1.(a) What is Wavelength?

Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points of the same phase
in a wave, such as crest to crest or trough to trough. It is typically denoted by
the Greek letter λ (lambda).
(b) What do you mean by Bandwidth?
Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate of data transfer across a given path. It
represents the capacity of a communication link to transmit data and is
typically measured in bits per second (bps).
(c) What is a Parity Checker?
A parity checker is a logic circuit that checks for possible errors in data
transmission by verifying whether the number of bits with the value one is
even or odd, depending on the parity scheme used.
(d) What do you mean by Throughput?
Throughput refers to the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted
over a communication channel. It is a measure of how much data is transferred
from one place to another in a given amount of time.
(e) What is Bit Rate?
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted or processed per unit of time,
typically measured in bits per second (bps). It indicates the speed at which data
is transmitted.
(f) Define Baud Rate.
Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second in a
communication channel. Each signal unit may represent one or more bits,
depending on the modulation technique used.
(g) What is a Periodic Signal?
A periodic signal is one that repeats its pattern at regular intervals over time.
Such signals have a consistent frequency and are predictable.
(h) What is a Non-Periodic Signal?
A non-periodic signal, also known as an aperiodic signal, does not repeat its
pattern over time. These signals are unpredictable and do not have a consistent
frequency.
(i) Define Nyquist Principle.
The Nyquist Principle, or Nyquist Sampling Theorem, states that to accurately
reconstruct a signal, it must be sampled at a rate at least twice its highest
frequency component. This prevents aliasing and ensures accurate signal
representation.
(j) Define Shannon's Theorem.
Shannon's Theorem, also known as the Shannon Capacity Theorem, defines the
maximum data rate (channel capacity) that can be achieved over a
communication channel with a certain bandwidth and noise level. C = B ×
log₂(1 + S/N) ,Where:
• C is the channel capacity in bits per second
• B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz,
• S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio.
(a) Define computer network:
A computer network is a group of interconnected computing devices that can
share data and resources, such as files, printers, and internet access. The
connection can be wired or wireless, enabling communication between users
and systems.
(b) What is Switch?
A switch is a networking device used in LANs to connect multiple devices, such
as computers and printers. It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) and uses
MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination, reducing network
congestion and improving efficiency.
(c) What do you mean by protocol? Give some examples:
A protocol is a predefined set of rules that dictate how data is transmitted and
received over a network. It ensures proper communication between devices.
Examples:
• TCP/IP – for internet communication
• HTTP – for web browsing
• FTP – for file transfer
• SMTP – for email transmission
(d) Define DSL:
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a broadband internet connection technology
that uses existing telephone lines to transmit digital data at high speeds. It
allows simultaneous voice and data transmission over a single line without
interference.
(e) What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a standard communication protocol used in wired local area
networks (LANs). It defines how devices in a network format and transmit data
packets. Ethernet typically uses cables like twisted-pair or fiber optics and
offers speeds ranging from 10 Mbps to several Gbps.
(f) What is ATMLAN?
ATMLAN (Asynchronous Transfer Mode LAN) is a high-speed networking
technology that uses fixed-size 53-byte cells for data transmission. It supports
multiple types of traffic—voice, video, and data—simultaneously and is used in
environments that require reliable and fast communication.
(g) What is block coding?
Block coding is an error detection and correction technique where input data is
grouped into fixed-size blocks and encoded into larger blocks with added
redundancy. This helps in detecting and correcting errors during data
transmission. Examples include Hamming and Reed-Solomon codes.
(h) What is the IEEE standard for Bluetooth?
The IEEE standard for Bluetooth is IEEE 802.15.1. It defines wireless
communication specifications over short distances for personal area networks
(PANs), enabling devices like phones, headsets, and computers to connect
wirelessly.
2.(a) What do you mean by Frame Relay?
Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the data link
layer of the OSI model. It is used to connect local area networks (LANs) and
transfer data across wide area networks (WANs). It uses virtual circuits and is
designed for efficient data transmission with minimal error checking.
(b) What is Multiplexing? What are the types of multiplexing used in
computer networks?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals into one signal
over a shared medium. It improves the efficiency of the communication
channel.
Types of multiplexing:
1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
(c) Define CRC.
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is an error-detecting code used to detect
accidental changes in data during transmission. It works by appending a
sequence of redundant bits, derived from polynomial division of the data, to
the end of the data block.
(d) What is Data Modulation?
Data modulation is the process of modifying a carrier signal in order to encode
information for transmission. This allows digital data to be transmitted over
analog channels.
Types include:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
(e) Differentiate between node and link.
• Node: Any active, physical device within a network (e.g., computer,
router, switch).
• Link: The physical or logical connection between two nodes (e.g., cables,
wireless signal).
(f) What makes a network efficient and effective?
A network is efficient and effective when it has:
• High data transfer rate (speed)
• Low latency
• Reliability and fault tolerance
• Scalability
• Proper security measures
(g) What is the use of session layer of OSI Model?
The Session Layer (Layer 5) of the OSI model is responsible for:
• Establishing, managing, and terminating sessions between applications
• Synchronization
• Dialog control
(h) Discuss the use of router.
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks. It determines the best path for data and connects different
networks, such as a local network to the internet.
(i) What are the transmission modes in a network?
Transmission modes define the direction of signal flow between two connected
devices.
Types:
1. Simplex: One-way communication
2. Half-Duplex: Two-way communication, but one direction at a time
3. Full-Duplex: Two-way communication simultaneously
(j) What is the use of special addresses in computer network? What are they?
Special addresses are used for specific networking functions such as
broadcasting, multicasting, and identifying the device uniquely.
Examples:
• Loopback Address: [Link] (for testing)
• Broadcast Address: [Link] (to all devices in a network)
• Multicast Address: Used to send data to multiple selected devices
• Private IP Addresses: For internal use
(a) What is Dial-up Connection?
A Dial-up connection is an internet access method that uses a telephone line
and a modem to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). It transmits data
through analog signals and requires the phone line to be free during internet
use, offering very low speeds (up to 56 kbps).
(b) Define PPP:
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a data link layer communication protocol used
to establish a direct connection between two network nodes. It provides
authentication, encryption, and compression and is commonly used in dial-up
and leased line connections.
(c) Distinguish between Node and Link:
• Node: A node is any device (e.g., computer, router, printer) connected to
a network that can send or receive data.
• Link: A link is the physical or logical path that connects two nodes and
enables data transmission between them.
(d) Distinguish between Noiseless and Noisy Channel:
• Noiseless Channel: A communication channel with no interference or
data corruption during transmission.
• Noisy Channel: A channel where signals are affected by external
disturbances, leading to errors in data transmission.
(e) What is Redundancy?
Redundancy in data communication refers to the extra bits added to a message
for the purpose of error detection or correction. It helps the receiver identify
and sometimes fix errors introduced during transmission.
(f) Explain the need of authentication:
Authentication is necessary to verify the identity of users or devices before
granting access to a network or service. It helps prevent unauthorized access
and ensures secure communication between trusted parties.
(g) What is Guided Medium?
A Guided medium is a transmission medium that uses physical paths such as
cables or wires to guide data signals. Examples include twisted pair cables,
coaxial cables, and optical fiber.
(h) What is DNS?
DNS (Domain Name System) is a system that translates human-readable
domain names (like [Link]) into IP addresses that computers use to
identify each other on the network.
(i) Define CRC:
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is an error-detecting code used to identify
accidental changes to raw data in digital networks. It uses polynomial division
to detect errors in transmitted messages.
(j) What is MODEM?
A MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator) is a device that converts digital signals
from a computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines and
vice versa. It enables internet connectivity through dial-up or DSL.
(k) What is SMTP? Where is this protocol used?
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a communication protocol used for
sending emails across networks. It operates on the application layer and is
primarily used by mail servers to transfer outgoing emails from clients to
servers.
3.(a) What is Internetworking?
Internetworking is the process of connecting two or more different networks to
work as a single network. It allows data to travel across diverse and
heterogeneous systems, ensuring seamless communication. Devices like
routers, gateways, and switches are used for internetworking.
(b) Explain the need for authentication.
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, device, or
system before granting access to resources. It is crucial because:
• It ensures that only authorized users can access sensitive information.
• It prevents unauthorized access and potential security breaches.
• It helps maintain data integrity and confidentiality.
Responsibilities of the Data Link Layer:
The Data Link Layer (Layer 2 of the OSI model) has several responsibilities:
• Framing: Dividing the data into frames for transmission.
• Physical addressing: Adding MAC addresses to identify source and
destination.
• Error detection and correction.
• Flow control: Managing data transmission rate between sender and
receiver.
• Access control: Determining which device has control over the
communication channel.
(c) What is Transmission Impairment?
Transmission impairment refers to any alteration or degradation of the signal
during data transmission over a communication medium. Common types of
impairments include:
• Attenuation (signal loss over distance)
• Distortion (change in signal form or shape)
• Noise (unwanted signals or interference)
(e) Discuss the use of SMTP protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send emails across networks. It
works on the application layer of the OSI model and uses TCP (usually on port
25). SMTP handles:
• Sending emails from a client to a server
• Relaying messages between servers
• Not typically used for receiving emails (POP3 or IMAP is used for that)

