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i

Facing the Revocation

ii

Château de Berneré. Pastel by Jean Reboux. Property of the author. Courtesy of the
artist.
iii

Facing the Revocation

Huguenot Families, Faith, and the King’s Will

C A R O LY N C H A P P E L L L O U G E E

1
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lougee, Carolyn Chappell, author.
Title: Facing the revocation : Huguenot families, faith, and the king’s will /
Carolyn Chappell Lougee.
Description: New York City : Oxford University Press, 2016. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016001873 (print) | LCCN 2016022267 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190241315 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780190241322 (Updf) |
ISBN 9780190241339 (Epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Huguenots—France—History. | France—History—Louis XIV,
1643–1715. | Protestantism—France—History. | France—Emigration and immigration.
Classification: LCC BX9454.3 .C43 2016 (print) | LCC BX9454.3 (ebook) |
DDC 284/.509031—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016001873

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

v

“Why study one noble family? What can the social his-
torian learn from a single case? Abandoning all claims
to the typicality of the family in any statistical sense
does not mean retreating to antiquarianism and the
quaintness of the particular.”
—​Robert Forster, The House of Saulx-​Tavanes (1971)

“Often it is the small things, rather than the big picture,

that the mind can comfortably grasp … for instance,
it is naturally more appealing to readers to absorb the
meaning of a vast historical event through the story of
a single family.”
—​Daniel Mendelsohn, The Lost (2006)
vi
vii

CONTENTS

Principal Personages ix
Glossary xi

Introduction 1

PA RT ON E T H E CH A M PAGN É I N S A I N TONG E

1. A Family of the Charentes in Distaff 9

2. Faith of the Fathers and Will of the King 39

3. Marie in Jeopardy 75

4. Aunt Madelene’s Offensive 97

5. Families Endure 128

PA RT T WO E SC A PI NG F ROM F R A NCE

6. Preparing the Escape 159

7. Chancing Escape 181

PA RT T H R E E T HOSE W HO STAY ED

8. Thérèse’s Guardian 211

vii
viii

viii Contents

9. Caring for Thérèseâ•… 230

10. Cousinsâ•… 251

PA RT FOU R â•…R E SET T LI NG A BROA D

11. Into the Refugeâ•… 281

12. Experiencing Exileâ•… 303

13. Marie at the Head of the Familyâ•… 325

Conclusion: History and Storyâ•… 351

Afterword: Retelling the Champagné Storyâ•… 361

Appendix: Family Treesâ•… 369
Notesâ•… 377
Bibliographyâ•… 425
Indexâ•… 449
ix

P R I N C I PA L P E R S O N AG E S

Marie de La Rochefoucauld, Dame de Champagné

Josias de Robillard, Seigneur de Champagné. Husband of Marie de La
Rochefoucauld
Susanne Isle. Grandmother of Marie de La Rochefoucauld, widow of Jean de
Solière
Marie de Solière. Eldest daughter of Susanne Isle, wife of Casimir de La
Rochefoucauld, mother of Marie de La Rochefoucauld and her five sisters
Madelene de Solière. Second daughter of Susanne Isle, wife of Louis de
Salbert, aunt of Marie de La Rochefoucauld
Isaac Isle, Marquis de Loire. Cousin and advisor of Susanne Isle, Commissioner
for the Edict of Nantes in Saintonge and Aunis
Casimir Prévost de Touchimbert. Brother-​in-​law of Josias de Robillard,
guardian of Thérèse de Robillard
Charles de La Motte Fouqué, Baron de Saint-​Surin and Seigneur de Tonnay-​
Boutonne. Friend of Josias de Champagné and future husband (in Holland)
of Josias’ and Marie’s daughter Susanne de Robillard
Louis XIV, King of France, 1643–​1715
Françoise d’Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon. Morganatic second wife of
Louis XIV

Additional Persons
Salbert family: Louis de Salbert, Seigneur de Soulignonne. Husband of
Madelene de Solière; Léa de Bessay. Mother of Louis de Salbert, wife in her
second marriage to Jean Isle de Beauchesne

ix
x

x P r i n c i p a l Pe r s o n a g e s

Josias’ cousins: Philippe-​ Benjamin de Mazières, Gédéon Nicolas de

Voutron, Marie-​Marguerite Nicolas de Voutron (wife of the admiral
Duquesne-​Guiton)
Other advisors to Susanne Isle: Charles de Villedon, Seigneur de Magezy;
François de La Rochefoucauld, Seigneur de La Rigaudière; Benjamin
Green de Saint-​Marsault, Seigneur de Salignac; François d’Ocoy, Seigneur
de Couvrelles; Alphée Goulard, Seigneur d’Anville
Jean Duvigier, Baron de Saint-​Martin de La Monzie-​Saint-​Laurent. The mag-
istrate in the Bordeaux Parlement charged with eliminating Protestantism
in Saintonge
Intendants: Charles Colbert de Terron, Honoré Lucas de Demuin, Pierre
Arnoul, Michel Bégon, Armand-​Jacques de Gourgue, Nicolas-​Joseph
Foucault
Other officials: Comte d’Avaux (French ambassador in The Hague), Louis
François de Boufflers (commander of troops in southwest France in 1685),
Marquis de Châteauneuf (secretary of state for the R.P.R.), Jean-​Baptiste
Colbert (controller-​general of finances and chief minister of Louis XIV),
Charles Colbert de Croissy (intendant in Poitou, then secretary of state for
foreign affairs), Marquis de Louvois (secretary of state for war), Comte de
Pontchartrain (secretary of state for the king’s household and controller-​
general of finances), Marquis de Seignelay (secretary of state for the navy
and for the king’s household)
Pierre Louis Pons de Tillieres, Sieur des Forges. A mole inside the refugee
community in Holland who reported to the Comte d’Avaux
Eléonore d’Olbreuse, Duchess of Zell. Her brother Alexandre Desmier
d’Olbreuse married Madeleine-​Sylvie de Sainte-​Hermine de La Laigne,
later Madame von Bülow, who was a first cousin of Madame de Maintenon
and the patron in Celle of Susanne de Robillard

