Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

Calculations​ ​involving​ ​masses

Notes

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1.41​ ​Describe​ ​the​ ​limitations​ ​of​ ​particular​ ​representations​ ​and​ ​models,​ ​to
include​ ​dot​ ​and​ ​cross,​ ​ball​ ​and​ ​stick​ ​models​ ​and​ ​two-​ ​and​ ​three-dimensional
representations
● Main​ ​limitation​ ​is​ ​that​ ​it​ ​applies​ ​really​ ​well​ ​only​ ​to​ ​the​ ​small​ ​class​ ​of​ ​solids
composed​ ​of​ ​Group​ ​1​ ​and​ ​2​ ​elements​ ​with​ ​highly​ ​electronegative​ ​elements​ ​such
as​ ​the​ ​halogens
● In​ ​covalent​ ​molecular,​ ​the​ ​dot-cross​ ​diagrams​ ​don’t​ ​express​ ​the​ ​relative
attraction​ ​of​ ​shared​ ​electrons​ ​due​ ​to​ ​electronegativity​ ​(learn​ ​about​ ​this​ ​at
A-level​ ​more)
● 2d​ ​diagrams​ ​don’t​ ​show​ ​the​ ​3d​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​atoms,​ ​and​ ​3d​ ​diagrams​ ​don’t
show​ ​the​ ​share​ ​or​ ​transfer​ ​of​ ​electrons

1.42​ ​Describe​ ​most​ ​metals​ ​as​ ​shiny​ ​solids​ ​which​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​points,
high​ ​density​ ​and​ ​are​ ​good​ ​conductors​ ​of​ ​electricity​ ​whereas​ ​most
non-metals​ ​have​ ​low​ ​boiling​ ​points​ ​and​ ​are​ ​poor​ ​conductors​ ​of​ ​electricity

1.43​ ​Calculate​ ​relative​ ​formula​ ​mass​ ​given​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​masses

● Relative​ ​formula​ ​mass​ ​(Mr)​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound:​ ​sum​ ​of​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​masses​ ​of
the​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​(remember​ ​you​ ​could​ ​have
more​ ​than​ ​1​ ​atom​ ​of​ ​a​ ​certain​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​e.g.​ ​in​ ​CaCl​2​,there​ ​are​ ​2
atoms​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​so​ ​you​ ​need​ ​to​ ​add​ ​on​ ​35.5​ ​x2)
● In​ ​a​ ​balanced​ ​chemical​ ​equation:
sum​ ​of​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​reactants​ ​in​ ​quantities​ ​shown​ ​=​ ​sum​ ​of​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​products​ ​in​ ​quantities
shown

1.44​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​simple​ ​compounds​ ​from​ ​reacting​ ​masses​ ​and
understand​ ​that​ ​these​ ​are​ ​empirical​ ​formulae

● to​ ​calculate​ ​formula​ ​from​ ​reacting​ ​masses:

a. work​ ​out​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​each​ ​using​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​¨​ ​molar​ ​mass
b. work​ ​out​ ​the​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​moles
c. times​ ​the​ ​ratio​ ​so​ ​that​ ​you​ ​get​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​whole​ ​numbers​ ​possible
d. find​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​by​ ​timesing​ ​each​ ​element​ ​by​ ​their​ ​number​ ​in​ ​the​ ​ratio
(remember​ ​to​ ​use​ ​little​ ​numbers​ ​not​ ​a​ ​big​ ​number​ ​at​ ​the​ ​front)
 ● This​ ​is​ ​an​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​because​ ​it​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​simplest​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of
atoms​ ​of​ ​different​ ​types​ ​of​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound

1.45​ ​Deduce:​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​from​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​its
molecule,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​molecular​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​from​ ​its​ ​empirical
formula​ ​and​ ​its​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass

● Empirical​ ​formula​ ​from​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​molecule:

o ​ ​if​ ​you​ ​have​ ​a​ ​common​ ​multiple​ ​e.g.​ ​Fe​2​O​4​,​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​is​ ​the
simplest​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratio,​ ​which​ ​would​ ​be​ ​FeO​2
o if​ ​there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​common​ ​multiple,​ ​you​ ​already​ ​have​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula
● Molecular​ ​formula​ ​from​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass
o Find​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula
o Divide​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​compound​ ​by​ ​that​ ​of​ ​the​ ​empirical
formula
o Multiply​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​each​ ​type​ ​of​ ​atom​ ​in​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​by​ ​this
number
o e.g.​ ​if​ ​answer​ ​was​ ​2​ ​and​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​was​ ​Fe​2​O​3​​ ​then​ ​the
molecular​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​x​ ​2​ ​=​ ​Fe​4​O​6

1.46​ ​Describe​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​simple
compound​ ​such​ ​as​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide

● weigh​ ​some​ ​pure​ ​magnesium

● Heat​ ​magnesium​ ​to​ ​burning​ ​in​ ​a​ ​crucible​ ​to​ ​form​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide,​ ​as​ ​the
magnesium​ ​will​ ​react​ ​with​ ​the​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air
● weigh​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide
● Known​ ​quantities:​ ​ mass​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​used​ ​&​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide
produced​ ​
● Required​ ​calculations:​ ​
○ mass​ ​oxygen​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide​ ​-​ ​mass​ ​magnesium
○ moles​ ​magnesium​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​÷​ ​molar​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​
○ moles​ ​oxygen​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​oxygen​ ​÷​ ​molar​ ​mass​ ​oxygen​ ​
○ calculate​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​to​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​oxygen
○ use​ ​ratio​ ​to​ ​form​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​(same​ ​method​ ​as​ ​1.44)

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1.47​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​law​ ​of​ ​conservation​ ​of​ ​mass​ ​applied​ ​to:​ ​a​ ​closed​ ​system
including​ ​a​ ​precipitation​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​a​ ​closed​ ​flask​ ​and​ ​a​ ​non-enclosed
system​ ​including​ ​a​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​an​ ​open​ ​flask​ ​that​ ​takes​ ​in​ ​or​ ​gives​ ​out​ ​a​ ​gas