(f) What is Congestion Control? Which layer of OSI uses this?

Congestion control refers to techniques used to prevent excessive data load on
the network, which can lead to packet loss and delays. It ensures smooth data
flow and maintains network performance.
• Used in: Transport Layer (Layer 4) of the OSI model.
(g) Discuss the use of Sliding Window.
The sliding window is a flow control method used in the transport layer (e.g.,
TCP). It allows a sender to send multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment for the first one, which improves the efficiency of data
transmission.
Benefits:
• Better bandwidth utilization
• Reduced waiting time
• Reliable, in-order delivery
(h) What is Unguided Media?
Unguided media refers to wireless transmission mediums that do not use
physical conductors. Signals are transmitted through the air using
electromagnetic waves.
Examples:
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
(a) What is Multiplexing? Why is it used?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals or data streams
into a single transmission medium or channel.
It is used to:
• Optimize the use of available bandwidth
• Reduce the cost of transmission infrastructure
• Increase the efficiency of data communication
Types include Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM), and Code Division Multiplexing (CDM).
(b) What is Bridge? Write its two functions.
A bridge is a networking device that connects two or more network segments
and filters traffic between them based on MAC addresses.
Functions:
1. Traffic filtering – Bridges inspect incoming frames and decide whether to
forward or discard them based on MAC addresses.
2. Collision domain segmentation – They divide a large network into
smaller segments to reduce network collisions.
(c) What is SONET? Name the layers associated with it.
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is a standardized digital communication
protocol used to transmit large volumes of data over optical fiber.
Layers of SONET:
1. Photonic Layer
2. Section Layer
3. Line Layer
4. Path Layer
These layers help in managing and maintaining optical signal
transmission efficiently.
(d) What is V-LAN?
V-LAN (Virtual Local Area Network) is a logical subgroup within a physical LAN
that groups devices based on function or department rather than physical
location.
It improves network management, enhances security, and reduces broadcast
traffic by isolating segments virtually.
(e) What is Gigabit Ethernet?
Gigabit Ethernet is a version of Ethernet technology that supports data transfer
rates of 1 gigabit per second (Gbps).
It uses standards such as 1000BASE-T (twisted-pair) or 1000BASE-LX (fiber
optic) and is commonly used in high-speed LANs for faster data transmission.
(f) How is data transmission done through Cable TV network?
Data is transmitted through a Cable TV network using cable modems.
• The downstream data (from ISP to user) travels over a high-frequency
band.
• The upstream data (from user to ISP) uses a lower frequency band.
• A cable modem at the user end converts digital data into radio frequency
signals that travel over coaxial cables shared with TV signals.
(g) Explain the advantages of Wireless LANs.
Advantages of Wireless LANs:
1. Mobility: Users can move freely within the coverage area.
2. Easy installation: No physical cables required, reducing setup time and
cost.
3. Scalability: Easy to expand or reconfigure the network as needed.
4. Cost-effective: Especially in environments where cabling is difficult or
expensive.
(h) What is UDP?
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless transport layer protocol
used for fast data transmission.
It does not guarantee delivery, order, or error correction, making it suitable for
real-time applications like video streaming, online gaming, and VoIP.
(i) Distinguish between TDMA and CDMA:

