chapter 5

Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

BS Civil Engineering
Geology for Civil Engineers | GEO 122
BS Civil Engineering
Geology for Civil Engineers | GEO 122

CHAPTER 5:
Geological and Geophysical
Investigation in Civil
Engineering

DEVELOPMENT TEAM OF THE MODULE

CABOJOC, DONNA JANE

CONTILLO, JIMWIN

DE LOS REYES, IVY LORRAINE

ENFERTO, LAURO FRANCISCO

ESTRELLA, EMERSON

"Strong foundations begin with deeper understanding."

 In civil engineering, our designs and structures are only as strong as the ground
they stand on. This module is all about understanding that critical foundation: the
Earth beneath our feet.
Have you ever wondered how engineers know where to build a skyscraper, how
to dig a safe tunnel, or why a dam stays standing? The answer lies in thorough
geological and geophysical investigations.

This chapter explains how studying the ground beneath a site is vital for civil
engineering projects. It starts by looking at Site Investigations (5.1), the basic steps
for checking a location. Then, it covers Geological Methods (5.2), showing how
understanding geology helps decide if a site is good. The chapter also describes
different Exploration Techniques (5.3) used to investigate the ground. It further
examines Geophysical Methods (5.4), including directly pushing tools into the
ground, drilling to get samples (core boring), and recording information from these
samples (logging of cores). Lastly, the chapter discusses the important Geological
Conditions Necessary for Construction (5.5) of structures like dams, tunnels,
buildings, and road cuttings, focusing on the ground features needed for safe
building.

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

 Explain the significance of site investigations in assessing geological
conditions for civil engineering projects.
 Identify and describe various geological methods and exploration techniques
employed to determine subsurface conditions and evaluate the suitability of
construction sites.
 Describe geophysical investigation methods, including direct penetration,
core boring, and core logging, and interpret the data obtained from these
techniques.
 Analyze the critical geological conditions necessary for the safe and stable
construction of dams, tunnels, buildings, and road cuttings.
 Develop strategies based on investigation findings to address potential
geological challenges in ensuring the safety, stability, and durability of civil
engineering structures in different geological environments.
Pre-Activity
This pre-activity aims to check your current understanding of some basic
concepts related to Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering.
Simply read each statement and decide whether it is True or False. Your answers
will help you get ready for the lessons ahead and highlight areas you may need to
focus on.

Instructions: Read each statement carefully. Write T if the statement is True and F
if the statement is False.

______ 1. Geological investigations are only necessary for projects involving

bridges and tunnels.

______ 2. Soil and rock properties have little to no impact on civil engineering
design.

______ 3. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is used to detect objects or changes

in material beneath the surface.

______ 4. Aerial surveys are part of sub-surface exploration methods.

______ 5. Core logging provides crucial lithological, mineralogical, and structural

information essential for foundation and tunnel design.

______ 6. Geophysical techniques offer no advantage over direct methods in

terms of speed and data continuity for subsurface investigations.

______ 7. Running ground in tunnel construction is often a result of saturated

cohesionless soils, posing a risk of liquefaction during excavation.

______ 8. The presence of swelling rocks in tunnel construction can lead to long-
term structural deformation.

______ 9. Site reconnaissance is usually performed after detailed exploration to

verify subsurface findings.

______ 10. Hydrogeological surveys are limited to evaluating water availability for
consumption, not construction.

This brief activity is designed to help you assess your current knowledge of
geological and geophysical investigations. Don’t worry if some questions seem
challenging—you’ll gain a deeper understanding as you progress through the
module.
5.1 SITE INVESTIGATION
When we're planning to build something, like a building or a road, we need to
make sure the ground where we want to build is suitable. We look at what's on and
below the surface to understand if it's good for construction. This helps us design
things better and avoid problems later on. This process is called a Site
investigation.