● Law​ ​of​ ​conservation​ ​of​ ​mass:​ ​no​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​lost​ ​or​ ​made​ ​during​ ​a​ ​chemical
reaction​ ​so​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​products​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reactants
o Therefore,​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​by​ ​symbol​ ​equations,
which​ ​are​ ​balanced​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element
involved​ ​on​ ​both​ ​sides​ ​of​ ​the​ ​equation.
● With​ ​a​ ​precipitation​ ​reaction​ ​–​ ​precipitate​ ​that​ ​forms​ ​is​ ​insoluble​ ​and​ ​is​ ​a​ ​solid,
as​ ​all​ ​the​ ​reactants​ ​and​ ​products​ ​remain​ ​in​ ​the​ ​sealed​ ​reaction​ ​container​ ​then​ ​it
is​ ​easy​ ​to​ ​show​ ​that​ ​the​ ​total​ ​mass​ ​is​ ​unchanged
● Does​ ​not​ ​hold​ ​for​ ​a​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​an​ ​open​ ​flask​ ​that​ ​takes​ ​in​ ​or​ ​gives​ ​out​ ​a​ ​gas,
since​ ​mass​ ​will​ ​change​ ​from​ ​what​ ​it​ ​was​ ​at​ ​the​ ​start​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​as​ ​some
mass​ ​is​ ​lost​ ​when​ ​the​ ​gas​ ​is​ ​given​ ​off

1.48​ ​Calculate​ ​masses​ ​of​ ​reactants​ ​and​ ​products​ ​from​ ​balanced​ ​equations,
given​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​substance

● Find​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​that​ ​one​ ​substance:​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​/​ ​molar
mass
● Use​ ​balancing​ ​numbers​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​desired
reactant​ ​or​ ​product​ ​(e.g.​ ​if​ ​you​ ​had​ ​the​ ​equation:
2NaOH​ ​+​ ​Mg​ ​->​ ​Mg(OH)​2​​ ​+​ ​2Na,​ ​if​ ​you​ ​had​ ​2​ ​moles​ ​of
Mg,​ ​you​ ​would​ ​form​ ​2x2=4​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​Na)
● Mass​ ​=​ ​moles​ ​x​ ​molar​ ​mass(of​ ​the​ ​reactant/product)​ ​to
find​ ​mass

1.49​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​solutions​ ​in​ ​g​ ​dm-3​

● Concentration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solution​ ​can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​mass​ ​per​ ​given​ ​volume​ ​of
solution​ ​e.g.​ ​grams​ ​per​ ​dm​3​​ ​(g/dm​3​)
● to​ ​calculate​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solution​ ​use​ ​the​ ​equation
​ ​concentration​ ​(g​ ​dm​-3​)​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​solute​ ​(g)​ ​¨​ ​volume​ ​(dm​3​)
● To​ ​calculate​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​solute​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​volume​ ​of​ ​a​ ​known​ ​concentration​ ​use​ ​the
equation:​ ​ ​mass​ ​=​ ​conc​ ​x​ ​vol​​ ​i.e.​ ​g​ ​=​ ​g/dm​3​​ ​x​ ​dm​3​​ ​ ​(think​ ​about​ ​the​ ​units!)

1.50​ ​(higher​ ​tier)​ ​Recall​ ​that​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​is​ ​defined
as:​ ​the​ ​Avogadro​ ​constant​ ​number​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​(6.02​ ​x​ ​1023 ​ ​​ ​atoms,
molecules,​ ​formulae​ ​or​ ​ions)​ ​of​ ​that​ ​substance​ ​and​ ​a​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​‘relative
particle​ ​mass’​ ​g
● The​ ​number​ ​of​ ​atoms,​ ​molecules​ ​or​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​given​ ​substance​ ​is​ ​the
Avogadro​ ​constant:​ ​6.02​ ​x​ ​10​23​​ ​per​ ​mole.
● the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​is​ ​the​ ​‘relative​ ​particle​ ​mass’​ ​in​ ​grams
1.51​ ​(higher​ ​tier)​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of:​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance
in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​that​ ​substance​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa,​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​in
a​ ​given​ ​number​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​that​ ​substance​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa​ ​and​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​a
substance​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​that​ ​substance​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa

● Chemical​ ​amounts​ ​are​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​moles.​ ​The​ ​symbol​ ​for​ ​the​ ​unit​ ​mole​ ​is​ ​mol.
● The​ ​mass​ o ​ f​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​in​ ​grams​ ​is​ ​numerically​ ​equal​ ​to​ ​its​ ​relative
formula​ ​mass.
o For​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​Ar​ ​of​ ​Iron​ ​is​ ​56,​ ​so​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​iron​ ​weighs​ ​56g.
o The​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​gas​ ​(N​2​)​ ​is​ ​28​ ​(2​ ​x​ ​14),​ ​so​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​is​ ​28g.
● One​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​contains​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of​ ​the​ ​stated​ ​particles,
atoms,​ ​molecules​ ​or​ ​ions​ ​as​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​any​ ​other​ ​substance
● You​ ​can​ ​convert​ ​between​ ​moles​ ​and​ ​grams​ ​by​ ​using​ ​this​ ​equation:
moles​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​(g)​ ​¨​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass
o E.g​ ​how​ ​many​ ​moles​ ​are​ ​there​ ​in​ ​42g​ ​of​ ​carbon?
▪ Moles​ ​=​ ​Mass​ ​/​ ​Mr​ ​=​ ​42/12​ ​=​ ​3.5​ ​moles
● The​ ​number​ ​of​ ​particles,​ ​atoms,​ ​molecules​ ​or​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​a​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​given​ ​substance
is​ ​the​ ​Avogadro​ ​constant:​ ​6.02​ ​x​ ​10​23​​ ​per​ ​mole.
o this​ ​means​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​number​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​a
substance=​ ​moles​ ​x​ ​avogadro's​ ​constant
o e.g.​ ​for​ ​5​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​6.02​ ​x​ ​10​23​​ ​x​ ​5

1.52​ ​(higher​ ​tier)​ ​Explain​ ​why,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​reaction,​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​product​ ​formed​ ​is
controlled​ ​by​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reactant​ ​which​ ​is​ ​not​ ​in​ ​excess