TDMA (Time Division Multiple CDMA (Code Division Multiple

Feature
Access) Access)

Access Unique code assigned to each

Time-based slots for each user
Method user

Bandwidth Full bandwidth shared

Shared time slots
Use simultaneously

Less interference, Complex decoding, can tolerate

Interference
synchronized noise

Example Use GSM networks 3G mobile networks

(j) What are the types of error correction methods?

Two main types of error correction methods:
1. Forward Error Correction (FEC):
o Redundant bits are added during transmission.
o Receiver detects and corrects errors without needing
retransmission.
o Example: Hamming Code, Reed-Solomon Code.
2. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ):
o Receiver detects errors and requests retransmission.
o Types: Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ.
4.(a) Explain ISO-OSI model of computer network with a suitable neat
diagram.
The ISO-OSI (International Standards Organization – Open Systems
Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the
functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct
layers. This layered approach allows interoperability between different
hardware and software systems and simplifies network design,
troubleshooting, and development.
1. Physical Layer
This is the lowest layer, responsible for the physical transmission of raw bits
over a communication medium. It defines hardware specifications,
transmission modes, and physical media like cables, connectors, and voltages.
2. Data Link Layer
Ensures error-free transfer of data frames between two nodes. It handles
framing, MAC addressing, flow control, and error detection/correction using
protocols like Ethernet and PPP.
3. Network Layer
This layer is responsible for routing, logical addressing (IP addresses), and path
determination. Protocols like IP, ICMP, and ARP operate here.
4. Transport Layer
Ensures reliable or unreliable transmission of data using protocols such as TCP
(reliable) and UDP (unreliable). It manages flow control, error correction, and
segmentation.
5. Session Layer
Manages sessions and dialogues between communicating devices. It
establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions, providing control mechanisms
like synchronization.
6. Presentation Layer
Translates data formats between applications, ensuring that data is in a
readable format. It handles encryption, compression, and translation (e.g.,
EBCDIC to ASCII).
7. Application Layer
Closest to the end user, it provides network services to applications like web
browsers and email. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS work at this layer.

7. Application Layer |
| 6. Presentation Layer
| 5. Session Layer |
| 4. Transport Layer |
| 3. Network Layer |
| 2. Data Link Layer |
| 1. Physical Layer
(b)What is Topology?
Topology in computer networks refers to the arrangement or layout of various
elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. It defines how devices
(computers, printers, switches) are interconnected and how data flows
between them. Topologies can be physical (actual layout of cables) or logical
(how data travels across the network).

Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology
In bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication line
(backbone cable).
• Data travels in both directions along the cable.
• Terminators are needed at both ends to prevent signal reflection.
All devices are connected to a single central cable, called the bus or backbone.
• Advantages:
o Easy to install and cost-effective.
o Requires less cable length.
• Disadvantages:
o If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down.
o Difficult to troubleshoot and limited scalability.
o

[Device]---[Device]---[Device]---[Device]
| |
Single communication line
2. Star Topology
Every device connects to a central hub or switch.
• All communication goes through the hub.
• Popular in homes and offices due to reliability.
All nodes are connected to a central hub or switch.
• Advantages:
o Easy to install and manage.
o Failure in one device doesn’t affect the rest.
• Disadvantages:
o Hub failure affects entire network.
o Requires more cable.
3. Ring Topology
Each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a closed loop.
• Data travels in one or both directions (uni/bidirectional).
• Uses token passing in some implementations.
Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular pathway.
• Advantages:
o Simple data flow, reduces collisions.
• Disadvantages:
o One failure can affect the entire loop unless dual ring is used.
[Device]---[Device]
| |
[Device]---[Device]
4. Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device.
• Provides multiple paths for data.
 • Used in high-reliability systems like military or banking.
Each node is connected to every other node in the network.
• Advantages:
o Very reliable and robust.
o Provides redundancy.
• Disadvantages:
o Expensive and complex to install.

5. Tree Topology (Hybrid of Star and Bus)

• Combines characteristics of star and bus topologies.