Site Investigations is the exploration

or discovery of the ground conditions to
enable engineers to make informed
design decisions. It's how engineers
examine the ground conditions to collect
important information, helping them make
smart design choices and ensure
structures are safe and strong.
[Link]

IMPORTANCE OF SITE INVESTIGATION

SUITABILITY - To assess the general suitability of a site and its environs for the
proposed work
DESIGN - To enable an adequate and economic design, including for temporary
works.
CONSTRUCTION - To plan the best method of construction and for some projects,
identify sources of suitable materials such as concrete aggregate and fill and to
locate sites for disposal of waste.
EFFECT OF CHANGES - To consider ground and environmental changes on the
works (e.g. intense rainfall and earthquakes) to assess the impact of the works on
adjacent properties and on the environment.
CHOICE OF SITE - Where appropriate, to identify alternative sites or to allow
optimal planning of the works.

OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATION:

 Determine the nature of soil/rock at the site and its stratification.
 Determine the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered.
 Perform some in-situ tests: permeability, bearing capacity, shear strength,
compressibility/settlement behavior, etc.
 Observe drainage conditions from and into the site. Identify potential
geological hazards such as landslides, earthquakes, flooding, volcanoes, etc.
 Assess the quantity, quality and proximity of construction materials for the
proposed project.
STAGES OF SITE INVESTIGATION
1. DESK STUDY
- A desk study is the collation and review of information already available about a
site, and is carried out at an early stage of site appraisal to inform and guide the
remainder of the site investigation.
- It involves looking at records, maps, and other information about the area to get a
basic idea of what's there before going out to the site.
2. SITE RECONNAISSANCE
A visual examination of the site which complements the desk study and typically
provides valuable information on matters such as topography, geology, surface and
ground water, vegetation, ecology, contamination, and structures
The main goal of this is to see if the site is suitable for what we want to build. If it
looks good, then we can start planning more detailed investigations.
3. PRELIMINARY SITE EXPLORATION
- This is carried out for small projects, light structures, highways, airfields, etc. The
main objective of preliminary exploration is to obtain an approximate picture of sub-
soil conditions at low cost. It is also called general site exploration.
4. DETAILED EXPLORATION
- Preferred for complex projects, major engineering works heavy structures like
dams, bridges, high rise buildings, etc. A huge amount of capital is required for a
detailed site exploration hence, it is not recommended for minor engineering works
where the budget is limited.
5. PREPARATION OF SOIL INVESTIGATION REPORT
- At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or rock specimens
collected from the field are subjected to visual observation and appropriate
laboratory testing. After the compilation of all of the required information, a soil
exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office and for reference
during future construction work
5.2 GEOLOGICAL METHODS
When we're checking out a construction site, after getting a general idea of the
area, a key step is to use Geological Methods. This is how engineers specifically
study the natural features of the Earth, looking at things like the types of rocks and
soil on the surface and what's hidden underneath.
Understanding these natural conditions helps us know if the ground is right for
building and how to best design our projects.

There are two main ways we study the Earth's features for construction: Surface
Exploration and Sub-surface Exploration

1. SURFACE EXPLORATION
These include preparation of topographic maps (if these are not already
available) using the normal mapping techniques. In fact all field surveys begin with
the preparation (or availability) of topographic maps showing elevation contours
relative to some datum
 Aerial Surveys - The entire area involving an engineering study is
photographed using sophisticated cameras and controls from low flying
airplanes.
 Photogeology - Its scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the globe
through satellites.
 Hydrogeological Surveys - To obtain hydrogeological details of the area are
also conducted partly on the surface with a view of recording drainage pattern
of the area and discharge and other leakage points

2. SUBSURFACE EXPLORATIONS
These are accomplished by following two broad methods:
(a) Direct Method – It Involve examination of rocks or materials of the underground
by digging of drill holes, trial pits, adits, shafts, galleries and exploratory tunnels.
(b) Indirect Method - Used extensively and involve application of geophysical
techniques for obtaining fairly accurate idea of subsurface geology.

