Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

EVEREST ENGINEERING COLLEGE

AFFILIATED TO POKHARA UNIVERSITY

SANEPA, LALITPUR

MALEKHU: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOUR SUMMARY

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO

Prashant Joshi(31) DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Rabi Dahal(32) EVEREST ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Raju Rayamajhi(33) SANEPA, LALITPUR

Ramsudist Yadav(34)

Roshan Sah(36)

DATE: 2076/10/17

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who provided us the possibility to
complete this report. Our special thankful to the administration of Everest Engineering college,
Head of civil Engineering Department Er. Prashant Thapaliya and for managing tour and
providing the required materials in the field.
It’s the golden opportunity to us to workout with our subject teacher Anil Ghimire and Mr.
Aadesh Budhathoki for their insightful and scholarly guidance to successfully complete this field
work.

Finally, we would like to thank all the staffs, drivers and others who directly or indirectly helped
us to successfully complete the field work.

 Group Members

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

Contents
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................4
OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................4
LOCATION OF STUDY AREA......................................................................................................4
STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF RIVER CHANNEL.....................................................4
STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.................................12
STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS.........................................21
HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS AND MEASUREMENT..................................33
CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................................38
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................39

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

INTRODUCTION

 Report on geological field visit to Malekhu, Dhading district organized by the Department of
Civil Engineering, Everest Engineering College dated 2076/11/07.
 It was conducted in order to study about rocks, river channel morphology and structure of
earth.

OBJECTIVES
 Study and interpretation of river channel morphology.
 Study and interpretation of geological structure.
 Study of rocks and minerals in hand specimen.
 Handling of geological compass and geological hammer.

LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

The location of study was Malekhu, dhading district. It is about 75 km. west of Kathmandu
valley.

STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF RIVER CHANNEL

Geological agents:

 Any phenomenon which changes earth crust are geological agent.

 Due to oxogenous (outer) and endogenous (inner) process structure of land surface like
mountains, hills, valleys, plains occurs.
 The exogenous process are those which derive their energy from external sources.
 Geological agents like wind, running water, glaciers, sea waves and underground water
etc causes change in structure.
 Activities of geological agents include processes like gradations, degradations,
aggradation and weathering.

RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY

 The terms river morphology are used to describe the shapes of river channels and how
they change over time.

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

 The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of processes and

environmental conditions, including the composition and erodibility of the bed and
banks (e.g., sand, clay, bedrock); vegetation and the rate of plant growth; the
availability of sediment; the size and composition of the sediment moving through the
channel; the rate of sediment transport through the channel and the rate of deposition
on the floodplain, banks, bars, and bed; and regional aggradation or degradation due
to subsidence or uplift.
 The study of river morphology is accomplished in the field of fluvial geomorphology.
 When the river flows in its way it follows the definite path, the path followed by the
river during its flow is called river channel.

Photo: River Morphology

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TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL PATTERN :

1. Straight river :
 When the river flows in the straight path due tohigh energy level this type of river is
called straight river.

Photo: Straight River System

2. Meandering river :
 In this type of flow, the river follows the path like as snake's movement.
 In valley region, the river follows the meandering path.
 Erosion and deposition take place side by side in the same time.

Photo: Meandering River System

3. Braided River :

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 In this type of flow, the river follows multiple Channels. Deposition is predominant in
this flow.
 The braided river tends to be very wide and relates shallow.
 The river follows this type of path in Terai region.

Photo: Braided River

FEATURES DEVELOPED BY THE RIVER CHANNEL :

Depositional landforms :

Higher Terrace

 It is the land formed by the river as it was flowing in these areas in the past history.
 The higher terrace is over the high flood level of the river in present.
 There may be finer and coarser material layers alternately in the higher terrace.

Middle Terrace

 As its name it is the middle part of the higher and lower terrace.
 This terrace will also over the high flood level of the river.

Lower Terrace (Flood Plain)

 During floods a river overflows its bank and submerges the adjacent low-lying areas
where deposition of alluvial material takes place.