• Pros: Scalable, hierarchical.
Cons: Backbone failure can bring down the entire network.
(c) Differentiation between Port Address, Logical Address, and Physical
Address
In computer networking, different types of addresses are used at various layers
of the OSI model to ensure data is accurately sent and received. The physical
address, logical address, and port address each play a specific role in this
process.
1. Physical Address (MAC Address):
The physical address is a unique identifier assigned to a device’s network
interface card (NIC) by the manufacturer. It works at the Data Link Layer (Layer
2) of the OSI model and is used for communication within a local network. For
example, when a device sends data to another device within the same LAN, it
uses MAC addresses to locate the target device. A typical MAC address looks
like [Link].
• Purpose: Identifies devices within a local network.
• Nature: Hardware-based, permanent (though it can be spoofed).
• Scope: Only works within the same LAN.
2. Logical Address (IP Address):
The logical address is assigned to devices by network administrators or
dynamically via DHCP. It functions at the Network Layer (Layer 3) and is used
for communication across multiple networks (such as over the internet). An IP
address (e.g., [Link] for IPv4 or [Link] for IPv6) allows data to
find the correct device even if it is far across the globe.
• Purpose: Identifies the location of a device on a network.
• Nature: Software-based, changeable.
• Scope: Global, used for inter-network communication.
3. Port Address (Port Number):
Port addresses work at the Transport Layer (Layer 4) and identify specific
applications or services on a device. For example, web servers use port 80 for HTTP
and port 443 for HTTPS. If multiple services run on the same IP address, port
numbers ensure data reaches the correct application.
• Purpose: Differentiates applications on a device.
 • Nature: Software-based.
• Scope: Local to the device, allows multiple processes to use the network
simultaneously
(d) Types of Switching Techniques and Their Advantages
Switching is a fundamental process in networking that determines how data is
transferred from the source to the destination. There are three main types of
switching techniques used in networks: Circuit Switching, Packet Switching,
and Message Switching. Each has its own characteristics, use cases, and
advantages.
1. Circuit Switching
Definition:
Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path between sender
and receiver before data transmission begins. This path remains reserved for
the entire session.
Example: Traditional telephone networks.
Advantages:
• Reliable connection: A dedicated path ensures a continuous and
consistent flow of data.
• Low latency: Once the connection is established, data is transmitted
without delay.
• Fixed bandwidth: Guaranteed bandwidth ensures predictable
performance.
Limitations:
• Inefficient for bursty data.
• Resources remain reserved even when not in use.
2. Packet Switching
Definition:
In packet switching, data is broken into packets and each packet is sent
independently through the network. Packets may take different routes and are
reassembled at the destination.
Example: The Internet.
Advantages:
• Efficient use of bandwidth: Packets can be routed dynamically,
maximizing network utilization.
• Scalability: Easily handles many users and variable data traffic.
• Fault tolerance: If one path fails, packets can be rerouted through
others.
Limitations:
• May experience delays and packet loss.
• Requires more complex protocols for packet management.
3. Message Switching
Definition:
In message switching, the entire message is sent to a switching node, stored
there, and then forwarded to the next node (store-and-forward).
Example: Early email systems, telex networks.
Advantages:
• No need for dedicated path: Resources are used only when needed.
• Flexible routing: Messages can be rerouted in case of network issues.
Limitations:
• Higher latency due to store-and-forward delays.
• Requires large buffer storage at intermediate nodes.
(e)Discuss the difference between functional requirement and non-functional
requirement. Write the functional requirement to withdraw cash from ATM.
ANS: -
Functional Requirements
Functional Requirements define what the system is supposed to do. They are
concerned with the tasks and services the system must provide to its users and
other systems. These requirements specify how the system should react to
specific inputs and what outputs it should produce.
Characteristics:
• Based on user interactions.
• Describe system behavior.
• Can be directly implemented in code.
• Essential for core system functionality.
Examples:
• The system must allow users to log in.
• The ATM must validate a user’s PIN.
• The application must send an email when a user registers.
Non-Functional Requirements (Detailed)
Non-Functional Requirements describe how the system performs its
functions, rather than what functions it performs. These are the quality
attributes of the system.
Characteristics:
• Not tied to specific user actions.
• Concerned with performance, scalability, security, etc.
• Influence the user experience and system performance.
• Often applied to the system as a whole.
Examples:
 • The ATM must be available 24/7.
• Transactions must be completed within 3 seconds.
• The system should support 1000 concurrent users.
• All customer data must be encrypted.
Functional Requirement for Withdrawing Cash from ATM
Here’s a more detailed functional requirement for ATM cash withdrawal:
"The ATM system shall allow a registered user to withdraw a specific amount
of money from their account. The user must first insert their ATM card and
enter a valid PIN. Upon authentication, the system will display available
account types (e.g., savings, current). The user selects the account and enters
the withdrawal amount. The system shall check for sufficient funds and ATM
cash availability. If both conditions are met, the system shall dispense the
cash, deduct the amount from the user’s account, update the transaction log,
and print a receipt."
Breakdown of this requirement:
• Input: Card, PIN, account type, amount.
• Processing: Authentication, balance check, cash availability check.
• Output: Cash dispensing, receipt generation, balance update.
(f) Explain how digital signature is used for secured transmission of data.
Ans: -
What is a Digital Signature?
A digital signature is like an electronic seal that verifies a message or document
was sent by a known sender and has not been altered. It uses public key
cryptography (also known as asymmetric cryptography), which involves two
keys:
• A private key (kept secret by the sender).
• A public key (shared with everyone).
Why Do We Need Digital Signatures?
When you send data over a network (such as an email, file, or transaction), you
need to ensure:
1. The data is from a trusted sender.
2. The data has not been changed during transmission.
3. The sender cannot deny having sent the data later.
Digital signatures provide all three through authentication, integrity, and non-
repudiation.
Step-by-Step: How Digital Signatures Work
Step 1: Creating the Signature
1. The sender writes a message (e.g., "Send $100").
2. A hash function (like SHA-256) is applied to the message to generate a
fixed-size digest (summary).
3. The digest is encrypted using the sender’s private key. This encrypted
hash is the digital signature.
4. The original message and the digital signature are sent to the receiver.
Step 2: Verifying the Signature
1. The receiver receives the message and the digital signature.
 2. They use the sender’s public key to decrypt the signature, which reveals
the original hash.
3. The receiver also hashes the message themselves.
4. If both hashes match, the message is authentic and unchanged
Example:
Imagine Alice sends Bob a message:
Message: "Transfer $500 to account XYZ"
1. Alice creates a hash of the message and encrypts it with her private key
→ digital signature.
2. Alice sends both the message and digital signature to Bob.
3. Bob decrypts the signature using Alice’s public key, revealing the original
hash.
4. Bob hashes the message himself.
5. If the two hashes match, Bob knows:
o The message came from Alice (authentication).
o The message wasn’t changed (integrity).
Real-World Uses:
• Email Security (e.g., signing emails with PGP).
• Software Distribution (e.g., Microsoft digitally signs Windows updates).
• E-Government and Legal Docs (e.g., signing contracts or tax forms).
• Blockchain & Cryptocurrency (ensuring secure, verified transactions).
Conclusion:
A digital signature is a crucial technology in today's digital world. It ensures
that data is secure, trusted, and verifiable during transmission. By using
cryptographic principles, digital signatures protect against fraud, tampering,
and impersonation.
(g) Define Channelization. Discuss types of Channelization with their
advantages.
Ans: -Channelization is a technique used in communication systems to divide
the total available bandwidth of a communication channel into multiple
independent logical channels, allowing multiple users or data streams to share
the same physical medium simultaneously.
It is essential for enabling multiple access, where multiple users can transmit
data over a shared communication channel without interfering with each other.
Types of Channelization Techniques
There are three main types of channelization techniques:
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Concept:
The total bandwidth is divided into multiple frequency bands, and each user is
assigned a unique frequency band for communication.
Example: Traditional analog cellular systems, radio broadcasting.
Advantages:
• Simple and easy to implement.
• Low latency due to dedicated frequency.
• No interference between channels if properly spaced.
Limitations:
• Inefficient use of bandwidth if a user is idle.
• Limited flexibility in dynamic bandwidth allocation.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Concept:
The channel is divided into time slots, and each user is assigned a specific time
slot to transmit data in a round-robin fashion.
Example: GSM (2G mobile systems).
Advantages:
• More efficient than FDMA in digital communication.
• Easy to multiplex and synchronize.
• No overlap or collision when time slots are properly managed.
Limitations:
• Requires precise synchronization.
• Delay may occur if users must wait for their time slot.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Concept:
All users share the same frequency and time, but are assigned unique code
sequences to separate their signals. The receiver uses the same code to decode
the signal.
Example: 3G mobile networks.
Advantages:
• Very efficient and secure.
• Supports more users than FDMA or TDMA.
• Resistant to interference and eavesdropping.
Limitations:
• Complex to implement.
• Requires advanced signal processing.
(h) Write notes on following description (Answer any TWO): (i) Virtual Circuit
Network. (ii) Noiseless Channels. (iii) Differentiate between UDP & TCP.
Ans: -
(i) Virtual Circuit Network
A Virtual Circuit Network is a type of packet-switching network where a
logical path (virtual circuit) is established between sender and receiver before
data transfer begins. Though no dedicated physical path exists, all packets
follow the same route in sequence, mimicking circuit-switching behavior.
Key Features:
• Connection-oriented.
• Packets arrive in order.
• Virtual circuit is maintained during the session.
• Uses packet-switching methods internally.
Examples:
Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching).
Advantages:
• Guaranteed order of packets.
• Efficient use of network resources.
• Suitable for real-time applications like voice or video.
Disadvantages:
• Setup time required before communication.
• If a path fails, the entire connection may be lost.
(ii) Noiseless Channels
A Noiseless Channel is an ideal communication channel in which no data is lost
or altered during transmission. It assumes perfect transmission with no
interference, distortion, or signal degradation.
Characteristics of a Noiseless Channel:
• No errors occur during data transfer.
• Data at the receiver is exactly the same as sent by the sender.
• No need for error detection or correction mechanisms.
• Assumes infinite signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Two Main Models of Noiseless Channels:
1. Simplex Protocol for Noiseless Channel:
o One-way communication.
o Sender transmits continuously without waiting for
acknowledgment.
2. Stop-and-Wait Protocol (Noiseless):
o Sender sends one frame and waits for acknowledgment before
sending the next.
o Used to manage flow control even in noiseless conditions.
Advantages:
• Simplifies communication design.
• Reduces overhead as there’s no need for error-checking mechanisms.
• Fast and efficient in theory.
(iii) Difference Between UDP and TCP

