
2

(49) lim+ cot 2𝑥 tan−1 𝑥

𝑥→0
1
sin 𝑥 𝑥2
(50) lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

(51) lim (1 − cos 𝑥)tan 𝑥

𝑥→0
1
(52) lim (cos 2𝑥)𝑥2
𝑥→0
1
(53) lim+(cot 𝑥)ln 𝑥
𝑥→0
1
(54) lim+(sin 𝑥)ln 𝑥
𝑥→0
𝜋
(55) lim (1 − 𝑥) tan 𝑥
𝑥→1 2

(56) lim 𝑥 cot 2𝑥

𝑥→0

1 tan 𝑥
(57) lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

- 107 -
 2
(58) lim (1 − )3𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
1
(59) lim (1 + 3𝑥 )2𝑥
𝑥→∞
1
(60) lim (1 − 3𝑥 )𝑥
𝑥→0

- 108 -
 Indefinite Integral

1 Anti-Derivatives
𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑥) = , we call 𝐹(𝑥) the anti-derivative (or indefinite integral)
𝑑𝑥

of 𝑓(𝑥).

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, we can find its anti-derivative by realizing that for 𝐹(𝑥) =

𝟏
𝒙𝟐 .
𝟐

𝑑𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑 𝟏 𝟏 𝑑 𝟏
= (𝟐 𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝟐 ( 𝒙𝟐 ) = (𝟐 𝒙) = 𝒙 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟐

𝟏
Thus 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝒙𝟐 is an anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.
𝟐

However, if C is a constant:

𝑑 𝟏 𝟏
𝑑𝑥
(𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + C) = 𝟐 (𝟐 𝒙) = 𝒙 .

Since the derivative of a constant is zero. The general anti-derivative of 𝒙 is thus

𝟏
𝒙𝟐 + C where C can be any constant.
𝟐

Note that you should always check an anti-derivative 𝐹(𝑥) by differentiating it

and seeing that you recover 𝑓(𝑥).
Definitions

Given a function 𝑓(𝑥), an anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is any function 𝐹(𝑥)

𝑑 𝐹(𝑥)
such that = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

If 𝐹(𝑥) is any anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) then the most general anti-

derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is called an indefinite integral and denoted,

‫ )𝑥(𝐹 = 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬+ 𝐶 , C is any constant

- 109 -
In this definition the‫׬‬ is called the integral symbol, 𝑓(𝑥) is called the
integrand, 𝑥 is called the integration variable, and the 𝑐 is called the constant of
integration.

2 Tables of Basic Integrals

1 𝑥 𝑛+1
‫= 𝑥𝑑 𝑛 𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑛+1
+ c, 𝑛 ≠ −1

2 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
‫ 𝑓 𝑛])𝑥(𝑓[׬‬′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+c

3 ‫ 𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ c
4 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + c‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑒 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
5 𝑎𝑥
‫ |𝑎| 𝑛𝑙 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑎 ׬‬+ c

6 =
𝑎𝑓(𝑥)
+ c‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎 ׬‬′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑎

7 ‫׬‬
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥| + c
𝑥

8 𝑓′ (𝑥)
‫׬‬ = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑓(𝑥)| + c
𝑓(𝑥)

9 𝑑𝑥
‫ = 𝑥√ ׬‬2 √𝑥 + c

10 𝑓′ (𝑥)
‫ = )𝑥(𝑓√ ׬‬2 √𝑓(𝑥) + c

𝑓(𝑥) ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 −𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 −𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑥 + 𝑐

- 110 -
 𝑓(𝑥) ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
1 1 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝑐
√1−𝑥 2 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎
1 1 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 + 𝑐
√1+𝑥 2 √𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎
1 1 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 + 𝑐
√𝑥 2 −1 √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 1 1 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑐
1+𝑥 2 𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 1 1 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 + 𝑐
1−𝑥 2 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
−1
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 −1 1 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

1 ‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

2 ‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

3 ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
4 ‫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜 𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
5 ‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
6 ‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑐 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

3 Properties of the Indefinite Integral

1) ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 ׬ 𝒌 = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒌 ׬‬, where 𝒌 is any number

2) ‫ )𝒙(𝒇 [ ׬‬± 𝒈(𝒙) ] 𝒅𝒙 = ‫ 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 ׬‬± ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒈 ׬‬
3) ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒈 ׬ ∗ 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 ׬ ≠ 𝒙𝒅 ] )𝒙(𝒈 ∗ )𝒙(𝒇 [ ׬‬
𝒇(𝒙) ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 ׬‬
4) ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 ≠
𝒈(𝒙) ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒈 ׬‬

𝑥 𝑛+1 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
‫= 𝑥𝑑 𝑛 𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑛+1
+c ‫ 𝑓 𝑛])𝑥(𝑓[׬‬′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c n ≠ −1

- 111 -
Example 1 Evaluate the following integrals

(1) ‫[׬‬5 𝑥 3 − 10 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 − 3] 𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝐼 = 5 ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 − 10 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥

5 10
= 𝑥4 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 3 𝑥 + 𝑐
4 3

1 2
Solution (2) ‫ 𝑥( ׬‬3 + 3) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑥 [ ׬‬6 + 2 + 6 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

= ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬6 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−6 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝑥7 + 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 −5 + 𝑐
7 5

(3) ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 3√𝑥 ) (4 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1 7
𝐼 = ‫ [ ׬‬4 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 4 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 ] 𝑑𝑥
4 10
1 3
= 2 𝑥2 − 𝑥4 + 3 𝑥3 − 𝑥3 +𝑐
4 10

(4) ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 3√𝑥 ) (4 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution
4 𝑥 10 −2 𝑥 4 + 15 𝑥
𝐼= ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3

= ‫ [׬‬4 𝑥 7 − 2 𝑥 + 15 𝑥 −2 ] 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= 𝑥 8 − 𝑥 2 − 15 +𝑐
2 𝑥

(5) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
𝐼= 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 + 𝑐
6

(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)2
Solution (6) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

𝐼 = ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
= (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)3 + 𝑐
3

- 112 -
 𝑙𝑛𝑥
(7) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Solution 𝑥

1
𝐼 = ‫𝑥𝑑 ) ( 𝑥 𝑛𝑙 ׬‬
𝑥

1
= (𝑙𝑛 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2
3
√1+𝑙𝑛𝑥
Solution (8) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
1
𝐼 = ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑙𝑛𝑥) 3 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
4
3
= (1 + 𝑙𝑛𝑥) 3 + 𝑐
4

(9) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 √1 − 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1
−1
𝐼=
3
‫[ ׬‬1 − 𝑥 3 ]2 (−3 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
3
−2
= (1 − 𝑥 3 )2 + 𝑐
9

23
Solution (10) ‫( ׬‬ + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2

= 23 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
‫׬‬ = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑥 | + c ‫׬‬ = 𝑙𝑛 |𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

Example 2 Evaluate the following integrals

𝑥+1
(1) ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
Solution 2𝑥 +4𝑥+3

1 4(𝑥+1)
𝐼= ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
4 2 𝑥 +4𝑥+3

1
= ln|2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3| + c
4

𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
Solution (2) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛|1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐
1
(3) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Solution 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

- 113 -
 1
𝑥
𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑥

= 𝑙𝑛 |𝑙𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐
1+𝑙𝑛 𝑥
(4) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Solution 3+ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥

𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛 |3 + 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥−cos 𝑥
(5) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Solution 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 +cos 𝑥

(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥−cos 𝑥)
𝐼 = −‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 +cos 𝑥

= − 𝑙𝑛 |𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + cos 𝑥| + 𝑐
(1+ 𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥
Solution (6) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥

𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛 |1 + 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 | + 𝑐

𝑑𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
‫׬‬ = 2 √𝑥 + c ‫׬‬ = 2 √𝑓(𝑥) + c
√𝑥 √𝑓(𝑥)

Evaluate the following integrals

Example 3
𝑒𝑥
Solution (1) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√1+𝑒 𝑥

I = 2 √1 + 𝑒 𝑥 + c
2𝑥−1
(2) ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
Solution √𝑥 −𝑥+1

𝐼 = 2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐
𝑥
(3) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Solution √1−𝑥 2

−1 −2𝑥
𝐼= ‫√ ׬‬1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2

−1
= 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
2

= − √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐

‫ 𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ c ‫ 𝑓 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑒 ׬‬′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + c

- 114 -
 Evaluate the following integrals
Example 4
(1) ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1
𝐼=
3
‫ 𝑒 ׬‬3 𝑥 (3) 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑒3 𝑥 + c
3
3
(2) ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬5 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1 3
𝐼=
15
‫ 𝑒 ׬‬5 𝑥 (15 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
1 3
= 𝑒5 𝑥 + 𝑐
15
2 −4 𝑥
(3) ‫ 𝑥(׬‬− 2) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1 2 −4 𝑥
𝐼 = ‫𝑥𝑒 ׬‬ (2𝑥 − 4) 𝑑𝑥
2

1 2 −4 𝑥
= 𝑒𝑥 +𝑐
2

(4) ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑒 ׬‬2𝑥 (2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2

1
= 𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2
2 +𝑙𝑛
(5) ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Solution
2
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 2
= ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬2 𝑥 (4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4

1 2
= 𝑒2 𝑥 + 𝑐
4
1
− −2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
Solution (6) ‫𝑒 ׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
−
𝐼 = ‫𝑒׬‬ 𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 115 -
 1
1
= ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬− 𝑥 ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
= 𝑒− 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ′ 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)
‫ 𝑎 𝑛𝑙 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑎 ׬‬+ 𝑐 ‫𝑎׬‬ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑙𝑛 𝑎

Evaluate the following integrals

Example 5
(1) ‫ ׬‬2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
2𝑥
𝐼= +𝑐
𝑙𝑛 2
2
(2) ‫ ׬‬5𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1 2
𝐼=
2
‫ ׬‬5𝑥 (2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 5𝑥
= +c
2 𝑙𝑛 5

Integration of trigonometric integrals

Example 1.6 Evaluate the following integrals

(1) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬

Solution
−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐼 = −‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

= − ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥| + 𝑐

= ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥| + 𝑐

(2) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑐 ׬‬

Solution
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

= ln|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐

(3) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬

Solution

- 116 -
 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
𝐼=‫׬‬ (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

=‫׬‬ (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

= ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐

(4) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬

Solution
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 (𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥)
𝐼=‫׬‬ (𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥−𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥

=‫׬‬ (𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

= ln|𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥| + 𝑐

Integration of square of trigonometric functions

We use the following trigonometric laws

1
(𝑖) cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥)
2

1
(𝑖𝑖) cos 2𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥)
2

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

(𝑖𝑣) 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1

Evaluate the following integrals

Example 1.7
(1) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
= [𝑥 – ]+𝑐
2 2

(2) ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
= [𝑥 + ]+𝑐
2 2

- 117 -
 (3) ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠(׬‬2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

(4) ‫ 𝑡𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐(׬‬2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

Integrals involving products of sines and cosines

We use the following trigonometric laws

1
(𝑖) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏𝑥 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥]
2

1
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑥 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥]
2

1
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏𝑥 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥]
2

Example 1.8 Evaluate the following integrals

(1) ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬5𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠[׬‬2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥]𝑑𝑥
2

1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 8𝑥
= [ − ]+𝑐
2 2 8

(2) ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬7𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐[׬‬3𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 11𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
2

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 11𝑥

= [ − ]+𝑐
2 3 11

(3) ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬5𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐[׬‬3𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 11𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
2

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8 𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8 𝑥

= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥 + ]+c= [ + ]+c
4 4 2 2 8

- 118 -
Exercise 1 Evaluate the following integrals

1) ‫ [׬‬7 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 − 1] 𝑑𝑥 7
𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
𝑥3 − 5 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 2 1 1
2) ‫ 𝑥( ׬‬8 − 8) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
17
𝑥17 − 2 𝑥 − 15 𝑥−15 + 𝑐
𝑥

1 1
3) ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠[׬‬3𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 5𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − cos 3𝑥 +
3 5
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 5𝑥 + 𝑐

2
4) ‫ 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠(׬‬+ cos 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 3𝑥 + 4 ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥| + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

5) ‫(׬‬2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
⬚
⬚
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
6) ‫ 𝑥 𝑛𝑎𝑡(׬‬+ cot 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
⬚
⬚
2 2
7) ‫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐(׬‬3𝑥 + cot 3𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − cot 3𝑥 − 𝑐𝑠𝑐 3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 3

1
8) ‫׬‬
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
5
ln|3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥| + 𝑐
3+𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥

1 2
7
9) ‫(׬‬sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥) + 𝑐
8

3
2
10) ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 √5 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
(5 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)2 +𝑐

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑒5+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐
11) ‫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬5+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 119 -
 1
12) ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(cos 3𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
𝑐𝑜𝑠(cos 3𝑥) + 𝑐

1
13) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑙 𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑐 ׬‬ 𝐴𝑛𝑠. (𝑙𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2

𝑥
14) ‫𝑥𝑑 ) 𝑥 𝑒(𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬ 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑒 ) + 𝑐

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 2 √𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

15) ‫ 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠√ 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥+cos5 𝑥 1
16) ‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥−cos 5𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
5
ln|𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 − cos 5𝑥| + 𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥+cos 𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. ln|1 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐

17) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
⬚
⬚
−1
1 𝐴𝑛𝑠. +𝑐
18) ‫׬‬ 1 2
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥
𝑥 2 (1+ )
𝑥
⬚
⬚

(17) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(18) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(19) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(20) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 120 -
 Methods of integration

1 Integration by substitution
integrals
1.1 Integration by algebraic substitution
Function can be converted to be its integration into another function easy
integration using an algebraic adequate compensation is change the independent
variable and the aim of this is to simplify the compensation function to become
easy integration.

Let's now review the five steps for integration by substitution.

Step 1: Choose a new variable 𝒖

Step 2: Determine the value 𝒅𝒙

Step 3: Make the substitution

Step 4: Integrate resulting integral

Step 5: Return to the initial variable 𝒙

Example 1
Find ‫𝒙𝒅 𝟑𝒙 𝒔𝒐𝒄 𝟐𝒙 ׬‬
Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑢 = 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫𝑢𝑑 𝑢 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬
3

1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3 + 𝑐
3 3

Example 2 Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 √1 + 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥

- 121 -
 Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = √1 + 𝑥 4 𝑢2 = 1 + 𝑥 4

∴ 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 4 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫𝑢 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑢
2

3
1 1
= 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 = (1 + 𝑥 4 )2 + 𝑐
6 6

Example 3 Find ‫ 𝑥√ 𝑥 ׬‬+ 1 𝑑𝑥

Solution 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1 𝑢2 = 𝑥 + 1 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 2 ‫𝑢(׬‬2 − 1) 𝑢2 𝑑𝑢

= 2 ‫𝑢(׬‬4 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢

𝑢5 𝑢3
= 2[ − ]+𝑐
5 3

5 3
1 1
= 2[ (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 + 1)2 ] + 𝑐
5 3

Example 4 1
Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 +𝑒

Solution 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑢
∴ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑢 𝑢

𝑑𝑢
𝑢
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑢+
𝑢

1
=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢2

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝑐 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝑐

- 122 -
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
Example 5 Find ‫׬‬
1+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Solution 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢2

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝑐

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑐

1
Example 6 Find ‫𝑥( ׬‬+2) 𝑑𝑥
√1+𝑥

Solution 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = √1 + 𝑥 𝑢2 = 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

1 1
∴ ‫𝑥( ׬‬+2) 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑢( ׬‬2 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
√1+𝑥 −1+2) 𝑢

1
= 2‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
1+𝑢2

= 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑢 + 𝑐

= 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (√1 + 𝑥) + 𝑐

Example 7 Find ‫ ׬‬sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Solution ∵ sec 𝑥 = = =
cos 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
1−𝑢2

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝑐

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑐

1 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑛( )+𝑐
2 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

- 123 -
Exercise 1 Evaluate the following integrals

‫ 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 1
𝐴𝑛𝑠. −
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥2

cos √𝑥
‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 2 sin √𝑥 + 𝑐
√𝑥
⬚
⬚

1
‫( ׬‬1 − 𝑥) cos(𝑥 − ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 − ln 𝑥) + 𝑐
⬚
⬚

2
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐
∫ 𝑥 √2 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥

𝑒𝑥
‫ ׬‬1+𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑒𝑥 ) + 𝑐

1
1 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1(𝑒2𝑥 ) + 𝑐
∫ −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑒 2𝑥

2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) + 𝑐
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥

−1
∫
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) + 𝑐
√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 𝑥
‫[ 𝑥 ׬‬1+(𝑙𝑛 𝑥)2 ] 𝑑𝑥 1 2
𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2
ln |1 + (𝑙𝑛 𝑥) | + 𝑐

- 124 -
 1.2 Integration by trigonometric and hyperbolic substitutions

We make an appropriate trigonometric or hyperbolic substitution and

reduce the given integral to a trigonometric or hyperbolic one.

Form Trigonometric Substitution Hyperbolic Substitution

−𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, ≤𝜃≤ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑧 , |𝑥| < 1
2 2

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
√𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = asech 𝑧
𝑥 𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 ( )
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃, 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 , 𝑧 > 0
𝜋 𝜋
0≤𝜃< or <𝜃≤𝜋 𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2 2
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎 sinh 𝑧
𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( )
𝑎
𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( )
𝑎
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 , ≤𝜃≤ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 , 𝑧 any number
2 2

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
√𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 cosh 𝑧
𝑥 𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( )
𝑎 𝑎

Example 8
Find ‫√ ׬‬16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

∴ 𝐼 = ‫√ ׬‬16 − 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

4 𝑥

- 125 -
 = ‫ ׬‬4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√16 − 𝑥 2

= 16 ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= 8 ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
= 8 [𝜃 + ]+𝑐
2

= 8 [𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ] + 𝑐

𝑥 1
= 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑥 √16 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
4 2

1
Example 9 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 √9−𝑥 2

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 √9−9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

1
=‫׬‬ 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
9 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃∗ 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3
1 𝑥
= ‫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
9

−1 √9 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 + 𝑐
9

1
=− √9 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
9𝑥

Another solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
9 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑧 √9−9 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑧

1
=‫׬‬ 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∵ 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑧
9 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑧 ∗3 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑧

1 𝑥2
= ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠(׬‬ℎ 𝑧)−2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∴ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑧 = √1 −
9 9

- 126 -
 1 1
= ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ∴ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑧 = √9 − 𝑥 2
9 3

1 1
=− +𝑐 ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 = √𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑧 − 1
9 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧

1 𝑥
=− √9 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 =
9𝑥 √9−𝑥 2

√2−𝑥 2
Example 10 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = √2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

√2−2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
∴ 𝐼=‫׬‬ ∗ ( √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 √2
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑥
√2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
=‫׬‬ ∗ ( √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
√2 − 𝑥 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

= ‫ 𝑡𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ‫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐(׬‬2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃

= −𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝑐

1 𝑥
= − √2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) +𝑐
2 √2

√𝑥 2 −9
Example 11 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

√9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 −9
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ ∗ 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 9
= ‫ ׬‬3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3

- 127 -
 = 3 ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= 3 ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠[׬‬2 𝜃 − 1] 𝑑𝜃

= 3[𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 – 𝜃] + 𝑐

1 𝑥
= √𝑥 2 − 9 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( ) + 𝑐
3 3

𝑥3
Example 12 Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 −1

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃−1
𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃
=‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 1

= ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 + 𝑐
3

3
1 2
= √𝑥 2 −1+ (𝑥 − 1) + 𝑐
2
3

1
Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Example 13 𝑥 √𝑥 2 +4

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 √4 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+4 √𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥
1 1
=
2
‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜃 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2

1
= ‫𝜃𝑑 𝜃 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬
2

- 128 -
 1 1 √𝑥 2 +4 2
= ln|𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃| + 𝑐 = ln | − |+𝑐
2 2 𝑥 𝑥

𝑥2
Example 14 Find ‫√ ׬‬7+2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

√7
Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 √2 𝑥 = √7 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 =
√2
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

7 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑧 √7 1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 2𝑧 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 2𝑧 − 1)
2 √7 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 √2 2