Geological Methods are how engineers study the Earth's natural features, both on
the surface and underground. By examining the rocks, soil, and land itself, we gain a
clear understanding of the ground conditions, which is crucial for designing safe and
strong construction projects.
5.3 EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
Engineers use Exploration Techniques to learn about the ground beneath the
surface. These are practical ways to dig, drill, or use special tools to find out what's
hidden in the soil and rock layers. We use two main types: Direct Methods, where
we get physical samples, and Indirect Methods, which use technology to "see"
underground without a lot of digging

1. INDIRECT METHOD
 Open Excavation - the excavation of
test pits is simple and reliable method
trial pits and trenches can be used in all
types of soil - it is easy to obtain
disturbed and undisturbed samples
- the cheapest method of exploration
- the depth is limited to 3-5m only
[Link]

Boring is required for the following:

1.) To obtain representative
soil and rock samples for
laboratory tests
2.) To identify the groundwater
conditions
3.) Performance of in-situ tests
to assess appropriate soil
characteristics

[Link]

TYPES OF BORING
1. Auger Boring - the simplest method of boring used for small projects
in soft soil
- augered holes can be made up to about 20m depth
- the auger is rotated until it is full of soil, then it is withdrawn to
remove the soil and the soil type and it can be used for soil
exploration work for highways and small structures
2. Auger and shell Boring - for stiff and hard clay – shell. It also suitable
for soft to stiff clay
- for sandy soil – sand pump
- for rock – chisel pit with drill rod
3. Wash Boring- in this method, a casing about 2m to 3m (6 to 10 ft)
long is driven into the ground. Boulders and rock cannot be
penetrated by this method
4. Percussion Boring- an alternative method of advancing a borehole,
particularly through hard soil and rock
 5. Rotary Boring - rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of
advancing hole in both rocks and soils. It is primarily intended for
investigation in rock, but also used in soil

2. INDIRECT METHOD

SUB – SURFACE SOUNDING - this technique is used for investigation of the strata
with varying soil nature. This is used to determine the consistency of cohesive soils
and density index of cohesion less soils at different depths. The apparatus used for
his is called as ― “Penetrometers”. The field test
undertaken for this purpose is called as ―Penetration Test
GEOPHYSICAL METHOD
Ground Penetrating radar (GPR) uses high-frequency pulsed electromagnetic
waves to map subsurface information. It has a transmitting antenna that radiates
short pulses of high-frequency radio waves into the ground. Used when
the depth of exploration is very large, and also when the speed of investigation is of
primary importance.

Exploration techniques are essential tools that help engineers

understand what lies beneath the Earth's surface. By using both direct methods,
which involve collecting actual samples, and indirect methods, which rely on
technology to visualize underground features, engineers can gather critical
information about soil and rock layers. These techniques guide safe and effective
planning for construction, mining, and other ground-related projects.
5.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS – DIRECT
PENETRATION – CORE BORING – LOGGING OF
CORES
To understand what lies beneath the surface, engineers use direct penetration
methods. These involve drilling or boring into the ground to collect samples of soil
and rock. This hands-on approach helps provide accurate information about
underground conditions, which is important for safe and effective construction
planning.

GEOPHYSICAL METHODS are generally non-invasive or non destructive methods

long used in the construction industry for investigation of the subsurface
The use of Geophysical methods confers advantages as they generally speed up the
process of investigation, provide continuous streams of information not otherwise
available in discrete sampling or invasive procedures and give advance information
on what to expect for a given locality before a more detailed and costly soil
exploration is even planned.

DIRECT PENETRATION - primarily refers to the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), a

widely used in-site method for evaluating soil strength and density during subsurface
exploration.
The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a
common in site testing method used to
determine the geotechnical engineering
properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple and
inexpensive test to estimate the relative density
of soils and approximate shear strength
parameters.
[Link]

CORE BORING – also known as core drilling, a method

of creating cylindrical holes in various materials,
including concrete, asphalt, and other hard substances,
while extracting a cylindrical sample of the material.
Core Drill -A hollow, cylindrical drill that is used to make
holes through a surface. It is made of metal, and the
drill tips are usually coated with either diamond or
carbide.
[Link]

Drilling- Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular
cross-section in solid material.
How deep does core drilling go?
It depends on the structure. For example, a massive structure may require core
sampling to be done at a depth of up to 2 feet. The diameter of a core sample should
be at least three times the nominal maximum size of aggregate. When there is little
mortar bonding the concrete across the diameter of the core, you are likely to wind
up with rubble rather than a solid sample. Core samples must be properly labeled,
oriented, and stored for future observation. Written records are also required to
maintain consistency in the historical data.