NOTE: The appendix offers family trees for the Isle, La Rochefoucauld,
Robillard de Champagné, Prévost de Touchimbert, Mazières-​Voutron, and
D’Aubigné-​Olbreuse families.
xi

GLOSSA RY

Arrêt. A nonappealable decision from a sovereign authority (law court or

royal council) on a question of fact or right.
Charente. The name given to both the river and the territory through which it
flows. Since the Revolution split the territory into two départements—​Charente
around Angoulême and Charente-​Maritime around La Rochelle—​the region
has been referred to in the plural as the Charentes. The old provinces of Aunis
(around La Rochelle), Saintonge (around Saintes and Saint-​Jean-​d ’Angély),
and Angoumois (around Angoulême) fall within the Charentes. The neigh-
boring provinces were Poitou, Limousin, Périgord, and Guyenne.
Chevalier de Saint-​M ichel, Chevalier de Saint-​Louis. Knights honored
with appointment by the king to two royal chivalric orders.
Coutumes. Customary laws that emerged over time from common practice
and prevailed in many parts of France alongside or instead of Roman law.
Curé. Priest of a Catholic parish, who performed the rites of the church and
kept the register of baptisms, marriages, and burials.
Distaff. A tool used in spinning onto which unspun fibers are wound. Since
spinning was traditionally women’s work, the distaff came to symbolize the
woman’s domain or the female side of a family.
Dowry and Dower. The assets a bride carried into a marriage and the prop-
erty to which she was entitled when widowed.
Dragonnade. Lodging of mounted infantry soldiers (dragoons) in Protestant
households from 1681 onward as a means of pressuring them to convert to
Catholicism.

xi
xii

xii Glossary

Factum. A legal brief written by a litigant’s lawyer to lay out the facts of a case
as the client saw them.
Gabare. A small river boat, wide and flat, typically used for transporting
cargo or for fishing.
Généralité. The geographical area administered by an intendant. Most géné-
ralités contained several fiscal districts called élections.
Governor. A royal appointee charged with oversight chiefly of military af-
fairs in a province, city, or fortified place. His deputy was the king’s lieutenant
(lieutenant du roi) or lieutenant-​general de province.
Hôpital général. Asylum for beggars, vagabonds, and the poor.
Intendant. Chief crown official administering a generalité or intendancy,
overseeing all aspects of royal authority, seconded by his subdelegate.
League. The distance a person could walk in one hour, reckoned (in various
localities) as 2–​3 miles.
Légitime. In Roman law, the share of a parent’s estate to which every child
had a legal entitlement and from which the parent could not disinherit a child
without sufficient legal cause.
Lettre de cachet. A letter issued over the king’s signature, secured with his
wax seal (cachet), and giving notice of his express personal will on any matter
of urgent concern, sometimes an order for a subject’s exile or imprisonment.
The Ligue. An ultra-​Catholic party in the sixteenth-​century Wars of Religion
that fought to eradicate Protestantism, weaken the Huguenot nobility, and
merge royal authority with religious orthodoxy.
Livre. The principal money of account in France, divisible into 20 sols (12
deniers per sol). The franc had the same monetary value as the livre, but the
two terms were used differently in common parlance. An écu was generally
reckoned the equivalent of three livres. Other common and legally valid cur-
rencies included Louis or Louis d’or (originally equivalent to 10 livres), pistoles
(equivalent to Louis), and liards (3 deniers).
Nobles of the Sword, Robe, Cloche. Individuals recognized as having social
and fiscal privileges originating in service to the military (Sword), administra-
tive or judicial corps (Robe), and municipal offices (Cloche).
Parlements. Sovereign courts (from which there was no judicial appeal) with
broad powers of police in Paris and across the kingdom.
xiii

Glossary xiii

Préciput. A preference legacy, usually favoring the eldest son, that was man-
dated by law regimes in some parts of France.
Presidial, sénéchaussée, siège royal. Ordinary royal law courts handling
civil and criminal cases as tribunals of first instance or upon appeal from the
lesser seigneurial courts. Officials who oversaw law cases included the sen-
eschal, counselors, lieutenant-​criminal, lieutenant-​general (de sénéchaus-
sée), lieutenant-​particular, king’s prosecutor (procureur du roi), king’s attorney
(avocat du roi), clerk (greffier). Also designates the geographical area subject to
such a court’s jurisdiction.
Recherches de noblesse. Royal investigations into the legitimacy of individ-
uals’ and families’ claims to noble status.
Reconnaissance. An act by which refugees who had abjured under pressure
in France confessed their fault, re-​embraced Protestantism, and were reinte-
grated into the church community.
Religion prétendue réformée (R.P.R.). The official title for Protestantism in
France, translatable as “supposedly reformed religion.” Protestantism was also
sometimes referred to as “The Religion” (“la Religion”) and its adherents as
“Religionnaires” or, more commonly, as “Huguenots.”
Rente. A loan at interest camouflaged as a sale, which was a common form of
borrowing and lending at a time when lending at interest was suspect or pro-
hibited by law. Government rentes were bonds secured on municipal revenues.
Seigneury. A landed estate in which were embedded certain economic, social,
judicial, and honorific privileges and obligations. The holder of the estate was
known as the seigneur.
Témoignage. A certificate from a former temple warranting that the bearer
adhered to the Protestant faith and was worthy of admission as a member in
another congregation.
xiv
xv