7 √2
=
2 √2
‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬ℎ2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 =
√7
𝑥

7
= ‫𝑠𝑜𝑐(׬‬ℎ 2𝑧 − 1) 𝑑𝑧 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 = √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑧
4 √2

7 1 2
= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 2𝑧 − 𝑧] + 𝑐 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 = √1 + 𝑥2
4 √2 2 7

7 1
=
4 √2
[𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑧] + 𝑐 = √7 + 2 𝑥 2
√7

1 7 √2 𝑥
= 𝑥 √7 + 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( ) +𝑐
4 4 √2 √7

𝑥3
Example 15 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√1+𝑥 2

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃

𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃
=‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
√1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥
3
= ‫𝜃𝑑 𝜃 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜃 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬
1

= ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠(׬‬2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

- 129 -
 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑐
3

3
1
= (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 2 − √1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
3

Another solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ3 𝑧
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑧 = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧

= ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬ℎ 𝑧 (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑧 − 1) 𝑑𝑧 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 = √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑧

1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ3 𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑧 + 𝑐 = √1 + 𝑥 2
3

3
1
= (1 + 𝑥 2) 2 − √1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
3

√𝑥 2 + 4
Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
Example 16 𝑥

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

√4 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+4
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
= 2‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 √4 + 𝑥 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑥
1
= 2‫׬‬ (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

= 2 ‫ 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ׬‬+ 2 ‫𝜃𝑑 𝜃 𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝜃 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬

= 2 ln|𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥| + 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑐

√4+𝑥 2 2
= 2 ln | − | + √4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥

- 130 -
Exercise 2 Evaluate the following integrals
1
√4−𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √4 − 𝑥2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(1) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥2
1
√4+𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √4 + 𝑥2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(2) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥2
1
√𝑥 2 −4 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √𝑥2 − 4 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(3) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥2

4 √16−𝑥2
√16−𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4 ln |
𝑥
− 𝑥
| + √16 − 𝑥2 + 𝑐
(4) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

√16+𝑥 2 √16+𝑥2 4
(5) ‫׬‬
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4 ln |
𝑥
− 𝑥 | + √16 + 𝑥2 + 𝑐

√𝑥 2 −16 1 𝑥
(6) ‫׬‬
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. √𝑥2 − 16 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐−1 ( ) + 𝑐
4 4

𝑥2 1 5 𝑥
(7) ‫׬‬
√5−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. −
2
𝑥 √5 − 𝑥 2 + 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (√5 ) + 𝑐

𝑥2 1 5 −1 𝑥
(8) ‫׬‬
√5+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2
𝑥 √5 + 𝑥 2 − 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (
√5
)+𝑐

𝑥2 1 5 −1 𝑥
(9) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 5 − 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (
√5
)+𝑐
√𝑥 2 −5

1
(10) ‫׬‬
1
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑥2 √3−𝑥 2 3𝑥

1 1
(11) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 √3+𝑥 2 3𝑥

1 1
(12) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. √𝑥 2 − 3 + 𝑐
𝑥2 √𝑥 2 −3 3𝑥

3
𝑥3 1
(13) ‫׬‬
√9−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. −9 √9 − 𝑥 2 + 3
(9 − 𝑥2 ) 2 +𝑐

1 1 −1
(14) ‫√ ׬‬9 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
2
𝑥 √9𝑥2 − 5 − 6
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( 3 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
5 3
(15) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 √25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1 1
𝐴𝑛𝑠.
5
(25 − 𝑥2 ) 2 − 3
(25 − 𝑥2 ) 2 +𝑐

- 131 -
2 Integration by Parts
integrals
Integration by parts is a technique for performing indefinite
integration ‫𝒗𝒅 𝒖 ׬‬ by expanding the differential of a product of
functions 𝒅(𝒖𝒗) and expressing the original integral in terms of a known
integral‫𝒖𝒅 𝒗 ׬‬. A single integration by parts starts with
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑢,
and integrates both sides,
‫ 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬ = )𝑣𝑢(𝑑 ׬‬+ ‫𝑢𝑑 𝑣 ׬‬.
∴ 𝑢 𝑣 = ‫ 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬+ ‫𝑢𝑑 𝑣 ׬‬ ‫ 𝑣 𝑢 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬− ‫𝑢𝑑 𝑣 ׬‬

‫ 𝒗 𝒖 = 𝒗𝒅 𝒖 ׬‬− ‫𝒖𝒅 𝒗 ׬‬

This formula allows us to turn a complicated integral into more simple

ones. We must make sure we choose 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑣 carefully.

Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 ׬‬
Example 17
Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∴
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

= 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑐

Example 18 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 ׬‬

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + ‫ 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐

- 132 -
Example 19 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 ׬‬

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 ׬‬

Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 [ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ‫] 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

= 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

Another solution

We start off by choosing 𝒖 and 𝒅𝒗 as we always would. However, instead of

computing 𝒅𝒖 and 𝒗 we put these into the following table. We then differentiate
down the column corresponding to 𝒖 until we hit zero. In the column
corresponding to 𝒅𝒗 we integrate once for each entry in the first column.
𝑢 (𝐷) 𝑑𝑣 (𝐼)
𝑥2 +
𝑒𝑥
2𝑥 −
𝑒𝑥
2 + 𝑒𝑥
0 − 𝑒𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example 20 Find ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 133 -
 Solution

𝑢 (𝐷) 𝑑𝑣 (𝐼)
𝑥3 + sin 𝑥
3 𝑥2 − − cos 𝑥

6𝑥 + − sin 𝑥
6 − cos 𝑥
0 + sin 𝑥

‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 6 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example 21 Find ‫ 𝑥√ 𝑥 ׬‬+ 1 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = √𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 ∴
3
2
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣= (1 + 𝑥) 2
3
3 3
2 2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥) 2 − ‫(׬‬1 + 𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥
3 3

3 5
2 4
= 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥) 2 − (1 + 𝑥) 2 + 𝑐
3 15

Example 22 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑙 ׬‬

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
1
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 ׬‬

= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 – 𝑥 + 𝑐

- 134 -
Example 23 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑙 ׬‬

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥2
∴𝐼=
1 ∴ − 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
1 = 𝑑𝑥
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 ׬‬
𝑣=
𝑥 2
2 2

1 1
= 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑐
2 4

Example 24 Find ‫( 𝑛𝑙 ׬‬1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

𝑥2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 2 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

1+ 𝑥 2 −1
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 2 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

1
= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 2 ‫[׬‬1 − ] 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

= 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 2 ) − 2[𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥] + 𝑐

Example 25 Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

1
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
√1− 𝑥 2

1 2𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2 √1− 𝑥 2

= 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐

- 135 -
Example 26 Find ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

1
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

1
= 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
2

Example 27 Find ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑥2
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=
1+ 𝑥 2 2

1 1 𝑥2
∴ 𝐼= 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2 2 1+ 𝑥 2

1 1 1+𝑥 2 −1
= 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2 2 1+ 𝑥 2

1 1 1
= 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫[׬‬1 − ] 𝑑𝑥
2 2 1+ 𝑥 2

1 1
= 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − [ 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ] + 𝑐
2 2

Example 28 Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

- 136 -
 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬− ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 𝐼 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 𝑥 𝑐
∴ 𝐼=− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + + 2
2 2

Example 29 Find ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution 𝐼 = ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠( 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬

2 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 𝑐

1 1 𝑐
∴ 𝐼 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥| + 2

Example 30 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

Solution Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∴

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

∴ 𝐼 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∴
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = −𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

- 137 -
 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

2 𝐼 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑒𝑥 𝑐
∴ 𝐼= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ] + 2
2

Another solution

𝑢 𝑑𝑣

𝑒𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 −
− cos 𝑥
+
𝑒𝑥 − sin 𝑥

𝐼 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬

2 𝐼 = −𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑒𝑥 𝑐
∴𝐼= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ] + 2
2

Example 31 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥 𝑛𝑙( 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬

Solution 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

∴ 𝐼 = ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑦 𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑦 𝑒 ׬‬

𝑒𝑦 𝑐
= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 ] + 2
2

𝑥 𝑐
= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ] + 2
2

- 138 -
 1+ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
Example 32 Find ‫( ׬‬ ) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1
Solution 𝐼 = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑛𝑙 ׬‬
𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∴
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑥

1 1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬
𝑥 𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐

1+sin 𝑥
Example 33 Find ‫( ׬‬
1+cos 𝑥
) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑥 𝑥
∵ sin 𝑥 = 2 sin( ) cos ( )
2 2

𝑥 𝑥
∵ cos 𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − 1 1 + cos 𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2 2

𝑥 𝑥
1+2 sin( ) cos ( )
∴ 𝐼 = ‫[׬‬ 2
𝑥
2
] 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2

1 𝑥 𝑥
=
2
‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 ( 2 ) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ ( 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 ) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) − ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ) ( 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ) ( 𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬
2 2 2

𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) + 𝑐
2

Remark ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 [׬‬+ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

- 139 -
Exercise 3

(1) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 𝑒 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (2) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑛𝑙 ׬‬

(3) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (4) ‫ ׬‬ln √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑛 𝑥
(5) ‫ 𝑥√ ׬‬ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (6) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

ln 2𝑥
(7) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 (8) ‫(𝑛𝑙 ׬‬1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

(9) ‫(𝑛𝑙 𝑥 ׬‬1 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 (10) ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(11) ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑥 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (12) ‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ׬‬−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(13) ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 ln sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (14) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(15) ‫( 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (16) ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1+sin 𝑥
(17) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬ (18) ‫׬‬ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1+cos 𝑥

√4−𝑥 2
(19) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
1
√4+𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √4 + 𝑥2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(20) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥2
1
√𝑥 2 −4 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − √𝑥2 − 4 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
(21) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥2

4 √16−𝑥2
√16−𝑥 2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4 ln |
𝑥
− 𝑥
| + √16 − 𝑥2 + 𝑐
(22) ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

- 140 -
 3 Integrating a Product of Powers of Sine and Cosine
integrals
These are integrals of the following form:
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬

The technique used here depends on whether one of the powers is odd or both
are even. We summarize the techniques, and then do some examples.
Case 1: If 𝑛 is odd. Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sine to cosines
using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 . Such that

1
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘+1 𝑥
𝑘+1

Case 2: If 𝑚 is odd. Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosine to
sine using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 . Such that
1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘+1 𝑥
𝑘+1

Case 3: If 𝑛 and 𝑚 are both odd. Use either Case 1 or Case 2.