TCP (Transmission Control UDP (User Datagram

Feature
Protocol) Protocol)

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

Reliable – ensures data delivery Unreliable – no guarantee of

Reliability
and order delivery

Data No sequencing – data may

Maintains order of data
Sequencing arrive out of order

Faster due to minimal

Speed Slower due to overhead
overhead

Yes, with acknowledgment and

Error Checking Basic error checking only
retransmission

Web browsing, email, file

Use Cases Live streaming, gaming, VoIP
transfer

Connection Requires handshake (3-way No handshake – sends data

Setup handshake) immediately
(i) Describe the function of Physical and Data link layer of OSI Model?
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a reference model
developed by the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) that
standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or networking system into
seven layers. The bottom two layers, the Physical Layer and the Data Link
Layer, form the foundation of communication in computer networks. They are
essential for enabling data transmission from one device to another over any
medium.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for
transmitting raw bit streams (0s and 1s) over a physical medium such as a
cable or wireless link.
Main Functions of the Physical Layer:
• Bit Representation:
It defines how bits are represented in the form of electrical, optical, or
radio signals. For example, a voltage level might represent a binary 1 and
another voltage level a binary 0.
• Transmission Medium:
It specifies the type of medium used for transmission such as twisted
pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals.
• Data Transmission Rate:
It determines the speed of data transfer, measured in bits per second
(bps). It ensures both sender and receiver agree on this rate.
• Synchronization:
Synchronizes the transmission of bits so that the receiver knows when a
bit starts and ends.
• Physical Topology:
It defines how devices are physically connected in the network (e.g., star,
bus, ring, or mesh topologies).
 • Transmission Mode:
It supports simplex (one-way), half-duplex (two-way, one at a time), and
full-duplex (two-way simultaneously) communication modes.