Facing the Revocation

xvi

Itineraries of the Champagné. Created by Zephyr Frank and Erik Steiner at the Spatial
History Project, Stanford University.
The Champagné’s Charentes. Created by Zephyr Frank and Erik Steiner at the Spatial History
Project, Stanford University.
xviii
1

Introduction

Before dawn on an April day in 1687, six children of the Protestant noble
family Robillard de Champagné slipped among the wine casks belowdecks of
an English eighteen-​tonner and made their escape from La Rochelle to Devon.
Their mother and eldest brother traced the same route to exile in June. Eleven
months later, the father fled overland to Holland. A baby sister was left behind.
Who were the Champagné, and why did they leave France? How did they
manage to escape? And what became of these emigrants abroad, by contrast
with those who stayed?
In her brief memoir of the emigration, the mother of the family, Marie de
La Rochefoucauld,1 offered an answer to each of these questions. She and her
husband Josias de Robillard were French nobles, proprietors respectively of
the noble estates of Berneré and Champagné in the southwestern province of
Saintonge. They left France out of a desire for “liberty to worship God openly,”
which the policies of Louis XIV denied to Protestants like them. They suc-
ceeded in escaping by outwitting the authorities who closed possible emigra-
tion routes when the 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes criminalized
what was officially called the Religion prétendue réformée (R.P.R.) and forbade
departures from the kingdom. In exile abroad they lost—​for the sake of true
religion—​the economic advantages and social standing they could have con-
tinued to enjoy at home.
It is a storyline of many truths. Josias carried into exile—​and his descend-
ants preserved down into the twenty-​fi rst century—​the genealogies, deeds,
leases, contracts, and inventories of property that established the Champagné’s
identity as a noble landholding family and demonstrated Marie’s inheritance of
Berneré. Religion certainly did stand at the heart of the decision-​making that
led to the emigration. Both Josias and Marie inherited a familial Protestant
identity from forebears who fought for the Reformed religion in the terrible
wars of the Reformation and from those who coexisted with Catholicism after
Henri IV’s 1598 Edict of Nantes made France a kingdom with two lawful re-
ligions. It was Josias’ and Marie’s misfortune to found their own family and

1
2

2 Facing the R evocation

live as Protestants during the reign of Henri IV’s grandson, Louis XIV, who
gradually circumscribed their religious freedoms and civil privileges until,
in October 1685, he revoked his grandfather’s Edict of Nantes. While all the
family members who escaped—​the two parents and the seven children—​
remained faithful to Protestantism to the end of their days, neither the parents
nor the children could enjoy, in exile, anything resembling the life they had
expected at Berneré. Facing the Revocation changed everything.
Marie’s telling of the Champagné story is, however, partial, for it masks
much in order to establish a certain picture of their lives and of the decisions
they made when facing the Revocation. Restoring the portions of experience
she withheld is a key to restoring much more than one family’s history. Her tell-
ing has seemed convincing for more than three centuries because it matched
so closely the consensus narrative composed by numerous French Protestant
exiles: the stability of life in France but for the Revocation, the religious motive
for emigrating, the heroic clandestine escape against heavy odds, and the sacri-
fice of fortune for religious constancy. This framework, created by Huguenots
themselves at the Revocation, has continued to encrust the Huguenot story.
Because it emphasized how exceptional the Huguenot experience was vis-​à-​v is
the evolution of state and society that is seen as the heart of the national story, it
contributed to narrowing the place their story could claim in French memory.2
Enlarging that claim is the broad objective of a recent quickening in revisionist
histories that eschew the misleading tidiness of the standard Huguenot nar-
rative, excavating stories “messier and more ambiguous … messier and more
truthful … learning to remember with complexity.”3
“Learning to remember with complexity” has transformed a number of his-
torical fields from which this recollection of the Champagné experience takes
inspiration. Family history and women’s history have established strong re-
ciprocal connections, over time, between private experience—​the texture of
family life, the strategies families adopt to promote their own prosperity and
survival, the beliefs and attitudes generated in family contexts—​and public
processes. Autobiographical studies have pushed beyond literal reading of
eyewitness testimonies, probing firsthand accounts for the selective inclusions
and exclusions that reshape lives into the plausible rather than the true. “In
every story is a story not told.”4 Migration studies, too, have generated new
layers of meaning by reconceptualizing population movements. Rather than
emphasizing, or limiting discussion to, migrants’ adaptation to the receiving
culture—​“pick[ing] up the story only after the arrivals step off the vessel”—​
they seek to trace continuity and rupture across the full succession of stages
from origin and exit to transit and resettlement. Rather than portraying
given migrations as economic or political or religious, they aspire to embed
individual agency within the full range of pertinent contexts. And they have
3