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 A wide belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on either side of a stream, is called 'flood
plain.

Channel Bar

 Many rivers are forced to rope a part of their load along their beds, especially in the flatter
regions along their course.
 Most commonly the deposits so formed tale the shape of long narrow ridges called
channel bars.
 Since they are made up of sand, they are also called sand bar.
 The river will flow from both side of the channel bar.
 They are temporary in nature because an increase in velocity, the river may cut down and
take the sand along with it.

Alluvial Fans:

 The alluvial material, which flows down from mountains, accumulates at foothills where
the stream enters a plain.
 The deposition occurs due to abrupt change in the gradient of river valley.
 Such deposits spread out in the shape of flat fans and are called alluvial fans.
 Usually, the coarse material is dropped near the base of the slope while finer material is
carried further out on the plain.
 Alluvial fans from many adjacent streams along a mountain may merge to form a long
wedge of sediment called alluvial aprons.
Point Bars

 In meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur as point bars.

 The point bars are the crescent shaped deposits, which occur at inside bends of a river
channel.

Deltas:

 Deltas are deposits built at the mouths of streams.

 The deltas are usually triangular in shape with their apex pointed upstream.

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 When a stream enters an ocean or lake, the currents of the flowing water dissipate
quickly.
 This results in the deposition of the series of sedimentary layers, which make up the delta.
 The material of most deltas is well sorted and many deltas are uniformly graded.

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LOCATION I
 We studied the river channel morphology of the Trishuli-Thopal confluence from the
higher terrace of the river located about 500 m NE towards Dhading Besi along old track
from the suspension bridge.
 There was channel bar in the left side of the river.
 The discharge of the Trishuli river was high with compared the Thopal river.
 There was side bar in the right bank of the river.
 At the confluence point there was erosion band in the right side of the river.
 There was an island at the confluence of these two rivers.
 The site study of the field fortified us with the knowledge about the morphology of the
river, the activities of the river, various landforms formed by the river cutting, deposition
and erosion.
 Moreover, the site provided us with the knowledge about the appropriate site for the
construction of the bridge, i.e. the bridge must be constructed where the effect of river
cutting is the minimum and it should be somewhere near the deposition bank so that we
can easily get the constructions required.
 The site must also have a strong foundation bed to resist the impact due to river.

Features observed at the site were-

 Meandering river type

 Still water present in some part of river.
 Rock island forms at the junction of Trishuli- Thopal Khola.
 Erosional and depositional bank in Trishuli river
 Point bar deposit in Trishuli river.
 Large and wide striking bank.

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Photo: Trishuli and Thopal Khola confluence

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STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

Introduction

 Structural geology is a subfield within geology which focuses on the study of geological
structures, with the goal of learning how, when, and why they formed.
 There are a number of applications for structural geology, ranging from determining
where valuable mineral resources might be buried to assessing land to determine whether
or not it is safe to build on.
 Practitioners in this field usually have a bachelor's degree in structural geology, and they
may have pursued graduate work as well.

i. Primary structures :

 Primary structures are original features of sedimentary or igneous rocks resulting from
deposition or emplacement.
 It gives an ultimate goal to understand the total history of a deformed rock and not just its
deformational history.
 It also help to understand that the processes of deposition and deformation are not
necessarily isolated in time.

ii. Secondary structures :

 Secondary structures are formed after the formation of rock due to different types of
stresses. Different geological structures are:-

a. Faults
b. Folds
c. Joints
d. Thrust

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a. FAULT

 Fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along which there has been an observable
amount of movement and displacement.
 Unlike folds which form predominantly by compressional stress, faults result from either
tension, compression or shear.
 In order to correctly describe a fault, it is essential to understand its components:
1. The fault plane: Is the plane of dislocation or fracture along which displacement has
occurred. The fault plane therefore separates one or more rock units into two blocks.
2. The hanging wall and footwall blocks: If the fault plane is not vertical, then the block
lying on top of the fault plane is known as the hanging wall block, whereas that lying
below this plane is known as the footwall block.
3. The downthrown and up thrown blocks: The downthrown block is the one that has
moved downwards relative to the other block, whereas the up thrown block is that
which registers an upward relative movement.
4. The Dip of the fault plane is the angle of inclination of the fault plane measured from
the horizontal plane perpendicular to its strike.
5. Fault Throw: is the vertical displacement of a fault.
6. Dip slip: is the amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the direction
of its dip.
7. Strike slip: is the amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the direction
of its strike.
8. Net slip: Is the total amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the
direction of movement.