CORE LOGGING
Core Logging - the systematic recording and
measuring of as much information as possible/
required to determine the lithology (rock types),
mineralogy, potential geological history, structure
and alteration zones through a tiny piece of
cylindrical rock drilled and removed from a
potential mineral deposit.- considered the [Link]

primary method of determining grade, size and mine-ability of a potential mineral

deposit drill cores are relied on by exploration and mining companies around the
world.
Core – A cylindrical section of rock, or fragment thereof, taken as a sample of the
interval penetrated by a core barrel and brought to the surface for examination and
for analysis.

WHY IS CORE LOGGING IMPORTANT? Core logging forms an important aspect of

an exploration geologist job and Important stage in the follow up work to an
exploration target. At some stage in your engineering geological career you are
going to have to log core. Without good core logging any foundation design is
worthless and the onus is on the engineering geologist to produce high quality logs
on which the engineer can base his design.

Geophysical methods and direct penetration techniques are essential tools in

understanding the ground before construction begins. Geophysical methods help
detect underground features quickly and without damage, while direct penetration
methods like SPT, core boring, and core logging provide accurate and detailed data
from below the surface. Together, these approaches give engineers the information
they need to design safe, efficient, and cost-effective structures.
5.5 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION NECESSARY FOR
CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS – TUNNELS – BUILDING
- ROAD CUTTING

Before starting any major construction project like dams, tunnels, buildings, or
road cuttings, it's important to understand the geological conditions of the area. The
type of soil, rock formations, groundwater levels, and the stability of the land all play
a big role in how safe and successful the construction will be. Knowing these
conditions in advance helps engineers design structures that are strong, durable,
and able to handle natural forces like water pressure, earthquakes, and erosion.

DAMS a solid barrier constructed at suitable

location across a river valley with a view of
impounding water flowing through that river. -
Dams are generally constructed in the
mountainous reach of the river where the
valley is narrow and the foundation is good.
[Link]
Classification of Dams ( Based on function )
Storage dams (for water storage) - These dams are designed to store water during
periods of high flow (like rainy seasons) for later use during dry periods, for irrigation,
power generation, or municipal water.
Example : angat (an-gat) a concrete water reservoir embankment hydroelectric dam
in the Philippines that supplies Metro Manila and nearby provinces with water.
Detention dams (for flood control) - These dams are primarily used for flood control,
designed to temporarily hold floodwaters and release them gradually to reduce
downstream flooding.
Diversion dams (to divert water) - These dams divert water from a river into canals or
pipelines for irrigation, power generation, or other uses.
Debris dams (to retain debris) - These dams are constructed to retain debris like
sand, gravel, and driftwood that flows with the water, preventing damage to
downstream infrastructure.
SELECTION OF DAMSITE
 Topography - Making maximum use of the available volume of water is the
main objective of a dam. The slope of the area, groundwater table, contour,
weather condition, etc is other factors for dam site selection.
 Foundation – The foundation should bear the whole weight and pressure of
the dam.
 Height of Dam – The height of the dam should be economical, and should
store the maximum amount of water.
  Earthquake zone – The dam site should not be an earthquake zone. It may
cause a collapse of the dam and losses.
 Material availability – Materials like rock, aggregate, soil, filler, etc. should be
available near the site.
 Climate condition – The climate of the site should be bearable, possibilities of
landslides should not occur.
 Spillway site - A suitable location for the spillway should be available in the
nearby vicinity of the dam. The dam site should be easily accessible and
economically connected to nearby areas. Area required for establishments
and labour camps of construction group shall be available nearby in a safe
zone.
 Environmental issues should be taken into consideration while selecting the
dam site.

A TUNNEL is an underground passageway,

dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock
and enclosed except for entrance and exit,
commonly at each end.