Introduction 3

developed comparative approaches, for example pairing migrants with non-

migrants in order to illuminate both incentives to leave and options to stay. 5
This history of the Champagné rests upon such strategic shifts. Here, the
story of a single family as it faced the harshest domestic decision of Louis XIV’s
reign illuminates how the success of public policy, even under French absolut-
ism, turned on private decision-​making among those who were expected to
comply. A bifocal reading of the firsthand accounts among its sources—​one
eye on the storyline and one on the way the story is fashioned—​teases out the
“story not told.” Juxtaposing the stories told with information recoverable in
other sources reveals, in several instances, the writer’s unspoken, and perhaps
unspeakable, intentions. Two further dimensions extend comparatively—​
across time (from well before departure to well after resettlement) and vis-​à-​
vis other persons of their social set in Saintonge (who variously left, stayed as
New Converts, or stayed as defiant Protestants).
In so doing, Facing the Revocation questions four widely assumed features of
the Huguenot story. The first is the assumption that because those who left in
the era of the Revocation were specifically Protestant, their motivations were
patently religious. The complexity of considerations—​familial, intellectual,
legal, and financial as well as religious—​that bore upon the Champagné as they
decided whether to leave suggests, rather, that a cocktail of considerations—​
likely mixing differently with the desire “to worship God openly” in each
individual case—​tipped equally committed Protestants to, variously, leav-
ing or staying. Likewise, the assumption that the state countered escapes
with determination and punished those caught escaping to the letter of the
law—​“Men who were caught were sent to the galleys, women to prison”6 —​
should seem implausible, given the sheer numbers who reached safety in the
lands the Huguenots christened “The Refuge”—​primarily England, Holland,
Prussia, and Switzerland—​and the inconsistent actions, even intimations of
contrary intentions, from state officials, right up to and including the king.
A third assumption—​that the spectacular conversions of high nobles such as
Turenne, La Trémoïlle, Rohan, and Soubise betokened a broad abandonment
of the Reformed cause by French nobles well before the Revocation, often out
of shallow religious commitment and for material advantage—​is belied by
the numbers of middling provincial nobles who remained Protestant down
to the Revocation and then struggled to make their inherited religion viable
under transformed circumstances. Alignment with the king’s religion often
did make material advancement possible, but conversion also allowed some
kin and friends of the Champagné to enjoy once again the sort of familial soli-
darity they had prized before religious division deprived them of it, and some
found in their new religion deep satisfactions that shaped the rest of their lives.
Finally, characterizations of the culture of the Refuge as a modernizing force
4

4 Facing the R evocation

discontinuous with refugees’ prior experiences must be strongly nuanced by

the importance of relationships and values brought from France to the social
patterns re-​established abroad by the refugees. The Champagné were among
the new refugees who traveled along old migration paths and, resettling in
them, created communities that were more traditional in ideology and action
than the characterization of Huguenot refugees as forerunners of modernity
has implied.
The history of the Champagné, then, makes the Huguenot story less certain
than before: more puzzling, more interesting, more inviting of close and sys-
tematic study, indeed more essential to an overall understanding of the grand
lines of political and social developments in the France of Louis XIV.
This study has four Parts. Part One: The Champagné in Saintonge—​the
longest of the four—​opens up the question of why Huguenots left at the
Revocation by tracing the transformation of the Champagné’s social and mate-
rial circumstances as they made their decision to take the family out of France.
When in 1677 Marie de La Rochefoucauld inherited Berneré from her grand-
mother, Susanne Isle, her family’s future in the home of her ancestors seemed
secure. Yet as persecution intensified and adherence to their religion came to
be punished as disobedience to the king, pressures originating closer to home
destroyed the social net that family solidarities had traditionally provided. For
Susanne Isle’s generation and for the six La Rochefoucauld granddaughters she
raised, Protestantism was more than a set of beliefs; it was a shared religion
that served to hold together both extended family and community. For some
reasons directly linked to the Revocation and others only remotely connected
to it, the solidarities of religion, family, and community enjoyed by the Isle and
La Rochefoucauld dissolved in tandem. Their marriage alliances, inheritance
strategies, financial practices, and interpersonal relations reveal that disputes
among kin, a bitter contest over inheritance, and uncollectible debts upended
the Champagné’s lives and set them on ships to the Huguenot Refuge while
fellow Protestants with different familial and community experiences chose
to face the Revocation inside France.
Part Two: Escaping from France examines how Marie and Josias managed
to escape and whether the successful escapes of some 150,000–​200,000 fellow
Protestants ought to force rethinking about the nature of the state they forsook
and the intentions of the crown that failed to stop them. Details of how the
Champagné planned their departures and crafted a continuity of both mate-
rial means and memory confirm that escapees found ways to leave home with-
out “leaving everything behind … departing with light baggage.” 7 As for the
authorities, their surveillance was intermittent enough and their practices am-
bivalent enough to allow considerable latitude to would-​be escapees, despite
the rigorous letter of the Revocation law.
5