● In​ ​a​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​with​ ​2​ ​or​ ​more​ ​reactants​ ​you​ ​will​ ​often​ ​use​ ​one​ ​in​ ​excess
to​ ​ensure​ ​that​ ​all​ ​of​ ​the​ ​other​ ​reactant​ ​is​ ​used
o The​ ​reactant​ ​that​ ​is​ ​used​ ​up​ ​/​ ​not​ ​in​ ​excess​ ​is​ ​called​ ​the​ ​limiting​ ​reactant
since​ ​it​ ​limits​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​products
● if​ ​a​ ​limiting​ ​reagent​ ​is​ ​used,​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​reactant​ ​in​ ​excess​ ​that​ ​actually​ ​reacts​ ​is
limited​ ​to​ ​the​ ​exact​ ​amount​ ​that​ ​reacts​ ​with​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​limiting​ ​reagent​ ​you
have,​ ​so​ ​you​ ​need​ ​to​ ​use​ ​the​ ​moles/mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​limiting​ ​reagent​ ​for​ ​any
calculations
1.53​ ​(higher​ ​tier)​ ​Deduce​ ​the​ ​stoichiometry​ ​of​ ​a​ ​reaction​ ​from​ ​the​ ​masses​ ​of
the​ ​reactants​ ​and​ ​products

● Stoichiometry​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​balancing​ ​numbers​ ​in​ ​front​ ​of​ ​compounds/elements
in​ ​reaction​ ​equations
● Balancing​ ​numbers​ ​in​ ​a​ ​symbol​ ​equation​ ​can​ ​be​ ​calculated​ ​from​ ​the​ ​masses​ ​of
reactants​ ​and​ ​products:
○ convert​ ​the​ ​masses​ ​in​ ​grams​ ​to​ ​amounts​ ​in​ ​moles​ ​(moles​ ​=​ ​mass/Mr)
○ convert​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​to​ ​simple​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratios
● e.g.​ ​for​ ​the​ ​reaction:​ ​Cu​ ​+​ ​O​2​​ ​->​ ​CuO​ ​(not​ ​balanced),​ ​127​ ​g​ ​Cu​ ​react,​ ​32g​ ​of
oxygen​ ​react​ ​and​ ​159g​ ​of​ ​CuO​ ​are​ ​formed.​ ​Work​ ​out​ ​the​ ​balanced​ ​equation
using​ ​the​ ​masses​ ​given:
○ moles:​ ​(moles​ ​=​ ​mass/Mr)
Cu:​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​127​ ​/​ ​63.5​ ​=​ ​2
O​2​:​ ​moles=​ ​32​ ​/​ ​(16​ ​x​ ​2)​ ​=​ ​32/32​ ​=​ ​1
CuO​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​159​ ​/​ ​(16​ ​+​ ​63.5)​ ​=​ ​2
● therefore​ ​you​ ​have​ ​a​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​[Link]​ ​for​ ​Cu:O​2​:CuO,​ ​making​ ​the​ ​overall
balanced​ ​equation​ ​2Cu​ ​+​ ​O​2​​ ​->​ ​2CuO

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 Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

Ionic​ ​bonding

Notes

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1.21​ ​Explain​ ​how​ ​ionic​ ​bonds​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​transfer​ ​of​ ​electrons
between​ ​atoms​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​cations​ ​and​ ​anions,​ ​including​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​dot​ ​and
cross​ ​diagrams

● Metals​ ​+​ ​nonmetals:​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​the​ ​metal​ ​atom​ ​are
transferred
o Metal​ ​atoms​ ​lose​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​become​ ​positively​ ​charged​ ​ions​ ​(cation)
o Nonmetal​ ​atoms​ ​gain​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​become​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​ions
(anion)
● Electron​ ​transfer​ ​during​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ionic​ ​compound​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented
by​ ​a​ ​dot​ ​and​ ​cross​ ​diagram​ ​(see​ ​eg​ ​for​ ​NaCl​ ​below)

1.22​ ​Recall​ ​that​ ​an​ ​ion​ ​is​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​or​ ​group​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​a​ ​positive​ ​or
negative​ ​charge

● Since​ ​an​ ​ion​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​from​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​losing​ ​an​ ​electron,​ ​i.e.​ ​becoming​ ​a​ ​positive
metal​ ​ion​ ​or​ ​from​ ​a​ ​non-metal​ ​gaining​ ​an​ ​electron,​ ​i.e.​ ​becoming​ ​a​ ​negative
ion…​ ​an​ ​ion​ ​is​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​or​ ​group​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​a​ ​positive​ ​or​ ​negative​ ​charge

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1.23​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​protons,​ ​neutrons​ ​and​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​simple
ions​ ​given​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​number​ ​and​ ​mass​ ​number

● Atomic​ ​number​ ​=​ ​proton​ ​number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons

● Mass​ ​number​ ​=​ ​nucleon​ ​number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​+​ ​neutrons
● In​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons,​ ​but​ ​in​ ​an​ ​ion,​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a
different​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​protons.​ ​to​ ​work​ ​out​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​an​ ​ion:
o work​ ​out​ ​how​ ​many​ ​electrons​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​of​ ​the​ ​element​ ​would​ ​have​ ​(same
as​ ​proton​ ​number)
o work​ ​out​ ​how​ ​many​ ​electrons​ ​have​ ​been​ ​lost​ ​or​ ​gained​ ​(using​ ​charge-
remember​ ​-ve​ ​means​ ​electrons​ ​gained,​ ​+ve​ ​means​ ​electrons​ ​lost)
o calculate​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​atom​ ​plus​ ​electrons​ ​gained​ ​or​ ​minus
electrons​ ​lost

1.24​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​from​ ​their​ ​atoms,
limited​ ​to​ ​compounds​ ​of​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​groups​ ​1,​ ​2,​ ​6​ ​and​ ​7

● Ions​ ​produced​ ​by​ ​metals​ ​in​ ​Groups​ ​1​ ​and​ ​2​ ​and​ ​by​ ​nonmetals​ ​in​ ​Groups​ ​6​ ​and​ ​7
have​ ​the​ ​electronic​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​noble​ ​gas​ ​(Group​ ​0)
● this​ ​means​ ​group​ ​1​ ​metals​ ​will​ ​lose​ ​1​ ​electron​ ​and​ ​form​ ​+1​ ​ions
● group​ ​2​ ​metals​ ​will​ ​lose​ ​2​ ​electrons​ ​and​ ​form​ ​+2​ ​ions
● group​ ​6​ ​nonmetals​ ​will​ ​gain​ ​2​ ​electrons​ ​and​ ​form​ ​2-​ ​ions
● group​ ​7​ ​nonmetals​ ​will​ ​gain​ ​1​ ​electron​ ​and​ ​form​ ​1-​ ​ions
● remember​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​will​ ​have​ ​an​ ​overall​ ​charge​ ​of​ ​0​ ​so​ ​you​ ​need​ ​to​ ​balance
out​ ​the​ ​+​ ​and​ ​-​ ​charges