Types of Fault

1. Normal fault:
 It is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved downwards relative to the
footwall (i.e. downthrown block = hanging wall block).

2. Reverse fault:

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 It is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved upwards relative to the
footwall (i.e. upthrown block = hanging wall block).
 Because the displacement in both normal and reverse faults occurs along the dip of the
fault plane, they may be considered types of dip slip faults.
3. Thrust fault (or thrust):
 It is a reverse fault in which the fault plane is dipping at low angles (< 45°).
 Thrusts are very common in mountain chains (fold and thrust belts) where they are
characterized by transporting older rocks on top of younger ones over long distances.

4. Strike slip (wrench, tear or transcurrent) fault:

 It is a fault in which the movement is horizontal along the strike of the fault plane.

5. Oblique slip fault:

 It is one in which the displacement was both in the strike and dip directions (i.e. the
displacement has strike and dip components).
 Keep in mind that an oblique slip fault can also be either normal or reverse.
 From this classification of faults, it can be seen that normal faults result predominantly
from tensional stress, reverse faults and thrusts from compression (or shear), and strike
slip faults from tension, compression or shear.
 The engineering significances of fault are as follows:
1. Faults are the region where dislocation of ground has occurred in the past due to
deformation and where such dislocation cannot be entirely ruled out in future.
2. The faulted rocks will form weak foundation despite the fact that the rock
originally might have been strong.
3. The shear of fault zone will be a easy pathway for water and cause leakage if
left untreated in dams and reservoirs.
4. Fault planes with easy pathway for groundwater creates problem if encountered
along the highway or tunnel alignment.
5. The fault zone once lubricated by water may slip further and prove critical for
foundation and abutments.

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6. Fault gouge and breccias may create additional problems and they have to be
cleared to the sound bedrock for construction in the site.
7. Major fault zones are prone to landslides due to fragile earth material and may
cause problem during construction of various projects.
8. The presence of faults, their type and extent and their effect on the project area
can be ascertained by engineering geological map and geophysical data.
9. The number, size and inclination of shear zone should given consideration.
10. Ideally, projects are to be located far from an active fault and never on the active
faults.
11. If the site couldn’t be relocated the treatment of the shear zone extensive
excavation of the sheared material and back filling with cement grouting may be
a solution to the problem.
12. Many major faults may be associated with earthquakes so the project site should
also be considered with respect to the seismic zoning of the country.
13. Even if the evidence of the study shows that the sheared zone will have no
movement during the lifespan of the project, some factor of safety should be
considered while constructing in the sheared zone.

Photo: Fault

b. FOLD:

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 Wavy undulation on the surface of the earth is known as fold.

 The bending of rock strata is due to the compressional forces acting from opposite
directions.
 Folds result due to ductile deformation of rocks.
 Engineering Significance of fold:
1. Hinge line: It is the line of maximum curvature on a folded surface. The hinge
line almost always coincides with the axis of the fold defined as a line lying in
the plane that bisects a fold into two equal parts.
2. The axial plane is an imaginary plane dividing the fold into two equal parts
known as limbs. It is therefore the plane which includes all hinge lines for
different beds affected by the same fold.
3. The crest of a fold can be considered the highest point on a folded surface. The
trough is the lowest point on a folded surface.
4. The inter-limb angle: Is the angle between two limbs of the same fold. It is
measured in a plane perpendicular to that of the fold axis.
5. The angle of plunge of a fold is the angle between the fold axis and the
horizontal plane, measured in a vertical plane. The direction of plunge of a
fold is the direction in which the fold axis dips into the ground from the
horizontal plane.
6. The median surface: Is the surface that passes through points where the fold
limb changes its curvature from concave to convex.
7. The amplitude of a fold: is the vertical distance between the median surface
and the fold hinge, both taken on the same surface of the same folded unit.
8. The wavelength of a fold system is the distance between two consecutive
crests or troughs taken on the same folded surface.