Case 4: If 𝑛 and 𝑚 are both even. Using relations

1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥) , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)
2 2

Example 34 Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝐼 = ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬− ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 141 -
 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝑐
3

Example 35 Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝐼 = ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐(׬‬2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 5

Find ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 36

Solution
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬4 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫(׬‬1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 5

𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥
Example 37 Find ‫ ׬‬3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Solution
−1
𝐼 = ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3

−1
= ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−1
= ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 142 -
 −1 5
= ‫ 𝑛𝑖𝑠( ׬‬3 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 8
3 3
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)3 − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)3 + 𝑐
2 8

Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 38
Solution
𝐼 = ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠(׬‬3 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 + 𝑐
4 6

Another solution

𝐼 = ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐(׬‬3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝑥 + 𝑐
4 6

Example 39 Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1 1
𝐼 = ‫( [ ׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)] [ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
2 2

1
= ‫[׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
4

1 1
=
4
‫[ ׬‬1 − 2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

- 143 -
 1 1 1
= ‫ [ ׬‬2 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
4

1
=
8
‫ [׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
= [𝑥 − ]+𝑐
8 4

1 1
= 𝑥− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + 𝑐
8 32

Find ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 40

Solution
𝐼 = ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠(׬‬2 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

1 2
= ‫( [ ׬‬1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
2

1
= ‫[׬‬1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
4

1 1
= ‫[ ׬‬1 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
4 2

1 3 1
= ‫ [ ׬‬− 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2

1 3 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥
= [ 𝑥− − ]+𝑐
4 2 2 2 4

3 1 1
= 𝑥− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + 𝑐
8 4 32

Note: Previous rules can be applied to form

‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬ℎ𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- 144 -
Exercise 3.

(1) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 1

𝐴𝑛𝑠. −
2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 + 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 2𝑥 + 𝑐

2 1
(2) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 5

3 7 11
−2 4 2
5
(3) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐√ 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬ 𝐴𝑛𝑠. (cos 𝑥)2 + (cos 𝑥)2 − (cos 𝑥) 2 + 𝑐
3 7 11

1 3
(4) ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐
3

2 3 1 5
7 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5𝑥 + 𝑐
(5) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬ 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 5

1 1
(6) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 − 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 1
4 3
(7) ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑐 𝑥 𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬ 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
5
𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 − 7 𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 1
(8) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. −
6
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠8 𝑥 + 𝑐

1 1
(9) ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
6
𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝑥 − 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛8 𝑥 + 𝑐

3 1 1
(10) ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
8
𝑥 + 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 + 32 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + 𝑐

- 145 -
4 Integration by Partial Fractions
integrals
𝑃(𝑥)
If integrating ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 where the degree (largest exponent) of 𝑃(𝑥) is smaller
𝑄(𝑥)

than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥) then factor the denominator as completely as possible
and find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate
the partial fraction decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the denominator
we get term(s) in the decomposition according to the following table.

Factor in 𝑄(𝑥) Term in P. F. D.

𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝐴
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
(𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑘 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
+ + ⋯ +
𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑘
𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥+𝐵
𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐
(𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑘 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘
+ ⋯ +
𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑘

If the degree of the numerator (𝑷(𝒙)) is not less than the degree of the
denominator (𝑸(𝒙)), by long division, we can write
𝑷(𝒙) 𝒑(𝒙)
= 𝑹(𝒙) +
𝑸(𝒙) 𝒒(𝒙)

Example 47 𝑥+8
Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +6 𝑥+8

Solution
𝑥+8 𝑥+8 𝐴 𝐵
∵ = (𝑥+2)(𝑥+4) = +
𝑥 2 +6 𝑥+8 (𝑥+2) (𝑥+4)

∴ 𝑥 + 8 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4) + 𝐵 (𝑥 + 2)

- 146 -
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2 6=2𝐴 𝐴=3

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −4 4 = −2 𝐵 𝐵 = −2

3 2
∴ 𝐼 = ‫[׬‬ − ] 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+2) (𝑥+4)

= 3 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 2| − 2 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 4| + 𝑐

1
Example 48 Find ‫ ׬‬3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥

Solution
1 1 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∵ = = = + +
𝑥 3 −𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 2 −1) 𝑥 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥 (𝑥−1) (𝑥+1)

∴ 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 1=−𝐴 𝐴 = −1

1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 1= 2𝐵 𝐵=
2

1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1 1=2𝑐 𝐶=
2

1 1
−1 2 2
∴ 𝐼 = ‫[׬‬ + + ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥−1) (𝑥+1)

1 1
= − 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐
2 2

𝑥+2
Example 49 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+3

Solution
𝑥+2 1
∵ =1−
𝑥+3 𝑥+3

1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫(׬‬1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+3

= 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 3| + 𝑐

- 147 -
Example 50 2𝑥
Find ‫ ׬‬4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −1

Solution
2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥
∵ = =
𝑥 4 −1 (𝑥 2 −1)(𝑥 2 +1) (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +1)

2𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑥+𝐷
∴ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +1)
= (𝑥−1)
+ + (𝑥 2 +1)
(𝑥+1)

∴ 2 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐵 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐶 𝑥 + 𝐷) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 2=4𝐴 𝐴=
2

1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1 −2 = −4 𝐵 𝐵=
2

Coeff. 𝑥 3 0=𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 𝐶 = −1

Coeff. 𝑥 0 0=𝐴−𝐵−𝐷 𝐷=0

1 1
2 2 𝑥
∴ 𝐼 = ‫𝑥( [ ׬‬−1) + (𝑥+1)
− (𝑥 2 +1)
] 𝑑𝑥

1 1 1
𝐼= 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 1| − 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 2 + 1| + 𝑐
2 2 2

𝑥+3
Example 51 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥−1)2

Solution
𝑥+3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
∵ = + +
𝑥 (𝑥−1)2 𝑥 (𝑥−1) (𝑥−1)2

∴ 𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝐵 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶 𝑥

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 3=𝐴 𝐴=3

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 4= 𝐶 𝐶= 4

Coeff. 𝑥 2 0=𝐴+𝐵 𝐵 = −3

- 148 -
 3 3 4
∴ 𝐼 = ‫[׬‬ − + ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥−1) (𝑥−1)2

= 3 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| − 3 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 1| − 4 (𝑥 − 1)−1 + 𝑐

𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
Example 52 Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−3

Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∴ 𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 2 −2𝑦−3

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
∵ = (𝑦+1)(𝑦−3) = (𝑦+1) + (𝑦−3)
𝑦 2 −2𝑦−3

∴ 1 = 𝐴(𝑦 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑦 + 1)

−1
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = −1 1 = −4 𝐴 𝐴=
4

1
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 3 1= 4𝐵 𝐵=
4
1 1 1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫𝑦((׬‬−3) − (𝑦+1)) 𝑑𝑦
4
1
= [ ln|𝑦 − 3| − ln|𝑦 + 1| ] + 𝑐
4
1 𝑦−3
= ln | |+𝑐
4 𝑦+1
1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 −3
= ln | |+𝑐
4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 +1
1
Example 53 Find ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 ׬‬
𝑒 +1

1 𝑒𝑥
Solution ∵𝐼=‫׬‬ ∗ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝑒𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 (𝑦+1)
1 𝐴 𝐵
∵ = + (𝑦+1)
𝑦 (𝑦+1) 𝑦

∴ 1 = 𝐴(𝑦 + 1) + 𝐵 𝑦

- 149 -
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0 1= 𝐴 𝐴=1

𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = −1 1= −𝐵 𝐵 = −1
1 1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫ (׬‬− ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 𝑦+1

= ln|𝑦| − ln|𝑦 + 1| + 𝑐
= 𝑥 − ln|𝑒 𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐

Another solution

1
∵ 𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1

𝑒 𝑥 +1−𝑒 𝑥
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1

𝑒𝑥
= ‫( ׬‬1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1

= 𝑥 − ln|𝑒 𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐

- 150 -
‫‪Exercise 4.‬‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥+2‬‬
‫׬ )‪(1‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(2‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 −4‬‬ ‫)‪𝑥 (𝑥+1‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫𝑥‬
‫׬ )‪(3‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(4‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 −2 𝑥−3‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 2 −3 𝑥+2‬‬

‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫׬ )‪(5‬‬ ‫׬ )‪(6‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 +5 𝑥+6‬‬ ‫)‪𝑥 (𝑥 2 +2‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪2−‬‬
‫׬ )‪(7‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(8‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫) ‪𝑥 (1+𝑥 2‬‬ ‫𝑥 ‪𝑥 2 +5‬‬

‫‪2 𝑥+ 3‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 3 +3‬‬

‫׬ )‪(9‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(10‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 −9‬‬ ‫)‪𝑥 2 (𝑥−1‬‬

‫‪𝑥 2 −1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 +7‬‬

‫׬ )‪(11‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(12‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 −16‬‬ ‫‪𝑥2‬‬ ‫)‪(𝑥+2‬‬

‫‪𝑥 2 −3‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 2 +1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(13‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(14‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫)‪(𝑥 2 −1)( 𝑥−3‬‬ ‫)‪𝑥 3 (𝑥−1‬‬

‫‪𝑥 2 + 𝑥−1‬‬ ‫‪2𝑥−1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(15‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(16‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫𝑥‬ ‫)‪(𝑥 2 −1‬‬ ‫𝑥‪𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 +2‬‬

‫‪𝑥 4 +𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 2 +2 𝑥−1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(17‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(18‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 +𝑥−2‬‬ ‫)‪(𝑥 2 +1)( 𝑥−2‬‬

‫‪𝑥 3 −7 𝑥−2‬‬ ‫‪3𝑥 2 +2 𝑥+1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(19‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(20‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 2 −2 𝑥−3‬‬ ‫)‪(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥+1‬‬