Introduction 5

Part Three: Those Who Stayed pursues the post-​Revocation experience of

members of the Champagné’s kin and social set who stayed in France. Their
stories mirror the experiences of those who left, allowing readers to imagine
the lives the Champagné might have lived had they reached a different deci-
sion about departing. Some who stayed converted and settled comfortably
into a transformed relationship between crown and nobility; others struggled
to do, within changed circumstances, what consciences formed before the
Revocation told them was right, in the end converting or, in at least one remark-
able case, parrying for decades the crown’s every effort to secure an abjuration.
Family solidarity functioned in various cases to encourage or allay change, as
a benefit recaptured when Protestant and Catholic lineages reconnected in a
shared religion or as a protective shield enabling tepid adherence and continu-
ing resistance. These histories demonstrate the important role played in con-
versions by the crown’s practice of removing children from their Huguenot
or New Convert parents for reeducation as Catholics. As an enforcer of this
practice, Madame de Maintenon, one of the most famous and controversial
daughters of the Charentes and morganatic second wife of Louis XIV, wove
her way through the lives of Champagné kin. Bringing to the fore her actions
toward Protestant children offers an alternate window on the perennial ques-
tion of her influence on religious reunification in the era of the Revocation.
Part Four: Resettling Abroad illuminates the experience of exile and the
way Marie de La Rochefoucauld refounded the family in changed circum-
stances. By the time of her death in Portarlington, Ireland, in 1730, Marie had
lived in four countries and seen her children dispersed definitively in three.
Wherever they went, Marie and her children carried with them, consciously
or not, their native Saintonge and the ways of their class. Their craving for cul-
tural persistence showed in the autobiographical memoirs they wrote as well
as in the way they resettled, the occupations they adopted, and the social ties
they wove and exploited in their new locations. Yet within this traditional ex-
patriate society, Marie de La Rochefoucauld, once widowed, came into her
own, taking independent charge of the patrimony and laying the foundation
upon which this obscure French provincial noble family—​“ leaving everything
behind” in order to stay Protestant—​attained rank and renown in new home-
lands that far surpassed anything they could have dreamed of in the France
from which they escaped in 1687.
6
7

PA R T O N E

THE CHAMPAGNÉ
IN SAINTONGE
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Argall, Samuel, 337.
Argentine Confederation, The, 531.
Arkansas, 184.
Arkwright, Richard, 81, 155, 288.
Arlington Heights, 212.
Arnold, Commander of West Point, 123.
Atahualpa, Inca of Peru, 455, 460.
Atlanta, Capture of, 247.
Augustine First, Emperor of Mexico, 516.
Ayacucho, Battle of, 506.

Baptists, Persecution of, 40.

Barbadoes, 506.
Beauregard, General, 212.
Bladensburg, 148.
Blanco, Guzman, 515, 516.
Bland Silver Bill, The, 303.
Blockade of Southern Ports, 212, 231.
Board of Trade, Government of the Colonies by the, 360.
Bolivar, Don Simon, 501, 505, 514.
Booth, Murderer of Pres. Lincoln, 257.
Boston, 29, 38, 45;
Boston Common, 86, 88, 90, 91, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 146,
167, 209.
“Boston Massacre,” The, 89.
Braddock, General, 75, 339, 340.
Brandywine River, 115.
Brébœuf, Jean de, 326, 328, 332.
Brewster, 29, 36.
Brock, General, 369.
Broke, Captain, 146.
Brooklyn, Engagement at, 108.
Brown, The Honourable George, 395, 396.
Brunswick, Duke of, 107.
Buccaneer, Origin of the word, 489.
Buchanan, President, 200.
Buenos Ayres, 528, 529.
Buena-Vista, Battle of, 174.
Bunker Hill, fortified by the Americans, 97;
taken by the English, 99, 100.
Burgoyne, General, 97, 117.
Burke, Edmund, 72, 86, 91.
Burnside, General, 229.

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 14, 311, 440.

Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 545.
Calhoun, John C., 161.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 98, 99, 100.
Canada, 73;
Invasion of, 78;
ceded to England, 80;
appealed to by the States, 93;
invaded by the Americans, 145;
 the Founder of, 318;
Original Extent, 321;
Climate and Animals, 322;
Early Inhabitants, 323;
a British Possession, 346;
Revenue and Exports, 349;
Progress of, 355;
Government, 359, 374;
Population, 359 n.;
the Quebec Act, 360;
Invasion of by Americans, 362;
Increase of Population, 366, 373;
Pitt’s Bill, 367;
another American Invasion, 368;
Education in Lower, 374;
in Upper, 375;
Union of the Two Provinces, 387;
Effects of Free Trade, 389;
Grand Trunk Railway, 393;
Financial Position, 393;
The Dominion, 397;
its Political Constitution, 398;
Area and Population, 426;
Commerce, 427;
the Lumber Trade, 428;
Agriculture, 429;
Fisheries, 430;
Mercantile Navy, 430;
Taxation, 430;
the Educational System, 433.
Cape Breton, taken by the English, 341, 401.
Cape Cod Bay, 31.
Carabobo, Bolivar’s Victory at, 502.
Carleton, Governor of Canada, 362.
Carolina, North, 54, 81, 96, 121.
Carolina, South, 54, 61, 81, 121, 159, 196.
Cartier, Jacques, 314, 315.
“Carting, The Inconvenient Habit of,” 84.
Carver, John, 32.
Cassamarca, a City of Peru, 460.
Census, The American, of 1860, 190;
of 1870, 275;
of 1880, 303.
Census of Canada, 1831, 378.
Champlain, Samuel de, 317-321.
Chancellorsville, Fighting at, 235.
Charles I. of England, 33.
Charles II. of England, 65.
Charles V. of Spain, 59.
Charleston, 196.
Chesapeake Bay, 127.
Chesapeake, The Frigate, 146.
Chili, 523, 524.
Cholula, Massacre at, 444.
Christian Commission, The, 268.
Civil Service Reform, 304.
Clay, Henry, 177, 184.
“Clergy Reserves,” The, 376, 391.
Clinton, General, 97, 123, 127.
Coalition Government, The Canadian, of 1864, 396.
Cochrane, Lord, 523 n.
Colombia, The Republic of, 514.
Colonial Department of English Government, 360.
Colonies, The Four United, of New England, 37.
Colonization, American, the Result of Oppression in Europe, 21.
Columbia, British, 423, 424.
Columbus, Christopher, 12, 439, 475, 479, 486, 553.
Commerce, American, Restrictions on, 85.
Compass, The Mariner’s, 12.
Concord, The Village of, 94, 95.
Confederacy, The States of the, 197.
Congress, 87, 92, 101, 105, 110, 111, 118, 122, 129, 130, 132,
138.
Connecticut, 37, 54, 96, 168.
Convention of Delegates from the Thirteen Original States, 134.
Cook, James, the Navigator, 78.
Cornwallis, Lord, 115, 127, 128.
Cortes, Hernando, 442-446, 448, 449.
Cromwell, Oliver, 33, 38, 65.
Crown Point, The Capture of, 362.
Cuba, 507-510.
Cusco, the Capital of Peru, 460, 462, 463.