[Link]

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS

 The type of the rock and their strength and deformation behavior
 Geological discontinuities and associated strength and deformation behavior
 FOLDS - Folds are sometimes the natural traps of natural gases, which
might be harmful to the persons working in tunnels.
 FAULTS - The orientation of the faults in relation to tunnel line is vitally
important since this govern the length of tunnel affected by the faults
and its accompanying fault zones.
 JOINTS - are structural plane of weakness and greatly affect shear
strength of properties of rocks and rocks masses.
 Groundwater conditions -The presence of groundwater is recognized as a
major hazard in addition to causing operational difficulties in respect of tunnel
construction works. Squeezing and swelling rock conditions
 SQUEEZING - a type of displacement into an excavation due to stress
gradient created around the tunnel by excavation.
 SWELLING - is a time dependent process and involves physco-
chemical reactions with water.
 Running ground - This is often saturated and the presence of water can
encourage liquefaction when disturbed by tunnelling activities.
 Gases in rocks - Gases are frequently in the sedimentary rock. -Organic-rich
sedimentary rocks have significant amounts of organic material generally in
the excess of the total organic carbon.
  Rock temperature - Temperature increases about 10°c for every 60-80 meters
in geologically stable areas and 10°c for 10-15 meters in volcanically active
areas.
 Topographic conditions -The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical
features of an area.

Building refers to any structure constructed for

human use or occupancy. This can include houses,
apartments, schools, hospitals, offices, factories,
shopping centers, and more. Buildings are
designed to provide shelter, safety, and functionality
for various activities like living, working, learning, or
manufacturing. The design and construction of
buildings depend on factors such as purpose, size, [Link]

location, and especially the geological conditions of the site.

When constructing buildings, engineers must evaluate several geological conditions

to ensure safety, stability, and durability. Some of the key factors include:
1. Soil Type and Bearing Capacity:
The strength and type of soil determine how well it can support the weight of
the building. Weak or loose soils may require soil improvement or deep
foundations.
2. Rock Type and Stability:
Hard and stable rocks provide a strong foundation, while fractured or
weathered rocks may lead to instability and require special treatment.
3. Groundwater Conditions:
High water tables or flowing groundwater can weaken the soil and cause
issues like water seepage, erosion, or foundation failure.
4. Seismic Activity:
Areas prone to earthquakes need careful geological evaluation to design
earthquake-resistant structures and foundations.
5. Slope Stability:
On sloped land, the risk of landslides or soil movement must be assessed and
controlled through proper design and support systems.
6. Flooding and Drainage:
Sites located in flood-prone areas require proper drainage systems and
elevated foundations to prevent water damage.
7. Subsidence Risk:
Geological conditions that may cause ground subsidence (e.g., mining areas,
collapsing soils) must be identified to avoid future settlement or damage.
By studying these conditions, engineers and geologists can design buildings that are
safe, cost-effective, and long-lasting
 Road Cutting is the process of cutting through hills, slopes, or raised ground
to create a level path for building roads. It involves removing soil, rock, or other
materials to lower the ground level so that vehicles can pass smoothly and safely.
Road cutting helps in making roads more even, reducing steep slopes, and
improving visibility and drainage along the route.

Geological Conditions Considered in the Construction of Road Cutting:

1. Type of Rock and Soil:
The hardness and stability of the rock or soil affect how easily it can be cut
and how stable the slopes will be after cutting.
2. Slope Stability:
It’s important to assess the risk of landslides or slope failures, especially in
steep or loose material, to ensure the safety of the road.
3. Groundwater Conditions:
Presence of water underground can weaken slopes and cause erosion or
landslides, so proper drainage must be planned.
4. Weathering and Erosion:
Areas prone to heavy rainfall or weathering may need extra protection to
prevent the road slopes from washing away.
5. Faults and Fractures:
Geological faults or fractures in the rock can cause instability and require
special engineering measures.
6. Soil Bearing Capacity:
The strength of the soil below the roadbed affects how well it can support the
road and traffic loads.
7. Drainage Characteristics:
Proper drainage design is crucial to avoid water accumulation, which can
damage the road and surrounding slopes.
Considering these geological factors helps create safer, more durable, and cost-
effective roads through cuttings.