1.25​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​endings​ ​–ide​ ​and​ ​–ate​ ​in​ ​the​ ​names​ ​of
compounds

● these​ ​endings​ ​are​ ​used​ ​for​ ​the​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound
● -ide​ ​means​ ​the​ ​compound​ ​contains​ ​2​ ​elements​ ​(one​ ​is​ ​the​ ​nonmetal​ ​-ve​ ​ion)
● -ate​ ​means​ t​ he​ ​compound​ ​contains​ ​at​ ​least​ ​3​ ​elements,​ ​one​ ​of​ ​which​ ​is​ ​oxygen

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1.26​ ​Deduce​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​(including​ ​oxides,​ ​hydroxides,
halides,​ ​nitrates,​ ​carbonates​ ​and​ ​sulfates)​ ​given​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​the
constituent​ ​ions

● Oxide​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​O​2-​​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​oxide:​ ​Na​2​O)

● Hydroxide​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​OH​1-​​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​hydroxide:​ ​NaOH)
● Halide​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​a​ ​-1​ ​halide​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​chloride​ ​NaCl)
● Nitrate​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​NO​3​1-​​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​nitrate:​ ​NaNO​3​)
● Carbonate​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​CO​3​2-​​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​carbonate:​ ​NaCO​3​)
● Sulfate​ ​->​ ​involves​ ​SO​4​2-​​ ​ion​ ​(e.g.​ ​sodium​ ​sulfate:​ ​NaSO​4​)

to​ ​deduce​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​ionic​ ​compounds,​ ​you​ ​need​ ​to​ ​balance​ ​out​ ​the​ ​+​ ​and​ ​-​ ​charges
to​ ​make​ ​the​ ​overall​ ​charge​ ​0.​ ​You​ ​do​ ​this​ ​by​ ​writing​ ​a​ ​little​ ​number​ ​below​ ​the​ ​element
e.g.​ ​Cl​3​​ ​or​ ​for​ ​ions​ ​with​ ​more​ ​than​ ​one​ ​element​ ​you​ ​draw​ ​a​ ​bracket​ ​round​ ​first​ ​e.g.​ ​(SO​4​)​2

1.27​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ionic​ ​compound​ ​as​ ​a​ ​lattice​ ​structure:
consisting​ ​of​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​ions;​ ​held​ ​together​ ​by​ ​strong
electrostatic​ ​forces​ ​(ionic​ ​bonds)​ ​between​ ​oppositely-charged​ ​ions

● A​ ​giant​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​ions​ ​=​ ​ionic​ ​compound

● Held​ ​together​ ​by​ ​strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction​ ​between​ ​oppositely
charged​ ​ions
● The​ ​forces​ ​act​ ​in​ ​all​ ​directions​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lattice,​ ​and​ ​this​ ​is​ ​called​ ​ionic​ ​bonding.
● The​ ​lattice​ ​has​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​ions

An​ ​example​ ​is​ ​sodium​ ​chloride​ ​(salt):

Na+​ ​(small​ ​blue​ ​particles)​ ​and​ ​Cl-​ ​(larger​ ​green​ ​ones)

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 Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

The​ ​periodic​ ​table

Notes

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1.13​ ​Describe​ ​how​ ​Mendeleev​ ​arranged​ ​the​ ​elements,​ ​known​ ​at​ ​that​ ​time,
in​ ​a​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​by​ ​using​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​these​ ​elements​ ​and​ ​their
compounds

● He​ ​ordered​ ​his​ ​table​ ​in​ ​order​ ​of​ ​atomic​ ​mass,​ ​but​ ​not​ ​always​ ​strictly​ ​–​ ​i.e.​ ​in
some​ ​places​ ​he​ ​changed​ ​the​ ​order​ ​based​ ​on​ ​atomic​ ​weights.
● Left​ ​gaps​ ​for​ ​elements​ ​that​ ​he​ ​thought​ ​had​ ​not​ ​been​ ​discovered​ ​yet.

1.14​ ​Describe​ ​how​ ​Mendeleev​ ​used​ ​his​ ​table​ ​to​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​existence​ ​and
properties​ ​of​ ​some​ ​elements​ ​not​ ​then​ ​discovered

● Mendelev​ ​realised​ ​elements​ ​with​ ​similar​ ​properties​ ​belonged​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​groups
in​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​so​ ​was​ ​able​ ​to​ ​leave​ ​gaps​ ​and​ ​place​ ​the​ ​discovered
elements​ ​where​ ​they​ ​fit​ ​best
● Elements​ ​with​ ​properties​ ​predicted​ ​by​ ​Mendeleev​ ​were​ ​later​ ​discovered​ ​and
filled​ ​the​ ​gaps

1.15​ ​Explain​ ​that​ ​Mendeleev​ ​thought​ ​he​ ​had​ ​arranged​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​order​ ​of
increasing​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​but​ ​this​ ​was​ ​not​ ​always​ ​true​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the
relative​ ​abundance​ ​of​ ​isotopes​ ​of​ ​some​ ​pairs​ ​of​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​the​ ​periodic
table

● Knowledge​ ​of​ ​isotopes​ ​made​ ​it​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​the​ ​order​ ​based​ ​on
atomic​ ​weights​ ​was​ ​not​ ​always​ ​correct,​ ​because​ ​some​ ​elements​ ​have​ ​a​ ​higher
mass​ ​than​ ​others​ ​when​ ​isotopes​ ​are​ ​taken​ ​into​ ​account,​ ​but​ ​a​ ​lower​ ​one​ ​if​ ​you
only​ ​look​ ​at​ ​one​ ​specific​ ​isotope.

1.16​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​atomic​ ​number​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of
position​ ​in​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​and​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​nucleus

● Elements​ ​are​ ​arranged​ ​in​ ​order​ ​of​ ​atomic​ ​(proton)​ ​number​ ​(bottom​ ​number)​ ​and
so​ ​that​ ​elements​ ​with​ ​similar​ ​properties​ ​are​ ​in​ ​columns,​ ​known​ ​as​ ​groups.
● Elements​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​group​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​their​ ​outer
shell,​ ​which​ ​gives​ ​them​ ​similar​ ​chemical​ ​properties.