Darien, The Spanish Settlement of, 440.

Davis, Jefferson, 197, 201, 202, 252, 253, 262.
Debt, The War, of the General Government and of the States,
139;
at the Close of the Federal War, 276.
Debtors and the English Law, 55.
Declaration of Independence, 72, 152.
Delaware, Lord, 26.
Delaware River, 52, 53.
Delaware State, 54, 105.
De Leon, Ponce, Expedition of, 15.
Delfthaven, 30.
De Luque, 451, 453.
De Soto, Ferdinand, Expedition of, 15-17.
Dickenson, John, 93.
Dorchester, The Heights of, 102.
Dufferin, Lord, Viceroy of Canada, 434.
Du Quesne, Fort (Pittsburg), taken, 341.

Early, General, 247.

East India Company sends Tea to America, 89;
The Tea thrown into the Sea, 91.
Ebenezer, The Town, 56.
Ecuador, 514.
Education, Progress of, in New England, 36, 82;
in Southern States, 82;
in the Union, 293-298;
in Canada, 351, 374, 375, 433.
Elgin, Lord, Governor-General of Canada, 388, 390.
Eliot, John, Apostle of the Indians, 47.
Elizabeth, Queen of England, 60.
English, Early Settlements of the, 333;
Wars with French Settlers, 338, 340;
Conquests of, 342.
Erie, Lake, Naval Fight on, 370.
Exports, American, Restrictions on, 85.
Exports of America, The, 291, 292.

Falmouth, 44.
Family Compact (Canadian), 376, 381.
Farming, American, 284.
Farragut, Admiral, 222.
Federal Army, Disbanding of the, 263.
Feudalism in Canada, 350;
Abolished, 391.
Fisheries of Canada, 430.
Florida, its Discovery, 15;
ceded to England, 80.
Fort Detroit, 145.
Fort Du Quesne, 75.
Fort Necessity, 74.
Fort Pitt, 76.
Fort Sumpter, Bombardment of, 206.
Fox, George, 42.
France, American Possessions of, 15, 73;
her Sympathy with America, 112;
 her Treaty with America against England, 120;
her Aid to America, 127;
Surrender of her Possessions, 346.
Francia, Dr., Dictator of Paraguay, 526.
Franklin, Benjamin, 71, 72, 76, 84, 86, 115, 120, 134, 159.
Frederick of Prussia, 107.
Fredericksburg, Disaster at, 229.
Freedmen’s Bureau, 249.
Fremont, General, 225.
French, The, in Canada, 315, 316, 320, 321, 341, 342.
Frobisher, Martin, 312.

Gage, General, 91, 94, 97, 98, 101.

Garfield, President James, 303-308.
Garibaldi, Defender of Monte Video, 529.
Garrison, William Lloyd, 167.
Gates, General, 118.
General Government, Powers of the, 136.
George II., 55.
George III., 87, 94, 129.
Georgia, 54, 61, 81, 92, 96, 121, 159.
Germantown, 115.
Gettysburg, Battle of, 237, 238.
Ghent, Treaty of, 150.
Gibraltar, besieged by Spain, 121.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 313.
Goree, 121.
Gourlay, Robert, 377.
Granada, 121.
Grant, General, 174, 222, 232, 243, 252, 254;
President, 273, 304.
Greene, General, 127.
Grenville, Lord, 85, 86.
Guatemala, 450.
Gulf Stream, 14.

Haerlem, 109.
Halifax, Foundation of, 402.
Hamilton, Alexander, 132, 133, 139, 159.
Hampden, John, 33.
Harper’s Ferry, 187, 188, 228.
Harvard College, 36.
Hawkins, Sir John, 60.
Hayes, President R. B., 303.
Henry, Patrick, 92, 159.
Henry VII. of England, 311.
Hochelaga, 314.
Homestead Act, The, 230.
Hooker, General, 234, 236.
House of Representatives, Composition of the, 136.
Houston, General, 171.
Howard, General, 249.
Howe, General, 97, 101, 103, 107, 121.
Howe, Lord, 107, 108, 110.
Hudson Bay Company, 411-416.
Hull, General, 145, 369.
Huron Mission, The, 328-331.

Imports of America, their Value before the Revolution, 82;

Restrictions on, 82, 86, 89, 290.
Impressment, Results of, 142.
Independence, Declaration of, 105, 106.
Indians, The Huron, 318, 328, 332;
the Iroquois, 318, 331, 338;
Canadian, present Condition of, 431-433;
Central American, 467;
Mexican, 467-469;
Peruvian, 469-472.