‫‪𝑥 2 − 𝑥+1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥3+ 4‬‬

‫׬ )‪(21‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(22‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪(𝑥+1)2‬‬ ‫)‪(𝑥 2 −1) (𝑥 2 +3 𝑥+2‬‬

‫‪𝑥 5 +1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥3+ 8‬‬

‫׬ )‪(23‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(24‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫)‪𝑥 3 (𝑥+2‬‬ ‫)‪(𝑥 2 −1) (𝑥 2 −2‬‬

‫‪3 𝑥 3 +4 𝑥+4‬‬ ‫‪3 𝑥+1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(25‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(26‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫)‪(𝑥 2 +2)2 (𝑥−3‬‬ ‫)‪𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +25‬‬

‫‪𝑥 3 +2 𝑥−1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫׬ )‪(27‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(28‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪(𝑥 2 − 𝑥−2)2‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 4 −1‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫׬ )‪(29‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬ ‫׬ )‪(30‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑‬
‫‪𝑥 4 +1‬‬ ‫‪𝑥 4 +4‬‬

‫‪- 151 -‬‬

5 Integrals Involving Quadratic Polynomials
integrals
Many integrals containing a square root or negative power of a quadratic
polynomial 𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑐 can be simplified by the process of completing the
square.
To illustrate this process of completing the square, consider the polynomial
𝒂 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒃 𝒄
Step 1: Take 𝒂 common factor 𝒂 [𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙+ ]
𝒂 𝒂

Step 2: Take the coefficient of 𝒙, divide it by 𝟐, and square it to get

𝒃 𝒃 𝒃 𝒃𝟐
( )𝟐 =
𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟒 𝒂𝟐

Step 3: Add and subtract this number and factor the result to get
𝒃 𝒄
𝒂 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 [𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙+ ]
𝒂 𝒂
𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝒄 𝒃𝟐
= 𝒂 [𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙+ 𝟐
+ − ]
𝒂 𝟒𝒂 𝒂 𝟒 𝒂𝟐

𝒃 𝟐 𝒄 𝒃𝟐
= 𝒂 [(𝒙 + ) + − 𝟐]
𝟐𝒂 𝒂 𝟒𝒂

𝒃 𝟐 𝒃𝟐
= 𝒂 (𝒙 + ) + (𝒄 − )
𝟐𝒂 𝟒𝒂

Ex: Complete the square for 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓.

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝟓 − 𝟏
= (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐
Ex: Complete the square for 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑.
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟗 + 𝟏𝟑 − 𝟗
= (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐
Ex: Complete the square for 𝟑 − 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 .
𝟑 − 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = − [𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟑 ]
= − [𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟏 − 𝟑 − 𝟏]
= − [(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟒]
= 𝟐𝟐 − (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

- 152 -
Ex: Complete the square for 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟐.
𝟑
𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟐 [𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙+𝟏]
𝟐
𝟑 𝟗 𝟗
= 𝟐 [𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙+ +𝟏− ]
𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔

𝟑 𝟐 𝟕
= 𝟐 [(𝒙 − ) + ]
𝟒 𝟏𝟔

𝟐
𝟑 𝟐 √𝟕
= 𝟐 [(𝒙 − ) + ( ) ]
𝟒 𝟒

Integrals involving quadratic expressions of the form

𝟏 𝟏
(𝟏) ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 (𝟐) ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

𝑨 𝒙+𝑩 𝑨 𝒙+𝑩
(𝟑) ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 (𝟒) ‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

𝑨 𝒙+𝑩
(𝟓) ‫𝟐𝒙𝒂( ׬‬ 𝒅𝒙 (𝟔) ‫ 𝟐𝒙𝒂√ ׬‬+ 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝒅𝒙
+𝒃𝒙+𝒄)𝒎

With the help of completing the square convert 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 to 𝒂 (𝒙 +

𝒃 𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝟐𝒂
) + (𝒄 − 𝟒 𝒂) that looks like either

√ 𝒌 𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 𝒌 𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐

√𝒚𝟐 − 𝒌𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒌 𝟐

√𝒌𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒌 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐

The expressions (1), (2) can often be evaluated directly with the help of an
integral table.
The expressions (3), (4), (5), can often be evaluated using substitution
- 153 -
 𝒃
𝒖=𝒙+ .
𝟐𝒂

The expression can often be evaluated using by trigonometric or hyperbolic

substitutions.
1
Example 54 Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 +6 𝑥+13

Solution
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 13 = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 13 − 9

= (𝑥 + 3)2 + 22

𝟏
∴𝑰=‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙
√(𝒙+𝟑)𝟐 +𝟐𝟐
𝑥+3
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( )+ 𝑐
2

1
Example 55 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√5−2 𝑥−𝑥 2

Solution
5 − 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = − [𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 − 5 ] = − [𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 1 − 5 − 1]

= − [(𝑥 + 1)2 − 6]

= (√𝟔)𝟐 − (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐
𝟏
∴𝑰=‫׬‬ 𝒅𝒙
√(√𝟔)𝟐 −(𝒙+𝟏)𝟐

𝑥+1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )+ 𝑐
√6

1
Example 56 Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 −3 𝑥+2

2
Solution 2 3 2 √7
2 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 2 = 2 [(𝑥 − ) + (4) ]
4

- 154 -
 1 1
∴𝐼= ‫׬‬ 2
2 √7 3 2
( ) + (𝑥− ) +
4 4

3
1 4 𝑥−
−1 4
= ∗ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( √7
)+ 𝑐
2 √7
4

2 4 𝑥−3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )+ 𝑐
√7 √7

3 𝑥−1
Example 57 Find ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +10 𝑥+28

Solution 𝑥 2 + 10 𝑥 + 28 = [(𝑥 + 5)2 + 3]

3 𝑥−1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
3+ (𝑥+5)2

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 =𝑢−5 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢

3 (𝑢−5)−1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
3+𝑢2

3 𝑢−16
=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
3+𝑢2

𝑢 1
= 3‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢 − 16 ‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑢
3+𝑢2 (√3) +𝑢2

3 𝑢
= ln|3 + 𝑢2 | − 16 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )+𝑐
2 √3

𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝒙+𝟓
= 𝐥𝐧|𝟑 + (𝒙 + 𝟓)𝟐 | − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )+𝒄
𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑
𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝒙+𝟓
= 𝐥𝐧|𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟖| − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )+𝒄
𝟐 √𝟑 √𝟑

5𝑥+7
Example 58 Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 +6 𝑥+13

Solution 𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 + 13 = [(𝑥 + 3)2 + 4]

5𝑥+7
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√22 +(𝑥+3)2

- 155 -
 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 =𝑢−3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢

5 𝑢−8
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√4+𝑢2

𝑢 1
= 5‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢 − 8 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
√4+𝑢2 √22 +𝑢2

5 𝑢
= ∗ 2 √4 + 𝑢2 − 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
2 2

𝑥+3
= 5 √𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 + 13 − 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
2

Example 59 Find
2𝑥+3
‫ √ ׬‬3 𝑥+ 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution √2 𝑥 + 3 √2 𝑥 + 3 2𝑥+3
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√3 𝑥+ 2 √2 𝑥 + 3 √6 𝑥 2 +13 𝑥+6

13 2 25
6 𝑥 2 + 13 𝑥 + 6 = 6 [(𝑥 + ) − ]
12 144

1 2𝑥+3
∴𝐼= ‫׬‬ 2
𝑑𝑥
√6 √(𝑥+13) − 25
12 144

13 13
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑥=𝑢− 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
12 12

5
1 2𝑢+
6
∴𝐼= ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√6 √𝑢2 −
25
144

1 2𝑢 5 1
= [‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢 + ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢]
√6 √𝑢2 −
25 6
√𝑢2 −( )2
5
144 12

1 25 5 𝑢
= ∗ 2 √𝑢2 − + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( 5 )+𝑐
√6 144 6 √6
12

13
2 13 2 25 5 12 (𝑥+ )
√(𝑥 + −1 12
= ) − + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )+𝑐
√6 12 144 6 √6 5

- 156 -
 2 13 5 12 𝑥+13
= √ 𝑥2 + 𝑥+1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
√6 6 6 √6 5

1+𝑥
Example 60 Find ‫√ ׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥

Solution √1+𝑥 √1+𝑥 1+𝑥

∵𝐼=‫׬‬ ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√1−𝑥 √1+𝑥 √1− 𝑥 2

1 𝑥
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√1− 𝑥 2 √1− 𝑥 2

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 − √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Find ‫ ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥
Example 61 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 √𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥+1

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
Solution ∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
√𝑢2 −4𝑢

1
=‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑢
√(𝑢−2)2 −4

𝑢−2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
2

𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥−2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 ( )+𝑐
2

Example 62
Find ‫ 𝟐𝒙√ ׬‬+ 𝟒 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑 𝒅𝒙

Solution
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒙 + 𝟏𝟑 = [(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 + 𝟗]

∴ 𝑰 = ‫ 𝟗√ ׬‬+ (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 + 2 = 3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 13 𝑥+2
- 157 -
 ∴ 𝐼 = ‫√ ׬‬9 + 9 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= 9 ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 3

1 1 𝑐
∵ ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 2 ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃| + 2

9 √𝑥 2 +4 𝑥+13 𝑥+2 9 √𝑥 2 +4 𝑥+13 𝑥+2 𝑐

∴𝐼= 2
∗ ∗ 3
+ 2
ln | + 3 | + 2
3 3

1 9 √𝑥 2 +4 𝑥+13+(𝑥+2) 𝑐
= 2
(𝑥 + 2) √𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 + 13 + 2
ln | | + 2
3

Example 63
Find ‫ 𝟑√ ׬‬+ 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙

Solution
𝟑 + 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒 − (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐

∴ 𝑰 = ‫ 𝟒√ ׬‬− (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑥−1
∴ 𝐼 = ‫√ ׬‬4 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= 4 ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√3 + 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
= 2 ‫(׬‬1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃

1
= 2 [𝜃 + 2
sin 2𝜃 ] + 𝑐

= 2[𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 ] + 𝑐

𝑥−1 1
= 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )+ 2
(𝑥 − 1)√3 + 2 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
2