For dams, tunnels, buildings, and road cuttings, understanding the

geological conditions is absolutely critical for project success and safety. It
means checking if the ground is strong enough to hold the structure, if water will leak
through or cause instability, and if there are any hidden faults or weak spots that
could lead to collapse or settlement. Basically, knowing the ground's secrets
prevents costly surprises, delays, and potential disasters, ensuring the finished
structure is stable, durable, and functions as intended.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 This formative assessment is designed to help you review and reinforce key
concepts, terms, and methods related to geotechnical and geological engineering.
Understanding these basic principles is essential in fields like construction, site
investigation, and earth sciences. In this activity, you are asked to identify the correct
term, method, equipment, or concept based on each description provided.
This will test your knowledge of important topics such as geophysics, site
exploration, construction structures, and surveying techniques.

Instructions: Read each item carefully and apply what you’ve learned, identify the
correct term, method, equipment, or concept being described.

1. The study of the physical processes active within the Earth and the physical
properties of the rocks forming it. ________________

2. The exploration or discovery of the ground conditions. ________________

3. A structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one
place. ________________

4. Solid barrier constructed at suitable location across a river or valley.

____________

5. A site testing method used to determine the geotechnical engineering

properties of subsurface soils. ________________-

6. This is the type of survey that uses sophisticated cameras and controls from
drones. ________________

7. It’s scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the globe through satellites.
________________
8. The simplest method of boring used for small projects in soft soil. __________

9. It is used to Identify disposition of soil and rock units based on the differences
in physical properties. ____________________

10. It is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular
cross-section in solid material. ___________________

ACTIVITY : Why Investigate? – Site Risk Reflection

Learning Objective: Explain the significance of site investigations in assessing
geological conditions for civil engineering projects.
Activity Type: Individual reflection + small group discussion
Instructions:
1. Provide students with a scenario:
"A school is being built in an area recently hit by a minor landslide."
"You’re tasked with building a tunnel through a hilly area with fractured rocks
and water seepage."
2. Write a short paragraph answering:
o Why is a site investigation important before construction?
o What risks could arise if an investigation is not done?
o Propose suitable investigation methods
o Identify possible issues

3. In small groups, students will then discuss and list 3 ways a site investigation
helps prevent construction problems.

This activity helped students appreciate the crucial role of site

investigations in civil engineering. By reflecting on a real-life scenario, they
understood how assessing geological conditions can identify potential risks like
landslides or unstable ground before construction begins. The group discussion
reinforced how site investigations help prevent costly problems and ensure the
safety and durability of structures. Overall, students learned that thorough site
investigations are vital for making informed decisions and building safely on any site.

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[Link]

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PRE ACTIVY : ANSWER KEY

 1. F – Geological investigations are necessary for all types of civil engineering
projects, not just bridges and tunnels. They help ensure stability and safety of
any structure.
2. F – Soil and rock properties are crucial in civil engineering. They influence
design decisions related to foundations, slope stability, and more.
3. T – Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is widely used to detect changes in
materials, voids, and buried objects.
4. F – Aerial surveys are part of surface exploration, not sub-surface.
5. T – Core logging is critical for understanding geological conditions that
influence structural stability.
6. F – Geophysical techniques are faster and provide continuous data, unlike
the point-specific nature of direct sampling.
7. T – Running ground, especially in saturated loose soils, can lead to
liquefaction—a known hazard in tunneling.
8. T- Swelling rocks expand when exposed to water and can distort tunnel
linings over time.
9. F – Site reconnaissance comes before detailed exploration, helping to
plan further investigations.
10. F – Hydrogeological surveys evaluate drainage patterns, discharge points,
and groundwater behavior, which are critical in construction planning

FROMATIVE ASSESSMENT : ANSWER KEY

1. GEOPHYSICS
2. SITE INVESTIGATION
3. BUILDING
4. DAMS
5. STANDARD PENETRATION
6. AERIAL SURVEY
7. PHOTOGEOLOGY
8. AUGER BORING
9. GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
10. DRILLING