Jackson, General, 151, 167.

Jackson, General Thomas,—“Stonewall Jackson,”—217, 234,
235.
Jamaica, 506.
James II., 65.
Jamestown founded, 23.
Jefferson, Thomas, 159.
Johnson, President, 264;
Impeachment of, 272.
Johnston, General, 233.
Juarez, Benito, 518-520.
Kentucky, 160.

Labrador, Discovery of by the Cabots, 14.

Lafayette, Marquis de, 112, 113, 153.
La Galissonnière, Compte de, 335.
La Salle, Sieur de, 334.
Las Casas, Bartholomew de, “Protector of the Indians,” 476-478.
Laud, Archbishop, 33.
Lawrence, Captain, 146.
Lawrence, The Town, 180.
Lee, General Robert E., 174, 217, 228, 234, 238, 244, 254.
Lee, Richard Henry, 92.
Lexington, Skirmish at, 94.
Lightning, Franklin’s Discovery, 72.
Lima, founded by Pizarro, 462.
Lincoln, President Abraham, 174, 193-195, 200, 201, 204, 225,
241, 250, 256.
Lok, John, 60.
Long Island, 49.
Lopez, Carlos, Dictator of Paraguay, 527.
Louisburg, taken by the English, 341, 401.
Louisiana, 73, 157.
Lovejoy, Mr., 168.
Lumber Trade, 428.
Lundy’s Lane, Battle of, 371.
Luther, Martin, 14.
Mackenzie, William Lyon, 381, 384.
Manassas, Battle at, 213, 228.
Manhattan Island, 48.
Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, 67.
Maryland, 54, 184.
Massachusetts, 37, 39, 45, 47, 54, 88, 91, 130.
Mayflower, The, 31, 32, 58.
Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 520-522.
M’Clellan, General George B., 216, 219, 225, 228, 229, 250.
M’Dowell, General, 213.
Meade, General, 236.
“Mean Whites” of the Southern States, 180.
Mexico, 175, 176, 445, 449, 473, 516, 519, 520-522.
Milton, John, 33, 38.
Miranda, Francis, 500, 501.
Mississippi, Discovery of the, 16.
Monetary Panic of 1873, 275.
Monitor, The Turret-Ship, 221.
Monopolies in Canada, 351.
Montcalm, Marquis de, 79, 340, 342, 343.
Monte Video, 529.
Montezuma, King of Mexico, 443, 446.
Montgomery, The City of, 216.
Montreal, Capture of, by the Americans, 362;
Evacuation of, 363;
Attempt by the Americans to seize, 369, 370;
 Progress of, 379;
Political Disturbances at, 383;
ceases to be the Seat of Government, 388.
Mount Vernon, 131.

Navy, The Mercantile, of Canada, 430.

Neck, Boston, 97;
Charlestown, 97, 99.
New Brunswick, Progress and Resources of, 404;
Settlement of the Boundary, 405.
New England States, Early Government of, 65;
Commerce of, 81;
Educational System of, 82;
Riots in, 86;
Muster of Men at Boston, 96;
wrested from England, 103;
invaded by a British Army, 117.
Newfoundland, 311, 321;
taken Possession of by England, 406, 407;
Area and Population of, 407;
the Natives of, 408;
Resources of, 408.
New Granada, 514.
New Hampshire, 54.
New Haven, 37.
New Jersey, its Acquisition, 50, 54.
New Orleans, 150, 222.
New Plymouth founded, 31.
New World, The, 312, 313, 333.
New York, 48, 50, 53, 54, 66, 81, 87, 89, 107, 109, 121, 150.
North, Lord, 91.
Nova Scotia (Acadie), a Possession of France, 321, 400;
a Possession of England, 338, 401;
Progress and Resources of, 402, 403.

Oglethorpe, James, 54
Ohio, Valley of the, 73.
Ontario, Lake, 365.
Ordinance of the Convention of South Carolina, dissolving the
Union, 196.
Ottawa, 389.

Pacific Ocean, Discovery of, 441.

Paez, General, 515.
Paine, Thomas, 105.
Pakenham, Sir Edward, 150.
Papineau, Louis Joseph, 383.
Paraguay, 526-528.
Paris, Mr., 44.
Paul Jones, 121.
Paul le Jeune, Father, 326.
Pea Ridge, Battle of, 222.
Peninsula, The, 219.
Pennsylvania, 54, 66, 81, 105, 130.
Penn, William, 51, 52, 66.
Penobscot Bay, 337.
Perrot, Nicholas, 334.
Peru, 455, 524-526.
Petersburg, Siege of, 245.
Philadelphia, 52, 53, 71, 89, 92, 110, 115, 121, 133, 168.
Pilgrim Fathers, their leaving England, 29;
Settlement in Holland, 29;
Removal to New England, 31;
their Hardships after landing, 32;
their Political Constitution, 32;
their Reinforcements from England, 34;
their Peculiarities, 35;
their Virtues, 35.
Pitcairn, Major, 94.
Pittsburg, 76.
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 78, 82, 87, 88, 91, 92.
Pizarro, Fernando, 462, 464.
Pizarro, Juan, 463.
Pizarro, Gonzalo, 464, 465.
Pizarro, Francisco, the Discoverer of Peru, 441, 451, 464.
Plymouth, 37.
Pocahontas, 24.
Polk, President, 173.
Pope, General, 228.
Port Hudson, Reduction of, 232.
Port Royal, Capture of, 222.
Potomac, 71.
Prescott, Colonel, 98.
President, Election and Powers of, 137.
Princeton, 111.
Protective Tariff, 289.
Providence, The City of, 39.
Puerto Rico, 507.
Putnam, Israel, 96, 98, 99, 108.