- 158 -
 𝒙−𝟑
Example 64 Find ‫׬‬ 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
(𝟒−𝟐 𝒙−𝒙𝟐 )

Solution
𝟒 − 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟓 − (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

𝒙−𝟑
∴𝑰=‫׬‬ 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
[𝟓−(𝒙+𝟏)𝟐]

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢

𝑢−4
∴𝐼=‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑢
(5−𝑢2 )

𝑢 1
=‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑢 − 4 ‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑢
(5−𝑢2 ) (5−𝑢2 )

1 1
= 2 (5−𝑢2 )
– 4 𝐼1 , 𝐼1 = ‫׬‬ 2 𝑑𝑢
(5−𝑢2 )

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = √5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = √5 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
∴ 𝐼1 = ‫׬‬ 2 √5 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(5−5 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)

√5 cos 𝜃 √5
= 𝑑𝜃 𝑢
25 ‫׬‬ 𝑐𝑜𝑠4 𝜃

√5 √5 − 𝑢2
= 25 ‫׬‬
𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

√5 √5
= 50
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃|
50

√5 √5 𝑢 √5 √5 𝑢
= 50 √5−𝑢2 √5−𝑢2
+ ln | √ 2 + √5−𝑢2
|
50 5−𝑢

1 𝑢 √5 √5+𝑢
= 10 (5−𝑢2 )
+ ln | √ |
50 5−𝑢2

1 2 𝑢 2 √5 √5+𝑢
∴𝐼= 2 (5−𝑢2 )
− 5 (5−𝑢2 )
+ ln | √ |+𝑐
25 5−𝑢2

- 159 -
 1 2 𝑥+1 2 √5 √5+𝑥+1
= 2 (4−2 𝑥−𝑥2 )
− 5 (4−2 𝑥−𝑥2 )
+ ln | √ |+𝑐
25 4−2 𝑥−𝑥2

1 1−4𝑥 2 √5 √5+𝑥+1
= 10 (4−2 𝑥−𝑥2 )
+ ln | √ |+𝑐
25 4−2 𝑥−𝑥2

- 160 -
 The Definite Integral
Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) that is continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] we divide the
interval into 𝑛 subintervals of equal width Δ𝑥, and form each interval choose a
point 𝑥𝑖∗ . Then the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) form 𝑎 to 𝑏 is

𝑏
‫ = 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬lim ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ ) Δ𝑥𝑖
𝑛→∞

1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at every point in [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐹(𝑥) is any antiderivative of
𝑓(𝑥) on [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏 𝑏
‫𝑎 ])𝑥(𝐹[ = 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬

= 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

3
Example 1 Find ‫׬‬1 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑜𝑙 .

Solution:
𝑥3
𝐼 = [ ]13
3

1
= 3 [ 33 − 13 ]

- 161 -
 1
= [27 – 1]
3

26
=
3

4
Example 2 Find ‫׬‬0 √16 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝜃 =0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 4 𝜃 =
2

𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 √16 − 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2

𝜋
= 16 ‫׬‬02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
= 8 ‫׬‬02 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 2
= 8 [𝜃 + ]0
2

𝜋
=8[ − 0]
2

= 4𝜋

1
Example 3 Find ‫׬‬0 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑢 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑣 = 𝑥
1+ 𝑥 2

𝑥
𝐼 = [ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥]10
1+ 𝑥 2

- 162 -
 1
= [ 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − ln|1 + 𝑥 2 |]10
2

1
= [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 − ln 2 − 0]
2

𝜋 1
= − ln 2
4 2

= 0.438825

2. Properties of Definite Integrals

𝒂
(i) ‫𝟎 = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬‬

If the upper and lower limits are the same then there is no work to do, the
integral is zero.

Proof:
𝑎
L. H. S = ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬
= [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑎𝑎
= 𝐹(𝑎) − 𝐹(𝑎)
=0
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
𝒃 𝒂
(ii) ‫ = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬‬− ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒃׬‬

We can interchange the limits on any definite integral; all that we need to do is
tack a minus sign onto the integral when we do.

Proof:

𝑏
L. H. S = ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬

= [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑎𝑏
= 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
= −[𝐹(𝑎) − 𝐹(𝑏)]

- 163 -
 𝑎
= − ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑏׬‬
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆

𝒃 𝒄 𝒃
(iii) ‫ 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬ = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬‬+ ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒄׬‬

For any arbitrary numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, and any 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] .

Proof:

𝑐 𝑏
R. H. S = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑐׬‬

= [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑎𝑐 + [𝐹(𝑥)] 𝑏𝑐
= 𝐹(𝑐) − 𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑐)
= 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑏
= ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬
= 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆

𝒃 𝒃 𝒃
(iv) ‫𝒛𝒅 )𝒛(𝒇 𝒂׬ = 𝒚𝒅 )𝒚(𝒇 𝒂׬ = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬‬

The point of this property is to notice that as long as the function and limits are
the same the variable of integration that we use in the definite integral won’t
affect the answer.

𝒃 𝒃
(v) ‫ 𝒂(𝒇 𝒂׬ = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝒂׬‬+ 𝒃 − 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

Proof:

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑥

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 =𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 =𝑎

𝑏
R. H. S = ‫ 𝑎(𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ 𝑏 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

- 164 -
 𝑎
= − ‫𝑦𝑑 )𝑦(𝑓 𝑏׬‬
𝑏
= ‫𝑦𝑑 )𝑦(𝑓 𝑎׬‬
= 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆

𝒂 𝒂
(vi) ‫ 𝒂(𝒇 𝟎׬ = 𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝟎׬‬− 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

𝒂
𝟐𝒂 𝟐 ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝟎׬‬, 𝒊𝒇 𝒇(𝟐𝒂 − 𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)
(vii) ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝟎׬‬ ={
𝟎, 𝒊𝒇 𝒇(𝟐𝒂 − 𝒙) = −𝒇(𝒙)

𝒂 𝒂
(viii) ‫׬‬−𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 ‫𝒙𝒅 )𝒙(𝒇 𝟎׬‬, 𝒊𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

In terms of areas this means following: if 𝑓(𝑥) is symmetric about x-axis then
area from −𝑎 to 0 equals area from 0 to 𝑎.

𝒂
(ix) ‫׬‬−𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒊𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

In terms of areas this means following: if 𝑓(𝑥) is symmetric about origin then
area from −𝑎 to 0 equals minus area from 0 to 𝑎. This means that net area is 0.

- 165 -
Example 4 6 , 𝑥>1
Given, 𝑓(𝑥) = {
3 𝑥2, 𝑥 ≤ 1

22 3
Find (𝑎) ‫׬‬10 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ‫׬‬−2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

22 22
‫׬‬10 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬10 6 𝑑𝑥

= 6 [𝑥] 22
10

= 6[22 − 10]

= 72

3 1 3
‫׬‬−2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−2 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 [Using the property (iii) ]

1 3
= ‫׬‬−2 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬1 6 𝑑𝑥

1
= [𝑥 3 ] −2 + 6 [𝑥] 31

= [1 − (−8)] + 6[3 − 1]

= 9 + 12

= 21
𝜋
sin 𝑥
Example 5 Find ‫׬‬02 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 +cos 𝑥

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
sin ( −𝑥)
2
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 [Using the property (vi) ]
sin ( −𝑥) +cos ( −𝑥)
2 2

𝜋
cos 𝑥
= ‫׬‬02 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 +sin 𝑥

- 166 -
 𝜋
cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
= ‫׬‬02 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 +sin 𝑥

𝜋
sin 𝑥
= ‫׬‬0 [1 −
2 ] 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 +cos 𝑥

𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐼
2

𝜋
∴ 2 𝐼 = [𝑥] 02

𝜋
2𝐼 =
2

𝜋
𝐼=
4

𝜋
Example 6 Find ‫׬‬0 ln|tan 𝑥| 𝑑𝑥
2

Solution:
𝜋
𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 ln |tan( − 𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥
2 [Using the property (vi) ]
2

𝜋
= ‫׬‬02 ln|cot 𝑥| 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
= ‫׬‬02 ln|(tan 𝑥)−1 | 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
= − ‫׬‬0 ln|tan 𝑥| 𝑑𝑥
2

∴2𝐼 =0

𝐼=0

𝜋
𝐼=
4

𝜋 𝑥
Example 7 Find ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
1+ sin 𝑥

Solution:

- 167 -
 𝜋 𝑥
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 (i)
1+ sin 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋−𝑥
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 [Using the property (vi) ]
1+ sin (𝜋−𝑥)

𝜋 𝜋−𝑥
= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 (ii)
1+ sin 𝑥

Adding (i) and (ii)

𝜋 𝑥+𝜋−𝑥
∴ 2𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
1+ sin 𝑥

𝜋 1
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
1+ sin 𝑥

𝜋 1− sin 𝑥
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

𝜋
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

= 𝜋 [tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 ] 𝜋0

= 𝜋 [(tan 𝜋 − sec 𝜋) − (tan 0 − sec 0)]

= 𝜋 [(0 − (−1)) − (0 − 1)]

=2𝜋

𝐼 = 𝜋
𝜋
Example 8 Find ‫׬‬04 ln(1 + tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝜋
𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 ln (1 + tan( − 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
4 [Using the property (vi) ]
4

𝜋 𝜋
tan −tan 𝑥 tan 𝑥+tan 𝑦
4
= ‫׬‬0 ln (1 +
4
𝜋 ) 𝑑𝑥 [tan( 𝑥 + 𝑦) = ]
1+tan tan 𝑥 1−tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦
4

- 168 -
 𝜋
1−tan 𝑥
= ‫׬‬0 ln (1 +
4 ) 𝑑𝑥
1+tan 𝑥

𝜋
1+tan 𝑥+1−tan 𝑥
= ‫׬‬04 ln ( ) 𝑑𝑥
1+tan 𝑥

𝜋
2
= ‫׬‬0 ln (
4 ) 𝑑𝑥
1+tan 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
= ‫׬‬04 ln 2 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬04 ln(1 + tan 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
2 𝐼 = ln 2 [𝑥] 04