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1.17​ ​Describe​ ​that​ ​in​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table:
a)​ ​elements​ ​are​ ​arranged​ ​in​ ​order​ ​of​ ​increasing​ ​atomic​ ​number,​ ​in​ ​rows
called​ ​periods​ ​and​ ​elements,
b)​ ​elements​ ​with​ ​similar​ ​properties​ ​are​ ​placed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​same​ ​vertical​ ​columns
called​ ​groups
1.18​ ​Identify​ ​elements​ ​as​ ​metals​ ​or​ ​non-metals​ ​according​ ​to​ ​their​ ​position​ ​in
the​ ​periodic​ ​table,​ ​explaining​ ​this​ ​division​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​structures
of​ ​the​ ​elements

● Metals​ ​=​ ​elements​ ​that​ ​react​ ​to​ ​form​ ​positive​ ​ions.

o Majority​ ​of​ ​elements​ ​are​ ​metals.
o Found​ ​to​ ​the​ ​left​ ​and​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​bottom​ ​of​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table.,​ ​because
they​ ​lose​ ​electron(s)​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​form​ ​these​ ​positive​ ​ions,​ ​forming​ ​an
electronic​ ​structure​ ​that​ ​is​ ​stable,​ ​like​ ​that​ ​of​ ​a​ ​noble​ ​gas
● Non-metals​ ​=​ ​elements​ ​that​ ​do​ ​not​ ​form​ ​positive​ ​ions.
o Found​ ​towards​ ​the​ ​right​ ​and​ ​top​ ​of​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table,​ ​because​ ​they​ ​gain
electron(s)​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​form​ ​these​ ​negative​ ​ions,​ ​forming​ ​an​ ​electronic
structure​ ​that​ ​is​ ​stable,​ ​like​ ​that​ ​of​ ​a​ ​noble​ ​gas

​​

1.19​ ​Predict​ ​the​ ​electronic​ ​configurations​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​20​ ​elements​ ​in​ ​the
periodic​ ​table​ ​as​ ​diagrams​ ​and​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form,​ ​for​ ​example​ ​2.8.1

● the​ ​electronic​ ​configuration​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​tells​ ​you​ ​how​ ​many​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​in
each​ ​shell​ ​around​ ​an​ ​electron’s​ ​nucleus
● for​ ​example,​ ​sodium​ ​has​ ​11​ ​electrons:​ ​2​ ​in​ ​its​ ​most​ ​inner​ ​shell,​ ​then​ ​8,​ ​then​ ​1​ ​in
its​ ​outermost​ ​shell.
○ you​ ​can​ ​represent​ ​sodium’s​ ​electronic​ ​configuration​ ​as:​ ​2.8.1

○ OR​ ​in​ ​a​ ​diagram:​ ​

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1.20​ ​Explain​ ​how​ ​the​ ​electronic​ ​configuration​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​its
position​ ​in​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table

● the​ ​group​ ​an​ ​electron​ ​is​ ​in​ ​tells​ ​you​ ​how​ ​many​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​in​ ​its​ ​outermost
shell​ ​aka​ ​group​ ​1​ ​elements​ ​have​ ​1​ ​electron​ ​in​ ​their​ ​outer​ ​shell
● the​ ​period​ ​an​ ​electron​ ​is​ ​in​ ​tells​ ​you​ ​which​ ​number​ ​shell​ ​an​ ​element's​ ​outermost
electron​ ​is​ ​found​ ​in​ ​aka​ ​period​ ​3​ ​elements​ ​have​ ​their​ ​outermost​ ​electrons​ ​in
shell​ ​3
● remember​ ​all​ ​the​ ​shells​ ​up​ ​until​ ​the​ ​shell​ ​will​ ​be​ ​full​ ​(for​ ​the​ ​1st​ ​shell​ ​this​ ​means
2​ ​electrons​ ​and​ ​for​ ​shells​ ​2​ ​and​ ​3​ ​this​ ​means​ ​8​ ​electrons)

[Link]
 Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

Atomic​ ​Structure

Notes

[Link]
1.1 Describe​ ​how​ ​the​ ​Dalton​ ​model​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​has​ ​changed​ ​over​ ​time
because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​discovery​ ​of​ ​subatomic​ ​particles

John​ ​Dalton​ ​(1803) :

● He​ ​published​ ​his​ ​own​ ​three-part​ ​atomic​ ​theory:

1. All​ ​substances​ ​are​ ​made​ ​of​ ​atoms.​ ​Atoms​ ​are​ ​small​ ​particles​ ​that​ ​cannot
be​ ​created,​ ​divided,​ ​or​ ​destroyed.​ ​
2. Atoms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​same​ ​element​ ​are​ ​exactly​ ​alike,​ ​and​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​different
elements​ ​are​ ​different.​ ​
3. Atoms​ ​join​ ​with​ ​other​ ​atoms​ ​to​ ​make​ ​new​ ​substances.​ ​
● Much​ ​of​ ​Dalton’s​ ​theory​ ​was​ ​correct,​ ​but​ ​some​ ​of​ ​it​ ​was​ ​later​ ​proven​ ​incorrect
and​ ​revised​ ​as​ ​scientists​ ​learned​ ​more​ ​about​ ​atoms.

J.J.​ ​Thomson​ ​(1897) :

● Used​ ​a​ ​cathode-ray​ ​tube​ ​to​ ​conduct​ ​an​ ​experiment

● This​ ​discovery​ ​identified​ ​an​ ​error​ ​in​ ​Dalton’s​ ​atomic​ ​theory.​ ​Atoms​ ​can​ ​be
divided​ ​into​ ​smaller​ ​parts.
● Because​ ​the​ ​beam​ ​moved​ ​away​ ​from​ ​the​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​plate​ ​and​ ​toward
the​ ​positively​ ​charged​ ​plate,​ ​Thomson​ ​knew​ ​that​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​must​ ​have​ ​a
negative​ ​charge.
● Thomson​ ​proposed​ ​a​ ​model​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​called​ ​the​ ​“plum-pudding”​ ​model,​ ​in
which​ ​negative​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​scattered​ ​throughout​ ​soft​ ​blobs​ ​of​ ​positively
charged​ ​material.