Quakers, Persecution of, 40, 41;

Beliefs and Character, 42;
Loyalty of, 105.
Quebec, 78-80;
First Occupants of, 315;
the French Capital, 318;
taken by England, 320;
regained by France, 321;
held by Montcalm, 342;
besieged by Wolfe, 343;
surrendered to the English, 346;
Population of, 349;
Siege of, by the Americans, 363;
Progress of, 379;
Meeting of Delegates at, 396.

Railway, The Atlantic and Pacific, 285.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 22.
Rapidan, Crossing of the, 244.
Rappahannock, The Heights of the, 229.
Reciprocity Treaty, The, 390.
Red River, The Settlement at, 414, 416, 418-420.
Rhode Island, State of, founded, 39, 54.
Richmond, City of, 217, 219, 253.
Riel, Louis, 416, 417, 421.
Rio de Janeiro, 546.
Rivadavia, President-General, 528.
Robinson, 29, 30.
Rosas, General, 529, and note.
Ross, General, 148.
Routledge, John, 92.
Russell, Lord John, and Canada, 385, 386.

Sacramento, The, 176.

Salem, 39, 44.
Sanitary Commission, 267.
San Miguel, 453.
Santa Anna, President of Mexico, 517.
Saratoga, The Surrender at, 117.
Savannah, The River, 55;
the Town of, 56, 57;
Capture of, 247.
Scott, General, 174.
Scrooby, The Town of, 28.
Selkirk, Lord, his Colony, 414.
Senate, Composition of the, 136.
Senegal, 121.
Seward, William H., 205, 257.
Shakamaxon, 53.
Shannon, The War-Ship, 146.
Shenandoah, Valley of the, 247.
Sheridan, General, 247, 252.
Sherman, General, 246, 252.
Sierra Leone, 60.
Slaves, English, sold in Virginia, 26.
Slave Law, The Fugitive, 178.
Slavery, forbidden in Georgia, but afterwards allowed, 57;
the first great Contest regarding, 165;
the second, 171;
the third, 180;
War in Defence of, 198;
Abolition of, 225, 226, 248, 249.
Slaves, Negro, First landing of, in America, 58;
Importation of, begun by Spain, 59;
carried on by Portugal, 60;
by England, 60;
Provision of the American Constitution regarding, 61;
English Legislation, regarding the Trade in, 62;
Declaration of English Bishops and Crown Lawyers
regarding the holding of, 63;
the sufferings of, 62;
Enactment of Congress regarding the Importation of, 61;
the Rights of, 265;
the Education of, 294.
Smith, John, 23.
Southern States recognized as a belligerent Power by England,
279.
Spain, Dominions of, in the West, 465, 488, 489, 495, 496, 499.
Spain, her Treaty with America against England, 120.
Springfield, Burial-place of President Lincoln, 258.
Stamp Act, The, 72, 86, 87.
Staten Island, 108.
States, The Secession, 197, 208.
St. Domingo, 60, 507.
Stephens, Alexander H, 202.
St. John, Island of, 341.
St. Lawrence, Discovery of the, 314.
Stuart, George H., 268.
Stuyvesant, Petrus, 49.
St. Vincent, Island of, 121.
Subjects, English and American, The Law relating to, 142.
Sumner, Charles, 191.

Taxation, American, 284, and note.

Taxation in Canada, 430.
Taxes imposed on the Americans by the English Parliament, 85,
88.
Taylor, General, 174.
Tiascalans, Overthrow of the, 444.
Ticonderoga, Capture of, 362.
Tobacco, 26, 190.
Townshend, Charles, 88.
Trent, British Mail-Steamer, boarded by the Americans, 279.
Trenton, 110.
Tripoli, Expedition against, 140.

Union Bill, The Canadian, 387.

United States, The, 54, 81, 133, 137, 152, 182, 273.

Valley Forge, 116.

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, 440.
Venezuela, the Confederation of, 500;
the State of, 514, 515.
Verazzani, John, 313.
Vicksburg, Reduction of, 232, 233.
Virginia, 54, 65, 74, 81, 96, 127, 160, 184, 212, 251, 337.
Virginia, Iron-clad Frigate, 220.

Wall Street, 49.

Walpole, Sir Robert, 54, 85.
Washington, Capital of the Union, capture of, by the British,
149;
threatened by the Confederates, 211, 228.
Washington, George, 68-70, 74, 75, 92, 93, 100, 101, 102, 106,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 116, 121, 122, 125, 128, 130,
131, 134, 138, 140, 159.
Watt, James, 155.
Wesley, Charles, 56.
Wesley, John, 56.
West Point, 123.
Whitefield, George, 57.
Whitney, Eli, Inventor of Cotton-Gin, 155.
Wilderness, Federal Disaster in the, 234.
William, Prince of Orange, 30.
Williams, Roger, 38;
his Views on Religious Toleration, 39;
President of Rhode Island, 40.
Winnipeg Valley, 421, 422.
Wolfe, General, 78, 343-346.
Wolseley, Sir Garnet, Expedition to the Red River, 418.

York, Duke of, 66.

Yorktown, 127, 219.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICA: A
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