𝜋
= ln 2 ∗
4

𝜋
𝐼= ln 2
8

𝜋
Example 9 Find ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4

Solution:
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬04 𝑙𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − 𝑥) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛( − 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
4 4

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 –𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 cot 𝑥 cot 𝑦−1
4 4
= ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛[
4
𝜋 − 𝜋 ] 𝑑 𝑥 [cot( 𝑥 + 𝑦) = ]
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑦
4 4

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+1 1–𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛[
4 − ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−1 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝜋
(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+1)(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)−(1–𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−1)
= ‫׬‬04 𝑙𝑛[ ] 𝑑𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−1) (1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)

𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+1+1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+1+1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
= ‫׬‬04 𝑙𝑛 [ ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−1 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

𝜋
4
= ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛[
4 ] 𝑑𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)

- 169 -
 𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 [ln 4 − ln(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
4

𝜋 𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛 4 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬0 𝑙𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 4

𝜋
2 𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛 4 [𝑥] 0 4

𝜋
= 𝑙𝑛 4 ∗
4

𝜋
𝐼= 𝑙𝑛 4
8

𝜋
Example 10 Find ‫׬‬02 ln(sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 (i)

𝜋
𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 ln (sin( − 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
2 [Using the property (vi) ]
2

𝜋
𝐼 = ‫׬‬02 ln(cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (ii)

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

𝜋
2𝐼 = ‫׬‬02 [ln(sin 𝑥) + ln(cos 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
= ‫׬‬02 [ln(sin 𝑥 ∗ cos 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
sin 2𝑥
= ‫׬‬02 [ln( )] 𝑑𝑥
2

𝜋 𝜋
= ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬0 ln 2 𝑑𝑥
2 2

𝜋
𝜋
2 𝐼 = ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∗ ln 2
2
2

- 170 -
 𝜋
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐼1 = ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑢 =0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑢 =𝜋
2

1 𝜋
∴ 𝐼1 = ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
2

𝜋
1
= 2 ‫׬‬0 ln(sin 𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
2 [Using the property (vii) ]
2

[Using the property (iv) ] ∴ 𝐼1 = 𝐼

𝜋 𝜋
∴ 2 𝐼 = 𝐼 − ∗ ln 2 ∴ 𝐼=− ln 2
2 2

𝜋
Example 11 Find ‫׬‬ 2
𝜋 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−
2

Solution:

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 cos 𝑥

∴ 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) cos(−𝑥) = −𝑥 cos 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function of 𝑥.

𝜋
2
∴‫׬‬ 𝜋 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
−
2

𝜋
Example 12 Find ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑒 −|𝑥| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −|𝑥| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

∴ 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑒 −|−𝑥| 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝑥) = −𝑒 −|𝑥| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)

𝜋
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function of 𝑥 ∴ ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑒 −|𝑥| 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

- 171 -
Exercise:

2 44
1) ‫׬‬0 (4 𝑥 2 − 5 𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3
2 64
2) ‫׬‬1 (4 𝑥 3 − 5 2
𝑥 + 6 𝑥 + 8) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 3
1 1 π
3) ‫׬‬0 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4
𝜋
1
4) ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 1−
√2
𝜋
5) ‫׬‬0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 2
1 𝜋
6) ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. −1
2
1 𝑒𝑥 1+ e
7) ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. ln ( )
1+ 𝑒 𝑥 2
𝜋
cos 𝑥 π
8) ‫׬‬0 2
sin 𝑥 +cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4
𝜋
√sin 𝑥 π
9) ‫׬‬0 2
√sin 𝑥 +√cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 π
10) ‫׬‬0 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4
𝜋
sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
11) ‫׬‬0 2
1+sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0
2
7 𝑥 𝑒𝑥
12) ‫׬‬−7 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0
1+𝑥 2
3
13) ‫׬‬−3|𝑥 + 1| 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 10
5
14) ‫׬‬−5|𝑥 + 2| 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 29
𝜋
𝜋
15) ‫׬‬0 ln(cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
𝐴𝑛𝑠. − ln 2
2
𝜋

16) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
𝜋 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0
−
2
𝜋
17) ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 2π
𝜋 π
18) ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. −
2
𝜋

19) ‫׬‬ 2
𝜋 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 2
−
2
𝜋
20) ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0

- 172 -
 Area
First: Area under a curve

We wish to find the area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) form 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏.I

We can have several situations:

Case 1: Curves which are entirely above the 𝒙 -axis.

In this case, we find the area by simply finding the integral:

𝑏
Area = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

In the diagram above, a "typical rectangle" is shown with width ∆𝑥 and height 𝑦
. Its area is 𝑦 ∆𝑥 .

If we add all these typical rectangles, starting from 𝑎 and finishing at 𝑏, the area
is approximately:

∑𝑏𝑥=𝑎(𝑦 ) ∆𝑥

Now if we let ∆𝑥 → 0, we can find the exact area by integration:

𝑏
Area = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

Case 2: Curves which are entirely below the 𝒙 -axis

We consider the case where the curve is below the 𝑥-axis for the range
of 𝑥 values being considered.

- 173 -
In this case, the integral gives a negative number. We need to take the absolute
value of this to find our area:

𝑏
Area = |‫|𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

Case 3: Part of the curve is below the 𝒙 -axis, part of it is above the 𝒙 -axis

In this case, we have to sum the individual parts, taking the absolute value for
the section where the curve is below the 𝑥 -axis (from 𝑥= 𝑎 to 𝑥= 𝑐).

𝑐 𝑏
Area = |‫ |𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑐׬‬

If we don't do it like this, the "negative" area (the part below the 𝑥 -axis) will be
subtracted from the "positive" part, and our total area will not be correct.

- 174 -
In each of Case 1, Case 2 and Case 3, we are summing elements left to right,
like this:

IONS OF INTEGRA

We are finding the area by horizontally adding the areas of the rectangles,
width 𝑑𝑥 and heights 𝑦 (which we find by substituting values of 𝑥 into 𝑓(𝑥)).
PLICATIONS OF IN

So
𝑏
A = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

(with absolute value signs where necessary, if the curve goes under the 𝑥 -axis).

Case 4: Finding areas by summing vertically

In some cases, it is easier to find the area if we take vertical sums. Sometimes
the only possible way is to sum vertically.

In this case, we find the area is the sum of the rectangles, heights 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and
width 𝑑𝑦.

- 175 -
If we are given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then we need to re-express this as 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and we
need to sum from bottom to top.

So, in case 4 we have:

𝑑
A = ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑥 𝑐׬‬

Example 4.1 Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3 and 𝑥 -axis
between form 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 3.

Solution: Graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3

𝑏
Area = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬
3
= ‫׬‬−1(2𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑑𝑥
2 3
= [ 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥] −1
3

2
= [(18 + 9) − (− − 3)] [ ] ==
3

11
= 27 +
3

92
= square units
3

Example 4.2 Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥, and 𝑥-axis and the

Solution: lines 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑥 = 2.

The area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥, x-axis and the ordinates 𝑥 = 0 , 𝑥 = 2 is

- 176 -
 𝑏
Area = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬
2
= ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2
=[ ] 20
2

= [2 − 0] [ ] ==

= 2 square units

Dg
Example 4.3 Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −4, the 𝑥 -axis and the
lines 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 2.

Solution:

- 177 -
 𝑏
Area = |‫|𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

2
= |‫׬‬−1(𝑥 2 − 4) 𝑑𝑥|

𝑥3 2
= |[ − 4𝑥] −1|
3

8 1
= |[( − 8) − (− + 4)]| | | [ ] ==
3 3

16 11
= |− − |
3 3

27
= |− |
3

= 9 square units

Dg
Example 4.4 Find the area enclosed between the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥)
and 𝑥-axis.

Solution: The curve cuts the 𝑥 –axis where

𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1

Simplify the function:

𝑦 = 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥)

= 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 )

= (𝑥 − 𝑥 3 )

- 178 -
 𝑐 𝑏
Area = |‫ |𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑐׬‬
0 1
= |‫׬‬−1(𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥| + ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥4 0 𝑥2 𝑥4 1
= |[ − ] −1 |+[ − ]
2 4 2 4 0

1 1 1 1
= |[0 − ( − )]| + [( − ) − 0]
2 4 2 4

1 1
= |− | +
4 4

1 1
= + [ ] ==
4 4

= 0.5 square units

Example 4.5 Find the area of the bounded by the curve 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1, and 𝑦-
axis and the lines 𝑦 = 1 , 𝑦 = 5.

Solution:

In this case, we express 𝑥 as a function of 𝑦:

∵ 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1

∴ 𝑦2 = 𝑥 − 1

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑦2 + 1

So the area is given by:

- 179 -
 𝑑
A = ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑥 𝑐׬‬
5
= ‫׬‬1 ( 𝑦 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑦

𝑦3
=[ + 𝑦] 51
3

125 1
= [( + 5) − ( + 1)]
3 3

140 4
= − [ ] ==
3 3

136
= square units
3

Example 4.5 Find the area of a circle with radius 𝑎.

Solution:

The equation of the circle shown above is given by

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2

The circle is symmetric with respect to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, hence we can find the
area of one quarter of a circle and multiply by 4 in order to obtain the total area
of the circle.
- 180 -
We express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥:

∵ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 𝑦 = ± √ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2

We use integrals to find the area of the upper right quarter of the circle as
follows
𝑏
Area of circle = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

𝑎
= 4 ‫׬‬0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝜃 =0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 =
2

𝜋
Area of circle = 4 ‫׬‬02 √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
= 4 𝑎 ‫׬‬0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
2 2

𝜋
1
= 4𝑎2 ‫׬‬0 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2
2

𝜋
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 2
= 2 𝑎 [𝜃 + ]0
2

𝜋
= 2𝑎2 [ − 0]
2

= 𝜋 𝑎2 square units

Example 4.6
Find the area of an ellipse with major axis length 2𝑎 and minor
axis length 2𝑏.