Classification of Fold

 Folds may be classified based on the direction of dip of their limbs, the inclination of their
axial planes, the value of their interlimb angle, their plunge, and their general shape and
effects on the thickness of the folded layers.

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 In order to describe a fold correctly, one may have to use more that one of these
classifications; e.g. recumbent anticline, open syncline, tight plunging anticline,..etc.

Identification of fold:

 Local scale fold are directly observe in the field in railways cutting, hill cutting during
road construction, excavation of tunnels as well as drilling of rocks beds for certain
purpose.
 Large scale fold are recognized in the field by plotting the attitudes of the beds or
foliation planes by preparing geological map and obtaining cross-section.

Photo: Fold

c. JOINT

 Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no movement along their surfaces.
 Although most joints are secondary structures, some are primary, forming at the time of
formation of the rocks.

Types of joint

1. Columnar joints :
 Are joints that form in basalts.
 When the basaltic lava cools, it contracts giving rise to hexagonal shaped columns.
2. Mud cracks :

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 Are joints that form in mud.

 As the mud loses its water, it contracts and cracks.
3. Secondary joint :
 Are joints that form in rocks as a result of their subjection to any form of stress
(compression, tension or shear).
 Joints that are oriented in one direction approximately parallel to one another make up
a joint set.
 Rocks often have more than one set of joints with different orientations, which may
intersect, and are then known as joint systems.
 Note that tensional stress usually results in one set of joints, whereas compression may
form more than one set.

4. Sheet Joint:

 Are joints that form in granitic rocks in deserts causing them to break into thin parallel
sheets.
 These joints form when the rocks expand as a result of the rapid removal of the
overlying rock cover, possibly due to faulting or quarrying.
 This process is called exfoliation.

The engineering significances of joint are as follows:

1. The selection of sites for dams and reservoirs and alignment of tunnels and
highway through require very thorough investigation of joints for arriving at
safe and economic design.
2. Joints are always considered as a source of weakness of the rocks and as a
pathway for the leakage of water through the rock.
3. Both these properties of joints destroy the inherent soundness of the rock to
a great extent.
4. If a rock forming the foundation of a dam or reservoir happens to be heavily
jointed and the region is one of low water table, the risk of leakage of water

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from under the dam or from reservoir may be of substantial magnitude

demanding very heavy cost for treatment of rocks.
5. If the roof and side rocks in the case of tunnel are much fractured, slippage
of rock along these fractures and leakage of water may cause many troubles.
6. A large joint dipping into the highway cut is the site of potential landslide.
7. Jointed rocks easily get lubricated in the presence of water and start sliding
or falling form the original places of occurrence.

Photo: Joint Sets

d. BEDDING:

 The primary surface in a sedimentary rock has separating beds with different
composition, texture, color, etc.
 A plane of separation, along which the rocks has a tendency to split or fracture parallel to
bedding.

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Photo: Bedding

STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

Introduction

 Minerals, quite simply, are the building blocks for making rocks, and a rock is made up of
one or more minerals.

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 When you look at a rock and see different colors, those colors are minerals that make up
that specific rock.
 There are over 3,000 named minerals; however, there are really only about 30 minerals
that people who are not geologists will come across or need to concern themselves with.
 There are four criteria that must be met in order for something to be called a mineral:
1. Not formed from the remains of plants or animals; that is, inorganic
2. Naturally occurring, not man-made
3. Has the same chemical makeup wherever it is found (Ex: Quartz is always
SiO2)
4. Has a crystalline structure, which means that it has a specific repeating
pattern of atoms.
 If all four of the criteria are not met, the substance is not a mineral. Therefore, “minerals”
made in a lab are not true minerals because they did not occur naturally.
 Here are a few tests that geologists rely on to identify what minerals they are looking at.