Example:
In an Ethernet LAN, the Physical Layer handles the actual electrical signaling
over the cable between computers and switches.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
The Data Link Layer is responsible for establishing a reliable link between two
directly connected nodes. It ensures error-free and orderly delivery of data
from the Physical Layer.
Main Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing:
Converts the raw bit stream received from the network layer into
manageable units called frames, and vice versa.
• Addressing (MAC Address):
Adds hardware (MAC) addresses to the frame headers to identify the
source and destination on a local network.
• Error Detection and Correction:
Detects errors using mechanisms like CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check).
Some systems may also attempt error correction.
• Flow Control:
Ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver by controlling
the rate of data transmission.
• Access Control (MAC - Media Access Control):
Determines how devices on a shared medium (like Ethernet) decide
when to send data to avoid collisions.
Example:
In a LAN using Ethernet, the Data Link Layer ensures that data frames are
delivered to the correct device using MAC addresses and manages collision
detection (CSMA/CD).
(j) Describe the different Layers of TCP/IP?
The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the
fundamental suite of protocols used for communication over the internet.
Unlike the OSI model, which has 7 layers, the TCP/IP model has 4 layers. Each
layer is responsible for a specific function in the communication process. The
model provides end-to-end data communication and ensures reliable delivery
between devices in a network.
The Four Layers of TCP/IP Model:
1. Application Layer:
This is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP model and directly interacts with the
end-user. It provides network services to applications such as web browsers,
email clients, and file transfer tools.
Functions:
• Provides interfaces for user applications to access network services.
• Handles protocols like:
o HTTP/HTTPS – For web communication
o FTP – For file transfers
o SMTP/POP3/IMAP – For email services
o DNS – For domain name resolution
Example:
When you browse a website, the application layer uses HTTP to send and
receive web page data.
2. Transport Layer:
This layer ensures reliable data delivery between devices. It manages end-to-
end communication, error checking, and data flow control.
Main Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
o Connection-oriented
o Ensures reliable, ordered delivery
o Used for emails, web browsing, file transfers
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
o Connectionless
o Faster but unreliable
o Used for streaming, online gaming
Functions:
• Segmentation and reassembly of data
• Port addressing (e.g., HTTP uses port 80)
• Flow control and error correction
3. Internet Layer:
The Internet Layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing. It enables
data to travel across multiple networks.
Main Protocols:
• IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing
o IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for diagnostics (e.g.,
ping)
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC
addresses
Functions:
• Assigns IP addresses
• Routes packets from source to destination across networks
• Ensures correct delivery even across complex internetworks
4. Network Access Layer (Link Layer):
This is the lowest layer in the TCP/IP model. It handles the physical
transmission of data over the hardware medium, such as cables, Wi-Fi, or fiber
optics.
Functions:
• Converts packets into frames
• Adds MAC addresses for local delivery
• Performs error detection (e.g., using CRC)
• Interfaces with network hardware like Ethernet cards and Wi-Fi adapters
Example:
In a LAN, the Network Access Layer ensures the frame reaches the right device
using the MAC address.
Conclusion:
The TCP/IP model is the backbone of modern internet communication. Each
layer plays a specific and crucial role: the Application Layer interacts with
users, the Transport Layer ensures reliable delivery, the Internet Layer
manages addressing and routing, and the Network Access Layer handles
physical data transmission. Together, these layers provide a reliable and
scalable framework for data communication across networks worldwide.
(k) What are the Switching techniques used Computer Network? Explain?
In computer networks, switching is a technique used to transmit data from
one device to another through an intermediate network. Instead of creating a
dedicated link between sender and receiver for the entire communication,
switching allows the network to efficiently share bandwidth and route data
dynamically. It helps in the optimal use of network resources and improves
scalability and flexibility.
There are three primary switching techniques used in computer networks:
1. Circuit Switching:
Circuit switching is a method where a dedicated communication path is
established between the sender and receiver before data transfer begins. This
path remains reserved and unchanged for the entire duration of the
communication session.
Characteristics:
• Connection-oriented
• Data is transmitted in a continuous stream
• All data follows the same path
Advantages:
• Reliable and consistent transmission
• Suitable for real-time services like voice calls
Disadvantages:
• Inefficient for data transmission (wasted bandwidth if no data is sent)
• Time-consuming setup process
Example:
Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching.
2. Packet Switching:
In packet switching, data is divided into smaller packets, and each packet is
independently routed through the network. There is no dedicated path, and
packets may take different routes to reach the destination, where they are
reassembled.
There are two types:
• Datagram Packet Switching – Each packet is treated independently and
may take different paths.
• Virtual Circuit Packet Switching – A logical path is established first, and
all packets follow it, but no physical circuit is reserved.
Characteristics:
• Connectionless (datagram) or connection-oriented (virtual circuit)
• Efficient use of network bandwidth
• Supports dynamic routing
Advantages:
• Better utilization of bandwidth
• More fault-tolerant (can reroute if a path fails)
• Scalable for large networks like the internet
Disadvantages:
• Packets can arrive out of order
• Requires mechanisms for error handling and reassembly
Example:
The Internet uses packet switching with IP as the core protocol.
3. Message Switching:
In message switching, the entire message is sent from the source to the
destination in one go, but it is temporarily stored at intermediate devices
before being forwarded. This is also known as store-and-forward switching.
Characteristics:
 • No dedicated path
• Entire message is treated as one unit
• Messages may be delayed due to storage requirements