Ernest​ ​Rutherford​ ​(1909) :

● Shot​ ​a​ ​beam​ ​of​ ​positively​ ​charged​ ​particles​ ​into​ ​a​ ​sheet​ ​of​ ​gold​ ​foil.
● Most​ o ​ f​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​did​ ​continue​ ​in​ ​a​ ​straight​ ​line​ ​(as​ ​you​ ​would​ ​expect​ ​from
plum​ ​pudding​ ​model).​ ​However​ ​some​ ​of​ ​the​ ​particles​ ​were​ ​deflected​ ​to​ ​the​ ​sides
a​ ​bit,​ ​and​ ​a​ ​few​ ​bounced​ ​straight​ ​back.
● Rutherford​ ​developed​ ​a​ ​new​ ​model​ ​which​ ​said​ ​that​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atom’s​ ​mass​ ​is
found​ ​in​ ​a​ ​region​ ​in​ ​the​ ​center​ ​called​ ​the​ ​nucleus.
● In​ ​Rutherford’s​ ​model​ ​the​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​mostly​ ​empty​ ​space,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​electrons​ ​travel
in​ ​random​ ​paths​ ​around​ ​the​ ​nucleus.

1.2 Describe​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​as​ ​a​ ​nucleus​ ​containing​ ​protons
and​ ​neutrons,​ ​surrounded​ ​by​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​shells

[Link]
1.3 Recall​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​charge​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​protons,​ ​neutrons​ ​and
electrons

particle relative​ ​charge relative​ ​mass

proton +1 1

neutron 0 1

electron -1 1/1836

1.4 Explain​ ​why​ ​atoms​ ​contain​ ​equal​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​and​ ​electrons
● Atoms​ ​are​ ​neutral​ ​and​ ​the​ ​charges​ ​on​ ​a​ ​proton​ ​are​ ​+1​ ​and​ ​on​ ​an​ ​electron​ ​are​ ​-1
● therefore​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​=​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​electrons,​ ​so​ ​that​ ​the​ ​charges​ ​cancel

1.5 Describe​ ​the​ ​nucleus​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​as​ ​a​ ​very​ ​small​ ​compared​ ​to​ ​the
overall​ ​size​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atom

1.6 Recall​ ​that​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​concentrated​ ​in​ ​the
nucleus

1.7 Recall​ ​the​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​the​ ​term​ ​mass​ ​number​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom
● Mass​ ​(nucleon)​ ​Number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​+​ ​neutrons

1.8 Describe​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​a​ ​given​ ​element​ ​as​ ​having​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of
protons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​nucleus​ ​and​ ​that​ ​this​ ​number​ ​is​ ​unique​ ​to​ ​that​ ​element

1.9 Describe​ ​isotopes​ ​as​ ​different​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​same​ ​element​ ​containing
the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​but​ ​different​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​neutrons​ ​in
their​ ​nuclei

1.10 Calculate​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​protons,​ ​neutrons​ ​and​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​atoms
given​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​number​ ​and​ ​mass​ ​number
● Atomic​ ​(proton)​ ​Number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​(=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​if​ ​it’s​ ​an
atom,​ ​because​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​neutral)
● therefore,​ ​you​ ​can​ ​calculate​ ​number​ ​of​ ​neutrons​ ​by​ ​doing​ ​mass​ ​number​ ​§
atomic​ ​number
1.11 Explain​ ​how​ ​the​ ​existence​ ​of​ ​isotopes​ ​results​ ​in​ ​relative​ ​atomic
masses​ ​of​ ​some​ ​elements​ ​not​ ​being​ ​whole​ ​numbers
● because​ ​isotopes​ ​have​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​but​ ​different​ ​numbers​ o ​ f
neutrons,​ ​they​ ​are​ ​still​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​same​ ​element,​ ​but​ ​they​ ​have​ ​different
atomic​ ​masses
● the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​is​ ​calculated​ ​using​ ​the​ ​abundance​ ​of​ ​different​ ​isotopes
and​ ​because​ ​it​ ​is​ ​an​ ​average​ ​it​ ​can​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​not​ ​being​ a​
whole​ ​number​ ​(atomic​ ​number​ ​and​ ​mass​ ​number​ ​will​ ​always​ ​be​ ​whole​ ​numbers-
they​ ​are​ ​not​ ​averages)
● since​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​is​ ​so​ ​small,​ ​we​ ​compare​ ​their​ ​masses​ ​to​ ​each​ ​other.​ ​A
carbon​ ​atom​ ​having​ ​a​ ​mass​ ​number​ ​12,​ ​i.e.​ ​(​12​C)​ ​is​ ​taken​ ​as​ ​standard​ ​for​ t​ his
comparison​ ​and​ ​its​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​is​ ​12.
● It​ ​is​ ​written​ ​as​ ​Ar​ ​ ​or​ ​R.A.M.​.

1.12 (higher​ ​tier)​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​from
the​ ​relative​ ​masses​ ​and​ ​abundances​ ​of​ ​its​ ​isotopes

A​ ​sample​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​gas​ ​is​ ​a​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​2​ ​isotopes,
chlorine-35​ ​and​ ​chlorine-37.​ ​These​ ​isotopes​ ​occur​ ​in
specific​ ​proportions​ ​in​ ​the​ ​sample​ ​i.e.​ ​75%​ ​chlorine-35
and​ ​25%​ ​chlorine-37.​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​R.A.M.​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​in
the​ ​sample.

The​ ​average​ ​mass,​ ​or​ ​R.A.M.​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​can​ ​be​ ​calculated
using​ ​the​ ​following​ ​equation:

​ ​ ​(mass​ ​of​ ​isotope-A ​ ​x ​ ​%​ ​of​ ​isotope-A)​ ​+​ ​(mass​ ​of​ ​isotope-B​ ​ x ​ ​%​ ​of​ ​isotope-B)
R.A.M. =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​100

(35​ ​x​ ​75)​ ​+​ ​(37​ ​x​ ​25)

​ ​ ​=
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​100

3550
=
100

R.A.M. = 35.5

[Link]
 Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

Covalent​ ​bonding

Notes

[Link]
1.28​ ​Explain​ ​how​ ​a​ ​covalent​ ​bond​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​when​ ​a​ ​pair​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​is
shared​ ​between​ ​two​ ​atoms

● Covalent​ ​bonding​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​most​ ​non-metallic​ ​elements​ ​and​ ​in​ ​compounds​ ​of
nonmetals
● When​ ​atoms​ ​share​ ​pairs​ ​of​ ​electrons,​ ​they​ ​form​ ​covalent​ ​bonds.​ ​These​ ​bonds
between​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​strong.