1. Colour
 Colour is a very common way to try to identify a mineral; however, it should not be used
on its own.
 Because any mineral can be any colour, you cannot use colour alone to identify a mineral.
Colour can merely help you.
2. Shape
 Minerals form in certain shapes based on the elements that make them up.
 Some minerals, such as quartz, only form in one particular shape. Others, such as calcite,
can be found in multiple shapes.
 Sometimes shape isn’t enough and you need to use other tests to help you identify a
mineral.

3. Hardness
 How hard or soft a mineral is can tell you right away what mineral it could or could
not be.

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 The hardness of minerals is based on the Mohs Hardness Scale, which ranges from 1-
10, 1 being the softest and 10 the hardest.
4. Streak
 The streak of a mineral is simply the color of a powder that’s left behind when the
mineral is scratched along a white, ceramic, unglazed tile.
 Even if the color of the mineral itself changes from one specimen to another, the
streak color is always the same.
5. Luster
 Luster simply means the way that light reflects off a mineral.
 Light can make a mineral look very dull or as shiny as a diamond.
 There are many other tests that geologists use; however, the tests listed above are
usually sufficient for the amateur, and can help you identify the mineral.

There are 3 types of rocks:-

a. Igneous Rock
b. Sedimentary rocks
c. Metamorphic rocks

a. Igneous Rock

 These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of magma either under the surface of
earth or over it.
 These are of three types according to the solidification process.
1. Plutonic Rock:
 The rocks, which are formed underneath the surface of the earth, are
called the plutonic rocks.
2. Volcanic Rock:
 The rocks, which are solidified on the surface of earth, are called
volcanic rocks.
3. Hypabyssal Rock:
 The rocks, which are solidified on the way of extrusion process, are
called hypo basal rocks.

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 Igneous rocks are commonly identified in the field by the study of

their interlocking crystallization of a number of mineral grains.
 Igneous rocks are generally hard, massive, compact, having no
bedding plane and interlocked grains.
 It usually contains much feldspar.
 By the study of these properties we identified the igneous rocks in the
field. e.g,Granite-generally equigranular texture, light color
appearance, Gabbro - coarse grain and dark colour, Dolerite -
containing dark minerals in good proportion with medium grain sized

b. Sedimentary rocks

 These rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks through the process of erosion,
transportation and deposition by various natural agencies such as wind, water, glacier etc.
 The loose sediments undergo compaction and form resulting products as sedimentary
rocks.
 According to the mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are divided into three
different types.
1. Clastic Rocks: The rocks which are formed by deposited mechanically are known as
clastic rocks.
2. Chemical Deposits:The rocks which are formed by chemical precipitation are known as
chemical deposits.
3. Organic Deposits: The rocks which are formed by deposited organically are called
organic deposits.

 Sedimentary rocks are identified in the field by the study of different layers, which are
originally bedded or laminated under suitable conditions.
 There may be the impression of fossils in sedimentary rocks. The colour and the grain
size of the rocks may be different in different layers.
 By the study of these properties also the rocks may be identified. e.g. Conglomerate -
grain size greater than 2 mm, Sandstone - grain size is equal to sand (i.e. 1/16 mm –2

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mm), quartz is common, Clay stone - formed by deposition of clay, shale is common
example

c. Metamorphic rock

 These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structure, chemical composition etc.
in preexisting rocks due to the action of temperature, pressure and chemical reaction.
 Metamorphic rocks are generally hard and having of interlocking grains.
1. Contact Metamorphic
2. Dynamic Metamorphic
3. Dynamo Thermal
4. Metasomatic
 Metamorphic rocks are distinctly distinguished from other types of rocks by the
development of features like cleavage, foliation, schistosity and by the presence of such
minerals which are known to be of metamorphic origin.
 Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an interlocking texture of the constituent minerals
grains.
 Thus these rocks are basically identified in the field on the basis of color, texture as well
as structure. e.g., Slate - slate cleavage, Phyllite - soapy feeling , Schist - rough, irregular
and undulated plane, unequal growth of minerals, Gneiss - band of contrast colour,
composition and texture (mica band)