Advantages:
• No need to establish a path before transmission
• Efficient for non-real-time applications
Disadvantages:
• High delay due to storing at each node
• Requires large buffer space at each switch
Example:
Early email systems and telegraph networks used message switching.
Conclusion:
Switching techniques play a crucial role in how data is transmitted across a
network.
• Circuit switching is ideal for continuous data streams like voice calls.
• Packet switching is widely used in modern data networks due to its
efficiency and flexibility.
• Message switching, though outdated, laid the groundwork for modern
techniques.
Understanding these methods is essential for designing efficient, scalable, and
reliable communication systems in today's interconnected world.
(l) Explain about different types of transmission media in computer network?
In a computer network, transmission media refers to the physical or logical
pathway through which data is transmitted from one device to another.
Transmission media can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Guided Media (Wired Media)
2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
Each type has its own characteristics, uses, advantages, and limitations.
1. Guided Media (Wired Transmission Media):
Guided media uses a physical path such as cables or wires for data
transmission. It provides directed transmission and is generally more secure
and reliable.
a. Twisted Pair Cable:
• Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together.
• Used in telephone lines and LANs.
• Types:
o UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
o STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Advantages:
• Inexpensive
• Easy to install
• Suitable for short-distance communication
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to electromagnetic interference
 • Limited bandwidth and distance
b. Coaxial Cable:
• Consists of a central copper conductor, an insulating layer, metallic
shield, and outer cover.
• Used in cable TV networks and older Ethernet.
Advantages:
• Higher bandwidth than twisted pair
• Better shielding from interference
Disadvantages:
• Thicker and less flexible
• More expensive than twisted pair
c. Optical Fiber Cable:
• Transmits data as light signals through glass or plastic fibers.
• Ideal for long-distance and high-speed communication.
Advantages:
• Very high bandwidth
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Secure and ideal for long distances
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Requires special installation and handling
2. Unguided Media (Wireless Transmission Media):
Unguided media does not use physical cables; instead, data is transmitted
through the air using electromagnetic waves. It is widely used in mobile and
wireless communications.
a. Radio Waves:
• Used for long-distance and mobile communication.
 • Frequency ranges from 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
Applications: AM/FM radios, cordless phones, wireless LANs
Advantages:
• Easy to generate and penetrate walls
• Used for broadcasting
Disadvantages:
• Subject to interference and eavesdropping
b. Microwaves:
• High-frequency waves (1 GHz to 300 GHz)
• Used for satellite and point-to-point communication
Applications: Cellular phones, satellite TV, microwave links
Advantages:
• Suitable for long-distance and high-bandwidth communication
Disadvantages:
• Requires line of sight
• Affected by weather conditions
c. Infrared:
• Uses infrared light to transmit data
• Short-range, line-of-sight communication
Applications: Remote controls, short-range data transfer
Advantages:
• Secure within a room
• No interference with radio waves
Disadvantages:
• Cannot pass through walls
• Limited range
Conclusion:
The choice of transmission media depends on factors like distance, cost,
speed, security, and environment.

(m) What is Addressing? How addressing is done over Internet?

Addressing in computer networks refers to the method of assigning unique
identifiers to devices so they can be distinguished and located within a
network. It is similar to how a postal system uses addresses to deliver mail to
the correct recipients. Without proper addressing, data sent over a network
would not reach the intended device, leading to communication failure.
Addressing is crucial because networks can contain thousands or millions of
devices, and each must have a unique identity. When a device wants to send
data to another device, it uses the address to specify the destination, ensuring
that the data is delivered accurately.
Types of Addresses in Computer Networks
There are mainly two types of addressing in networking:
1. Physical Address (MAC Address):
This is a hardware address assigned to every network interface card (NIC)
by its manufacturer. It is a unique identifier, typically 48 bits long,
represented in hexadecimal format (e.g., [Link]). Physical
addresses operate at the Data Link Layer and are used for
communication within the same local network.
2. Logical Address (IP Address):
Unlike physical addresses, logical addresses are assigned by software and
protocols to uniquely identify devices across different networks. The
most common logical addresses are IP addresses, which operate at the
Network Layer and are essential for routing data across the Internet and
other networks.
How Addressing is Done Over the Internet
The Internet uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to address and route packets
between devices worldwide. Every device connected to the Internet must have
a unique IP address.
1. IP Addressing
• IPv4 Addressing:
The traditional IP addressing system is IPv4, which uses 32-bit addresses.
These addresses are written in dotted-decimal notation, divided into four
octets (e.g., [Link]). IPv4 supports around 4.3 billion unique
addresses. However, due to the explosive growth of the Internet, IPv4
addresses have become scarce.
• IPv6 Addressing:
To overcome IPv4 limitations, IPv6 was introduced with 128-bit
addresses, written in hexadecimal and separated by colons (e.g.,
[Link]). IPv6 supports a virtually unlimited
number of unique addresses, ensuring scalability for the future.
2. Structure of IP Addresses
IP addresses are composed of two main parts:
• Network ID: Identifies the specific network segment to which the device
belongs.
• Host ID: Identifies the specific device within that network.
This hierarchical structure helps routers efficiently forward packets between
networks.
3. Assignment of IP Addresses
IP addresses can be assigned in two ways:
• Static IP Address:
Manually configured and remains constant. Used for servers, printers, or
any device requiring a fixed address.
• Dynamic IP Address:
Automatically assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
server, typically used for most personal computers and mobile devices.
Dynamic addresses may change over time.
(n) Explain flow control mechanism in detail?
Flow control is a technique used in data communication to manage the rate of
data transmission between two devices or nodes to prevent the sender from
overwhelming the receiver. If the sender transmits data faster than the receiver
can process or store it, data loss or buffer overflow can occur. Flow control
ensures smooth, efficient, and reliable data transfer by regulating this data
flow.
Why is Flow Control Important?
• Prevent Data Loss: Without flow control, fast senders may send data
faster than the receiver’s capacity, causing data packets to be dropped.
• Efficient Resource Use: It helps optimize network and device resource
utilization by preventing congestion and retransmissions.
• Reliable Communication: Ensures that all transmitted data is received
and processed correctly.
Types of Flow Control Mechanisms
Flow control can be implemented at different layers of the network, especially
at the Data Link Layer and Transport Layer. The common mechanisms are:
1. Stop-and-Wait Flow Control
• The sender sends one frame or packet and waits for an acknowledgment
(ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame.
• If the ACK is received, the sender sends the next frame.
• If the ACK is not received within a certain time (due to loss or delay), the
sender retransmits the frame.
Advantages:
 • Simple to implement
• Ensures no data is lost
Disadvantages:
• Inefficient for high-speed or long-distance networks due to waiting time
• Low utilization of network bandwidth
2. Sliding Window Flow Control
• The sender can send multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment, controlled by a “window” size.
• The window size defines how many frames can be sent without
acknowledgment.
• The receiver sends ACKs for frames received and slides the window to
allow the sender to send more frames.
• There are two types:
o Go-Back-N: If a frame is lost, the sender retransmits that frame
and all subsequent frames.
o Selective Repeat: Only lost frames are retransmitted, improving
efficiency.
Advantages:
• Better bandwidth utilization than Stop-and-Wait
• Supports continuous data flow
• Suitable for fast and long-distance networks
Disadvantages:
• More complex to implement
• Requires buffer space for storing frames at sender and receiver
3. Credit-Based Flow Control
• Used mostly in high-speed networks like Fibre Channel.
• The receiver grants “credits” to the sender indicating how many frames it
can send before needing to wait for further credits.
 • This prevents the sender from overrunning the receiver’s buffer.
Flow Control vs Congestion Control
• Flow control manages the data rate between two devices to match the
receiver’s capacity.
• Congestion control manages traffic across the entire network to avoid
overwhelming network devices.