1.29​ ​Recall​ ​that​ ​covalent​ ​bonding​ ​results​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​molecules

● Covalently​ ​bonded​ ​substances​ ​may​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​e.g.​ ​HCl,​ ​H​2​,​ ​O2​​ ,
Cl​2​,​ ​NH​3​,​ ​CH​4​.
● Some​ ​have​ ​very​ ​large​ ​molecules,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​polymers.
● Some​ ​have​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​structures​ ​(macromolecules)​ ​e.g​ ​diamond,​ ​silicon
dioxide.
● Diagrams​ ​to​ ​show​ ​these​ ​substances​ ​could​ ​be​ ​dot​ ​and​ ​cross,​ ​shown​ ​as​ ​repeat
units​ ​for​ ​polymers​ ​using​ ​a​ ​single​ ​line​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​a​ ​single​ ​bond,​ ​ball​ ​and​ ​stick
and​ ​two-​ ​and​ ​three-dimensional​ ​diagrams.

1.30​ ​Recall​ ​the​ ​typical​ ​size​ ​(order​ ​of​ ​magnitude)​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​and​ ​small
molecules

● Simple​ ​molecular​ ​substances​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​molecules​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​joined
by​ ​strong​ ​covalent​ ​bonds
● Therefore,​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​smaller​ ​than​ ​small​ ​molecules

[Link]
 Edexcel​ ​GCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Key​ ​concepts​ ​in​ ​chemistry

Types​ ​of​ ​substance

Notes

[Link]
1.31​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​simple​ ​molecular,​ ​covalent​ ​substances,​ ​using
dot​ ​and​ ​cross​ ​diagrams,​ ​including:​ ​hydrogen,​ ​hydrogen​ ​chloride,​ ​water,
methane,​ ​oxygen,​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide

[Link]
1.32​ ​Explain​ ​why​ ​elements​ ​and​ ​compounds​ ​can​ ​be​ ​classified​ ​as:​ ​ionic,​ ​simple
molecular​ ​(covalent),​ ​giant​ ​covalent,​ ​metallic​ ​and​ ​how​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​and
bonding​ ​of​ ​these​ ​types​ ​of​ ​substances​ ​results​ ​in​ ​different​ ​physical​ ​properties,
including​ ​relative​ ​melting​ ​point​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​point,​ ​relative​ ​solubility​ ​in​ ​water
and​ ​ability​ ​to​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​(as​ ​solids​ ​and​ ​in​ ​solution)

Properties​ ​of​ ​ionic​ ​compounds

● Ionic​ ​compounds​ ​are​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​and​ ​a​ ​nonmetal
● Ionic​ c​ ompounds​ ​have​ ​regular​ ​structures​ ​(giant​ ​ionic​ ​lattices)​ ​in​ ​which​ ​there​ ​are
strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction​ ​in​ ​all​ ​directions​ ​between​ ​oppositely
charged​ ​ions.
● They​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points​,​ ​because​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​is​ ​required​ ​to
break​ ​the​ ​many​ ​strong​ ​bonds.
● When​ ​melted​ ​or​ ​dissolved​ ​in​ ​water,​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​​ ​because
the​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​free​ ​to​ ​move​ ​and​ ​carry​ ​current,​ ​and​ ​they​ ​do​ ​not​ ​conduct​ ​electricity
as​ ​solids,​​ ​because​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​fixed​ ​and​ ​are​ ​not​ ​able​ ​to​ ​move,​ ​carrying​ ​charge
with​ ​them.
● Often​ ​dissolve​ ​in​ ​water​​ ​to​ ​form​ ​an​ ​aqueous​ ​solution

Properties​ ​of​ ​simple​ ​molecular​ ​compounds

● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​usually​ ​gases​ ​or​ ​liquids​ ​that​ ​have
low​ ​boiling​ ​and​ ​melting​ ​points​.​ ​They​ ​are​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​nonmetal​ ​elements.
● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​have​ ​weak​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces
between​ ​the​ ​molecules.​ ​These​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​in​ ​boiling​ ​or​ ​melting,​ ​not​ ​the​ ​covalent
bonds​.
○ The​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​increase​ ​with​ ​the​ ​size​ ​of​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​so
larger​ ​molecules​ ​have​ ​higher​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points.
● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​don’t​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​,​ ​because
small​ ​molecules​ ​do​ ​not​ ​have​ ​an​ ​overall​ ​electric​ ​charge.​ ​although,​ ​some
breakdown​ ​in​ ​water​ ​to​ ​form​ ​ions​ ​which​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​electricity
● Many​ ​are​ ​insoluble​ ​in​ ​water,​ ​but​ ​some​ ​are​ ​soluble​​ ​because​ ​they​ ​can​ ​form
intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​with​ ​water​ ​which​ ​are​ ​stronger​ ​than​ ​those​ ​between​ ​water
molecules​ ​or​ ​their​ ​own​ ​molecules​ ​already​ ​(e.g.​ ​CO​2​​ ​and​ ​NH​3​​ ​are​ ​soluble)

Giant​ ​Covalent​ ​Structures

● They​ ​are​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​nonmetal​ ​elements
● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​solids​ ​with​ ​very​ ​high
melting​ ​points​.
o All​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​these​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​linked​ ​to​ ​other​ ​atoms​ ​by​ ​strong
covalent​ ​bonds.
▪ These​ ​bonds​ ​must​ ​be​ ​overcome​ ​to​ ​melt​ ​or​ ​boil​ ​these​ ​substances.
● some​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​structures​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​,​ ​whereas​ ​others​ ​can’t

[Link]
Properties​ ​of​ ​metals
● Metals​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​giant​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​arranged​ ​in​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​pattern.​ ​They
are​ ​always​ ​made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​just​ ​metallic​ ​elements
● The​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​metal​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​delocalised​ ​and​ ​so​ ​are​ ​free​ ​to
move​ ​through​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​structure.
● The​ ​sharing​ ​of​ ​delocalised​ ​electrons​ ​gives​ ​rise​ ​to​ ​strong​ ​metallic​ ​bonds.