SAMPLE NO. 1 (Slate)

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1. Color: light gray

2. Texture: non-crystalline
3. Structure: foliation plane
4. Grain size: fine
5. Mineral composition:
Quartz, Feldspar, Muscovite, Biotite, chlorite
6. Rock type: Metamorphic rock
7. Rock name: Slate

Uses

 It is use flooring and roof covering due to the presence of slaty cleavage.
 It is used as aggregate.

Location

Latitude:27°48’443N

Longitude:84°50’11”E

SAMPLE NO 2 (Limestone)

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1. Color: White
2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Bedding
Plane
4. Grain size: Fine
5. Acid/hammer test: -
reacts with acid and
mono-mineralic so
hammer test can be
done.
6. Mineral composition:
calcite
7. Rock type:
Sedimentary Rock
8. Rock name:
Limestone
Uses:
 Use in making cement
 Use for making statue
 Use as construction material

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Photo: Limestone

SAMPLE NO 3 (Dolomite)

1. Color: Bluish grey

2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Bedding plane
4. Acid/hammer test:
 Slowly react with acid but reacts rapidly with power
 Scratches by hammer
5. Mineral composition: Dolomite
6. Rock type: Sedimentary
7. Rock name: Dolomite

Uses:

 Use for making cement by mixing with limestone

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Figure:Dolomite

Location:

About 800m from the Malekhu bridge towards south west along the upstream of Malekhu River
on the right side of bank.

SAMPLE NO 4 (Phyllite)

1. Color: Silvery gray

2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Foliation plane/slaty cleavage.
4. Grain size: fine
5. Acid/hammer test: doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done hammer test due to
multiminerallic.
6. Mineral composition: Quartz, feldspar, mica(muscovite, chlorite,sericite) and other clay
minerals
7. Rock type: metamorphic rock
8. Rock name: Phyllite

Uses:

 In filling material, roofing, flooring.

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Photo: Phyllite

Location:

Latitude: 27°49’34”N

Longitude: 84°46’9”E

SAMPLE NO 5 (Slate)

Location: About 1000m from the malekhu bridge along the upstream of Malekhu River on the
right side of bank.

1. Color: Yellowish gray

2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Foliation plane
4. Grain size: Fine
5. Acid/hammer test:
 doesn’t react with acid and can be done hammer test due to monominerallic.
6. Mineral composition: Quartz
7. Rock type: Metamorphic rock
8. Rock name: Slate

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Uses

 Use as aggregate.

 Use in foundation material.

 Use for decoration purpose.

Photo: Slate

SAMPLE NO 6 ( Schist)

Location: About 1000m from the malekhu bridge along the upstream of Malekhu River on the
right side of bank.

Latitude:27°48’3”N

Longitude:84°50’5”E

1. Colour: Dark Grey

2. Texture: Non-crystalline
3. Structure: Foliation plane/ Schistocity cleavage
4. Grain size: Fine
5. Acid/hammer test:
 doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done hammer test due to multi-minerallic.
6. Mineral composition: Biotite, Quartz, feldspar ,mica.
7. Rock type: Metamorphic rock
8. Rock name: schist

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

Uses:

 Used for flooring, gap in walls(retaining wall) .