Solution:

- 181 -
We can find the area in the first quadrant, we can multiple it by four to find the
total area.
𝑥2 𝑦2
The equation of an ellipse is given by 2
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏2

We express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥:
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
∵ 2
+ =1 =1−
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑎2

𝑦2 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑏2
∴ = 𝑦2 = (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑎2

𝑏
∴𝑦=± √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑎

𝑏
Area of ellipse = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑦 𝑎׬‬

𝑏 𝑎
= 4
𝑎
‫׬‬0 √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝜃 =0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝜃 =
2

𝜋
𝑏
Area of ellipse = 4
𝑎
‫׬‬0 √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2

𝜋
𝑏
= 4 𝑎2 ‫׬‬02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑎

𝜋
1
= 4 𝑎𝑏 ‫׬‬0 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
2
2

- 182 -
 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 2
= 2 𝑎𝑏[𝜃 + ]0
2

𝜋
= 2 𝑎𝑏 [ − 0]
2

= 𝜋 𝑎𝑏 square units

Second: Area between two Curves

There are actually two cases that we are going to be looking at

In the first case:

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two continuous and non-negative functions on
an interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. such that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈
[𝑎, 𝑏]

We want to find the area bounded above by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), below by 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥), and
on the sides by 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.

Let 𝐴 = [Area under 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)] − [Area under 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)] (1)

Now using the definition for the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑥 -axis
and the ordinates 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, we have
𝑏
Area under 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬ (2)

- 183 -
 𝑏
Similarly, Area under 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑔 𝑎׬‬ (3)

Using equations (2) and (3) in (1), we get

𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬− ‫𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑔 𝑎׬‬

𝑏
A = ‫ ) 𝑥(𝑓 [ 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

The second case.

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑔(𝑦) are two continuous and non-negative functions on
an interval [𝑐, 𝑑]. such that 𝑓(𝑦) ≥ 𝑔(𝑦) for all 𝑥 ∈
[𝑐, 𝑑]

The area in this case is

𝑑
A = ‫ )𝑦( 𝑓 [ 𝑐׬‬− 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦

Note

In the first case we will use,

𝑏 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
A = ‫𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑛𝑢𝑓( [ 𝑎׬‬ ) − (𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )] 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

In the second case we will use,

𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
A = ‫𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑛𝑢𝑓( [ 𝑐׬‬ ) − (𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )] 𝑑𝑦, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑

- 184 -
Example 4.7 Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = √𝑥, and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

Solution:
These two curves intersect at two points. Solving these two equations, we get

∵ 𝑦 = √𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 = √𝑥

∴ 𝑥4 = 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 1 ) = 0 𝑥 = 0,1

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑦 = 0 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑦=1

Thus the points of interaection are (0,0) and (1,1)

(1,1)

(0,0)

𝑏
A = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 [ 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
1
= ‫׬‬0 (√𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
3
2 1
= [ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ]10
3 3

2 1
= [( − ) − 0]
3 3

1
= square units
3

Example 4.8 Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 10, and 𝑦 =
4𝑥 + 16.

Solution:
- 185 -
 These two curves intersect at two points. Solving these two
equations, we get

∵ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 10 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 16
∴ 2𝑥 2 + 10 = 4𝑥 + 16 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 (𝑥 − 3 )(𝑥 + 1 ) = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 3, −1
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑦 = 28 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1 𝑦 = 12

Thus the points of interaection are (3,28) and (−1,12)

(3,28)

(−1,12)

𝑏
A = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 [ 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
3
= ‫׬‬−1[ (4𝑥 + 16) − (2𝑥 2 + 10)] 𝑑𝑥
3
= ‫׬‬−1[ 4𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 6] 𝑑𝑥
2
= [2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 6 𝑥]3−1
3

2
= [(18 − 18 + 18) − (2 + − 6)]
3

64
= square units
3

Example 4.9 Determine the area of the region enclosed by 𝑦 = sin 𝑥,

𝜋
𝑦 = cos 𝑥, 𝑥 = , and the 𝑦-axis.
2

Solution:
𝜋
∵ 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 𝑥=
4

- 186 -
 𝜋 1
Thus the point of interaection is ( , )
4 √2

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝜋 1
(4 , )
√2

𝑦 = cos 𝑥

𝑏
A = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 [ 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
2
= ‫׬‬0 [ cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ [ ׬‬sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
4
𝜋
4

𝜋 𝜋
4 2
= [sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥]0 + [− cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥] 𝜋
4

1 1 1 1
= [( + ) − 1] − [1 − ( + )]
√2 √ 2 √2 √2

= 2 √2 − 2

= 0.828 square units

Example 4.10 Find the area of the region enclosed between the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6.

Solution:
These two curves intersect at two points. Solving these two equations, we get

∵ 𝑦 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6 𝑥2 = 𝑥 + 6
∴ 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 (𝑥 − 3 )(𝑥 + 2 ) = 0
∴ 𝑥 = 3, −2
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑦 = 9 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2 𝑦=4

Thus the points of interaection are (3,9) and (−2,4)

- 187 -
 (3,9)

(−2,4)

𝑏
A = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 [ 𝑎׬‬− 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
3
= ‫׬‬−2[ (𝑥 + 6) − (𝑥 2 )] 𝑑𝑥
3
= ‫׬‬−2[ 𝑥 + 6 − 𝑥 2 ] 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥3 3
=[ +6𝑥− ]
2 3 −2

9 8
= [( + 18 − 9) − (2 − 12 + )]
2 3

27 22
= − (− )
2 3

125
= square units
6

Example 4.11 Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 6 = 0 and

𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0.

Solution:
1
∵ 𝑥 = 𝑦2 − 3 , 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 1
2
1 2
∴ 𝑦 −3=𝑦+1 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
2
∴ (𝑦 − 4 )(𝑦 + 2 ) = 0 𝑦 = 4, −2
𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 = 5 , 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = −2 𝑥 = −1
Thus the points of interaection are (5,4) and (−1, −2)
- 188 -
 (5,4)

(−1, −2)

𝑑
A = ‫ )𝑦(𝑓 [ 𝑐׬‬− 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦
4 1
= ‫׬‬−2 [ (𝑦 + 1) − ( 𝑦 2 − 3)] 𝑑𝑦
2

4 1
= ‫׬‬−2 [ 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 4] 𝑑𝑦
2

𝑦2 1
=[ − 𝑦 3 + 4 𝑦]4−2
2 6

32 8
= [(8 − + 16) − (2 + − 8)]
3 6

40 14
= +
3 3

= 18 square units

Another solution

- 189 -
 (5,4)

𝐴1 𝐴2
(−3,0)

(−1, −2)

A = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
−1 5
= ‫׬‬−3 [ √2 𝑥 + 6 − (−√2 𝑥 + 6)] 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬−1[ √2 𝑥 + 6 − (𝑥 − 1)] 𝑑𝑥
−1 5
= ‫׬‬−3 [ √2 𝑥 + 6 ] 2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬−1[ √2 𝑥 + 6 − 𝑥 + 1] 𝑑𝑥
3 3
2 1 𝑥2
=[ (2 𝑥 + 6) 2 ]−1
−3 +[ (2 𝑥 + 6) − 2 + 𝑥]5−1
3 3 2

2 64 25 8 1
= [8 − 0] + [( − + 5) − ( − − 1)]
3 3 2 3 2

16 38
= +
3 3

= 18 square units
Example 4.12 Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑦 =
𝑒 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = 7.

Solution: We find the intersections of each pair of curves:

1- 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥

∴ −𝑥 = 2𝑥 3𝑥 = 0 𝑥=0 (0,1)
2- 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑦 = 7 𝑒 −𝑥
=7

∴ −𝑥 = ln 7 𝑥 = − ln 7 (− ln 7 , 7 )

3- 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑦 = 7 𝑒 2𝑥 = 7
- 190 -
 ∴ 2𝑥 = ln 7 𝑥 = 0.5 ln 7 (0.5 ln 7 , 7 )

𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥

𝑦=7
(− ln 7 , 7) (0.5 ln 7 , 7)

(0,1)

𝑑
A = ‫ )𝑦(𝑓 [ 𝑐׬‬− 𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦

7
= ‫׬‬1 [ 0.5 ln 𝑦 − (− ln 𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦
7
= 1.5 ‫׬‬1 ln 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 [‫ ׬‬ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐]

= 1.5[ 𝑦 ln 𝑦 − 𝑦]17

= 1.5[(7 ln 7 − 7) − (𝑙𝑛1 − 1)]

= 10.5 ln 7 − 9

= 11.43 square units

Note

Can be solved examples 4.7, 4.8, 4.10 and 4.12 in another way.

- 191 -
Exercise:

1) Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2 and the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 =
13
2. 𝐴𝑛𝑠. square units
3

2) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 1.

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4.25 square units
3) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
1
𝐴𝑛𝑠. square units
12

4) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦-axis and the lines 𝑦 = 0,𝑦 =
3. 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4.25 square units
5) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 , 𝑦-axis and the lines 𝑦 = 0,𝑦 =
2.. 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 8
square units
3

6) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0.5 square units
7) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 and 2𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3.
32
square units 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
3

8) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = −𝑥.

𝐴𝑛𝑠. 4.5 square units
9) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = √𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 and 𝑦 = 0.
10
𝐴𝑛𝑠. square units
3

10) Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the

34
lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 2. 𝐴𝑛𝑠. square units
3
1
11) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 8𝑥 and 𝑦 = .
𝑥2
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 1.5 square units
12) Find the area bounded by the curves 𝑦 = ln (1 + 𝑥), 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 =
0. 𝐴𝑛𝑠. 0.9 square units

- 192 -
Bibliography

➢ J. K. Sharma, A. Khattar, D. Khattar " The Pearson Guide

to Objective Mathematics for Engineering Entrance
Examinations ", 3𝑟𝑑 Edition, Pearson Education, Inc.

2009.
➢ F. Safier " Schaum’s Outline of Precalculus ", 4𝑡ℎ

Edition McGraw-Hill Education. 2019.

➢ M. L. Bittinger, D. J. Ellenbogen, S. A. Surgent "
Calculus and its Applications ", 10𝑡ℎ Edition, Addison-

Wesley, 2012
➢ J. H. Heinbockel " Introduction to Calculus ", 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐼,
John H. Heinbockel, 2012

- 193 -