(o) How error detection and correction carried out? Discuss with example?
Error detection methods help the receiver determine if the received data has
errors. These methods add extra bits (called redundant bits) to the original
data before transmission. Upon receiving, the receiver checks these bits to
verify data integrity.
Common Error Detection Techniques:
1. Parity Check:
• Adds one parity bit to the data bits.
• Parity can be even or odd.
o Even parity: Number of 1s in the data + parity bit is even.
o Odd parity: Number of 1s in the data + parity bit is odd.
• Example: For data 1010 (which has two 1s), an even parity bit would be 0
(total 1s remain 2), odd parity would be 1 (total 1s become 3).
• If parity doesn’t match at the receiver, an error is detected.
Limitation: Only detects odd number of bit errors.
2. Checksum:
• Data is divided into fixed-size blocks, and the blocks are added together.
• The sum (checksum) is sent along with the data.
• The receiver adds the received blocks and compares with the checksum.
• Used in protocols like TCP/IP.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
 • Treats data as a polynomial and divides it by a predefined polynomial
(generator).
• The remainder of this division is sent as the CRC code.
• Receiver performs the same division; if the remainder is zero, data is
assumed error-free.
• Very effective and widely used in networks.

Error Correction:
Error correction techniques not only detect errors but also correct them
without needing retransmission. These use extra bits to encode the data so
that errors can be identified and fixed.
Common Error Correction Techniques:
1. Hamming Code:
• Adds redundant bits at certain positions.
• Uses parity bits to identify which bit is in error.
• The receiver can detect and correct single-bit errors.
Example:
Data bits: 1011
Hamming encoded: 0110011 (with parity bits added)
If a single bit error occurs, the receiver detects the position of the error and
corrects it.
2. Forward Error Correction (FEC):
• The sender adds enough redundancy so the receiver can detect and
correct errors automatically.
• Used in real-time systems like satellite communication and streaming.
Example Scenario:
Suppose the sender wants to send the 4-bit data 1011 using even parity for
error detection.
 • Number of 1s in data is 3 (odd).
• Parity bit is set to 1 to make total 1s even.
• Transmitted data: 1011 1
If one bit flips during transmission, say the third bit becomes 0 (1001 1), the
receiver counts the number of 1s and finds it odd instead of even, detecting an
error.
If Hamming code is used, the receiver can not only detect the bit error but also
determine exactly which bit is wrong and correct it automatically.
(p) Write short note on :-
i) HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
HTTP is a fundamental protocol used on the World Wide Web to enable
communication between web browsers (clients) and web servers. It operates at
the application layer of the Internet protocol suite and defines how messages
are formatted and transmitted, as well as how web servers and browsers
respond to various commands.
When you enter a website URL in your browser, an HTTP request is sent to the
server hosting that website. The most common HTTP methods include:
• GET: Requests data from a specified resource.
• POST: Sends data to the server, often used for submitting form data.
• PUT, DELETE, HEAD: Other methods for managing data and resources.
HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning each request from a client to a server is
treated independently, without any knowledge of previous requests. This
simplicity allows for efficient communication but requires additional
mechanisms (like cookies) to maintain session information.
Typically, HTTP uses port 80, while its secure version, HTTPS (HTTP Secure),
uses port 443 and adds encryption through SSL/TLS to ensure data
confidentiality and integrity.
(ii) IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
IPv6 is the successor to IPv4, created to address the limitations of IPv4,
primarily the exhaustion of available IP addresses due to the rapid growth of
internet-connected devices.
IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing, compared to IPv4’s 32-bit system, enabling
approximately 3.4×10^38 unique addresses—effectively unlimited for current
and foreseeable future needs. IPv6 addresses are written in eight groups of
four hexadecimal digits separated by colons (e.g.,
[Link]).
Key improvements of IPv6 over IPv4 include:
• Simplified header format for faster routing.
• Auto-configuration capabilities allowing devices to generate their own
IP addresses without DHCP.
• Built-in IPsec support for improved security.
• Enhanced multicast and anycast capabilities.
• Eliminates the need for Network Address Translation (NAT), improving
end-to-end connectivity.
IPv6 deployment is ongoing globally but gradually replacing IPv4 to ensure the
continued expansion of the internet.
(iii) Topology:
Topology refers to the layout or arrangement of different elements (nodes and
links) in a computer network. It determines how devices connect and
communicate with each other, affecting network performance, scalability, and
fault tolerance.
Common network topologies include:
• Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single shared
communication line. It’s simple and inexpensive but has poor fault
tolerance—if the main line fails, the entire network goes down.
• Star Topology: Each device connects to a central hub or switch. It offers
good performance and easy fault isolation since a failure in one link
doesn’t affect others, but the central device represents a single point of
failure.
• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular manner. Data travels
in one or both directions around the ring. It’s more reliable than bus but
harder to troubleshoot.
 • Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to multiple other devices,
providing multiple paths for data. It is highly fault-tolerant and robust
but expensive and complex to implement.
Choosing the right topology depends on factors such as network size, desired
reliability, cost, and ease of maintenance.