● Metals​ ​have​ ​giant​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​strong​ ​metallic​ ​bonding.
o Therefore,​ ​most​ ​metals​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points​.
o They​ ​can​​ ​conduct​ ​heat​ ​and​ ​electricity​​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​delocalised
electrons​ ​in​ ​their​ ​structures.
o Conduction​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​the​ ​ability​ ​for​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​move​ ​throughout​ ​the
metal.
o The​ ​layers​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​metals​ ​are​ ​able​ ​to​ ​slide​ ​over​ ​each​ ​other,​ ​so​ ​metals
can​ ​be​ ​bent​ ​and​ ​shaped.
o insoluble​ ​in​ ​water​-​ ​but​ ​some​ ​will​ ​react​ ​with​ ​it​ ​instead

1.33​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​limited​ ​to:​ ​high​ ​melting
points​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​ions​ ​and​ ​whether​ ​or
not​ ​they​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​as​ ​solids,​ ​when​ ​molten​ ​and​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution
● high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points-​ ​strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​forces
● conduct​ ​electricity​ ​when​ ​molten/dissolved-​ ​ions​ ​can​ ​move
● don’t​ c​ onduct​ ​electricity​ ​when​ ​solid-​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​fixed​ ​in​ ​place

[Link]
1.34​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​typical​ ​covalent,​ ​simple​ ​molecular​ ​compounds
limited​ ​to:​ ​low​ ​melting​ ​points​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​forces​ ​between
molecules​ ​(intermolecular​ ​forces)​ ​and​ ​poor​ ​conduction​ ​of​ ​electricity
● low​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points-​ ​only​ ​weak​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​molecules​ ​must​ ​be
overcome,​ ​not​ ​covalent​ ​bonds
● poor​ ​conduction​ ​of​ ​electricity-​ ​no​ ​charged​ ​particles​ ​or​ ​electrons​ ​that​ ​are​ ​free​ ​to
move

1.35​ ​Recall​ ​that​ ​graphite​ ​and​ ​diamond​ ​are​ ​different​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​and
that​ ​they​ ​are​ ​examples​ ​of​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​substances
1.36​ ​Describe​ ​the​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​graphite​ ​and​ ​diamond

Diamond
● In​ ​diamond​ ​(right),​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​is​ ​joined​ ​to​ ​4​ ​other​ ​carbons
covalently.
o It’s​ ​very​ ​hard,​ ​has​ ​a​ ​very​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​point​​ ​and​ ​does​ ​not
conduct​ ​electricity.

Graphite
● In​ ​graphite,​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​is​ ​covalently​ ​bonded​ ​to​ ​3​ ​other​ ​carbons,​ ​forming​ ​layers
of​ ​hexagonal​ ​rings,​ ​which​ ​have​ ​no​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​between​ ​the​ ​layers.
o The​ ​layers​ ​can​ ​slide​ ​over​ ​each​ ​other​ ​due​ ​to​ ​no​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​between
the​ ​layers,​ ​but​ ​weak​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces.​ ​Meaning​ ​that​ ​graphite​ ​is​ ​soft
and​ ​slippery.
● One​ ​electron​ ​from​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​delocalised.
o This​ ​makes​ ​graphite​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​metals,​ ​because​ ​of​ ​its​ ​delocalised
electrons.
o It​​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​–​ ​unlike​ ​diamond.

1.37​ ​Explain,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​bonding,​ ​why​ ​graphite​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to
make​ ​electrodes​ ​and​ ​as​ ​a​ ​lubricant,​ ​whereas​ ​diamond​ ​is​ ​used​ ​in​ ​cutting
tools
● Graphite​ ​uses
o Electrodes​ ​–​ ​graphite​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​–​ ​unlike​ ​Diamond
o Lubricant​ ​–​ ​weak​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​and​ ​no​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​between
the​ ​layers,​ ​therefore​ ​it​ ​is​ ​soft​ ​and​ ​slippery
● Diamond​ ​uses
o Cutting​ ​tools​ ​–​ ​very​ ​hard,​ ​due​ ​to​ ​its​ ​rigid​ ​structure

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1.38​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​fullerenes​ ​including​ ​C​60​​ ​and​ ​graphene​ ​in​ ​terms
of​ ​their​ ​structures​ ​and​ ​bonding
● Graphene
o Single​ ​layer​ ​of​ ​graphite
o Has​ ​properties​ ​that​ ​make​ ​it​ ​useful​ ​in​ ​electronics​ ​and​ ​composites
● Carbon​ ​can​ ​also​ ​form​ ​fullerenes​ ​with​ ​different​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms.
o Molecules​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​hollow​ ​shapes
o They​ ​are​ ​based​ ​on​ ​hexagonal​ ​rings​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms,​ ​but​ ​they​ ​may​ ​also
contain​ ​rings​ ​with​ ​five​ ​or​ ​seven​ ​carbon​ ​atoms
o The​ ​first​ ​fullerene​ ​to​ ​be​ ​discovered​ ​was​ ​Buckminsterfullerene​ ​(C​60​),​ ​which
has​ ​a​ ​spherical​ ​shape
● Carbon​ ​nanotubes
o Cylindrical​ ​fullerenes​ ​with​ ​very​ ​high​ ​length​ ​to​ ​diameter​ ​ratios
o Their​ ​properties​ ​make​ ​them​ ​useful​ ​for​ ​nanotechnology,​ ​electronics​ ​and
materials
● Examples​ ​of​ ​uses
o They​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​as​ ​lubricants,​ ​to​ ​deliver​ ​drugs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​body​ ​and​ ​catalysts.
o Nanotubes​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​for​ ​reinforcing​ ​materials,​ ​for​ ​example​ ​tennis
rackets.

1.39​ ​Describe,​ ​using​ ​poly(ethene)​ ​as​ ​the​ ​example,​ ​that​ ​simple​ ​polymers
consist​ ​of​ ​large​ ​molecules​ ​containing​ ​chains​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms
● Polymers​ ​have​ ​very​ ​large​ ​molecules​ ​(the​ ​n​ ​in​ ​the​ ​diagram​ ​structure​ ​shows​ ​there
are​ ​many​ ​many​ ​repeat​ ​units)
● Atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​polymer​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​linked​ ​to​ ​other​ ​atoms​ ​by​ ​strong​ ​covalent
bonds
● Intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​between​ ​polymer​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​relatively​ ​strong​ ​and​ ​so
these​ ​substances​ ​are​ ​solids​ ​at​ ​room​ ​temperature

1.40​ ​Explain​ ​the​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​metals,​ ​including​ ​malleability​ ​and​ ​the​ ​ability
to​ ​conduct​ ​electricity
● malleable-​ ​the​ ​layers​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​metals​ ​are​ ​able​ ​to​ ​slide​ ​over​ ​each​ ​other
● can​ ​conduct​ e​ lectricity-​ ​delocalised​ ​electrons​ ​can​ ​move

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