Photo: Schist

SAMPLE NO 7 (Granite)

1. Color: White with Black spot

2. Texture: Crystalline
3. Structure: Massive (random orientation of minerals).
4. Grain size: Coarse
5. Acid /hammer test:
 doesn’t react with acid and cannot be done hammer test due to multiminerallic.
6. Mineral composition: Biotite, Quartz, feldspar, muscovite, tourmaline and other mineral.
7. Rock type: Igneous rock
8. Rock name: Granite(Xenolyth)

Uses:

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

 Used for flooring, as polishing stone and for construction

Location:

Latitude:27°48’3”N

Longitude:84°50’5”E

Figure:Granite

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS AND MEASUREMENT

Introduction

 There are a number of different magnetic compasses used by geologists to measure

orientation of geological structures, as they map in the field, to analyze the geometry of
bedding planes, joints, and/or metamorphic foliations and lineations.
 A functional field compass for geological field work should have the following attributes:
1. Must be lightweight and portable - can be carried on a belt loop or neck
land yard.
2. The compass should be able to provide a precession of 1 degree for
bearings.
3. The compass should have magnetic declination adjustment mechanism.
4. The compass should have a clinometer to allow the measurement of slopes
and structural information such as dip and plunge.

Strike:

 An imaginary horizontal line in any horizontal plane is called strike.

 Strike is the horizontal direction of slope.
 More precisely, strike can be defined as the direction of a line formed by the
intersection of the bedding(or foliation) with a horizontal plane.
 In simple term, strike is the extension of a bed or it is perpendicular to the dip
direction.

Photo:Strike

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

Dip:

 The inclination of the bed is called its dip or it is the acute angle between the bedding and
a horizontal plane.
 Dip line represents the maximum inclination of a bed or foliation plane.
 It is the value of angle given by zero of inner graduation of a geological compass, which
coincides with the angle from 0 to 90 when the bubble spirit is at the middle.

Figure: Dip Angle

Dip direction:

 It is the direction of inclination of a bed or slope of mountain or foliation plane.

 It is measured by Brunton Compass, holding its north towards the direction of inclined
beds or foliation planes.
 It is the value given by the north pointer of the geological compass when compass pointer
is perpendicular to the structural plane.
 Orientations of planar features or portions of surfaces by: Strike, dip, and dip direction; or
Dip and dip bearing...

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

Photo: Dip Direction

Data obtained:

S.N Strike Direction Dip angle 1

1 276 N 185 N 86 0 2

2 210 N 81 N 62 0 3

3 300N 90 N 76 0 4

4 180 N 125N 87 0 5

5 200 N 170 N 65 0 6

6 225N 110N 500

Where;

N= North Side

INSTRUMENTS USED

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

a. Brunton Compass:
 These are the most commonly used type of the geological compass.
 Since strike, dip and dip direction are measured only using a rotating level, dip
measurements are unaffected by magnetic fields.
 We should measure the strike, dip angle and dip direction separately using this
compass.
 It consists of the levels so measurement is more accurate.

Photo: Brunton Compass

b. Geological Hammer:
 A geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or geological pick is a hammer
used for splitting and breaking rocks.
 In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to determine its
composition, bedding orientation, nature, mineralogy, history, and field estimate of
rock strength.
 In fossil and mineral collecting, they are employed to break rocks with the aim of
revealing fossils inside.
 Geologist's hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a photograph.
 The hammer also serves as an extension of the senses, permitting the geologist to
perceive the rock's granularity, soundness, and resistance to fracturing that may be
relevant to its use or identification.

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 Malekhu: GEOLOGICAL FIELD TOur summary

Photo: Hammer

c. Dropper

Photo: Dropper

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CONCLUSION
 In geological field visit of Malekhu area for two days, we were able to know about the
practical knowledge about geology.
 We became able to recognize the geological structures like fold, fault joint etc.
 We also know about the study of different type of rocks with its classification, different
properties and engineering significance also.
 We also learn to measure the rock’s strike dip amount and dip direction of the bedding
plane by using the geological compass (brunton).
 We know the handling of geological compass and geological hammer and used it for
various practical purpose.
 River channel morphology was studied in detail and its features like activities of river,
type of river channel, land forms developed by the river and river channel morphology
at the Trishuli-Thopal Confluence.

 Group Members

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REFERENCES
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Data collected during field visit.
 Photo taken in the field.
 [Link]

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